Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by COVID-19 pandemic in Marina Beach, the longest urban beach in Asia: Abundance, distribution, and analytical characterization

Abstract

COVID-19 pandemic has enforced the use of personal protective equipment (PPE, masks and gloves). However, the mismanagement of litter are exacerbating the increasing plastic issue worldwide. In the present study, we sampled discarded PPE in 10 sites along Marina Beach, India. We characterized the litter types by chemical analysis techniques. A total of 1154 COVID-19-associated PPE items were found on Marina beach. The highest number of items were face masks (97.9 %) and the mean PPE density in the sites studied was 4 × 10⁻³ PPE m⁻². The results demonstrate that poor solid waste management and lack of awareness are the main causes of pollution at Marina beach. FTIR spectroscopy revealed that face masks and gloves were principally made of polypropylene and latex, respectively. The FTIR spectra also showed signs of chemical degradation. Our results suggest that plastic pollution is increasing, possibly becoming more impactful to marine biota. Beach management measures were discussed.

1. Introduction

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), became a global pandemic in 2020, causing nearly 6 million deaths worldwide (WHO, 2022). During the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous disposable plastic items and disposable PPE were required as a basic precaution to prevent the spread of COVID-19 infection (Ji et al., 2021). PPE items are categorized into many types, including hazard suits, face shields, surgical masks, bouffant caps, gloves high-grade medical masks. This caused the demand for PPE to rise considerably around the world (Prata et al., 2020). It is estimated that about 65 billion gloves and 129 billion face masks are employed worldwide every month (Prata et al., 2020). In the end, adding a large charge to traditional solid waste management systems. There are several studies worldwide on the inappropriate disposal of PPE litter (Ben Haddad et al., 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2021; Aragaw et al., 2022; Gunasekaran et al., 2022; Mghili et al., 2022; Dioses-Salinas et al., 2022; Ribeiro et al., 2022; Sajorne et al., 2022). Benson et al. (2021) estimated that approximately 3.4 billion face masks were discarded each day. These types of litter will continue to accumulate in the future, potentially exacerbating existing plastic pollution (De-la-Torre et al., 2021). Once discarded, litter can transport from one location to another via wind, streams, and rivers to reach the marine environment (Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2022). It was estimated that 1.56 billion facemasks are presently disposed in the world's oceans (OceansAsia, 2020). Scientists have recorded their presence on the beaches of Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Kenya, Morocco, India, Bangladesh, Iran, Ethiopia, and the Philippines (Okuku et al., 2020a; Ardusso et al., 2021; Ben Haddad et al., 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2022a, De-la-Torre et al., 2022b, De-la-Torre et al., 2022c; Gunasekaran et al., 2022; Rakib et al., 2021; Thiel et al., 2021; Aragaw et al., 2022; Hassan et al., 2022; Sajorne et al., 2022; Mohamadi et al., 2023). Nevertheless, the present data is insufficient to have a global overview of marine pollution by PPE.

Like plastic, PPE could have a significant impact on the environment and marine wildlife. PPE, particularly surgical masks, have been recognized as potential sources of microplastics in the marine environment (Morgana et al., 2021; Saliu et al., 2021). Most PPE consist of synthetic polymers, with high proportions of polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyacrylonitrile and also other polymeric materials such as polyester, polyurethane, nylon, and polystyrene (Ammendolia et al., 2021; Fadare and Okoffo, 2020; Aragaw, 2020). PPE may degrade when exposed to natural factors such as sea waves and sunlight (including UV radiation) (De-la-Torre and Aragaw, 2021; Saliu et al., 2021). The resulting pieces, smaller than 5 mm, are considered microplastics (De-la-Torre et al., 2022b). These microplastics are bioavailable to a large number of marine organisms and can produce toxic effects, the impacts of which can propagate through the food chain (De-la-Torre et al., 2022b). PPE are also able to liberate toxic chemical additives (Hajiouni et al., 2022) and serve as a vector for contaminants (Torres et al., 2021). The ingestion of face masks by marine organisms has also been documented in Brazil and Japan (Neto et al., 2021; Fukuoka et al., 2022). Recently, Hiemstra et al. (2021) and Ammendolia et al. (2022) provided an overview of the impacts of PPE interaction with various types of aquatic and terrestrial animals through entrapment and entanglement. In addition, PPE can perturb the ecosystem stability of marine habitats through the spread of invasive species (De-la-Torre and Aragaw, 2021).

Waste management is an urgent concern in India, especially with the growing population throughout the country (Banerjee et al., 2019). In India, the current COVID-19 pandemic has caused an increase in the demand for single-use plastics, adding pressure to an already out-of-control problem (Singh et al., 2022). It is estimated that the average amount of biomedical waste generated by COVID-19 in December 2021 is nearly 72.8 tons per day (CPCB, 2021). Recent reports have been published indicating that litter related to COVID-19 is not correctly discarded on Indian beaches (Gunasekaran et al., 2022). Ineffective litter management as well as the litter disposal behavior of the population are among the causes of marine litter pollution on beaches. Also, Asian rivers have discharged a huge amount of PPE into the sea and oceans (Peng et al., 2021). Only a few studies have investigated the occurrence and distribution of PPE along the beaches of Tamil Nadu (Gunasekaran et al., 2022). Data on PPE pollution on Indian beaches is still lacking.

Marina beach, located on the Southeast coast of India, is widely knownfor the recreational and fishing activities carried out. Recreational uses like surfing, swimming, horse riding, and picnicking, are likely drivers of plastic pollution. Preliminary marine litter surveys revealed that Marina beach is heavily polluted with marine litter (Arun kumar et al., 2016). Also, a wide range of studies have investigated the occurrence and impact of microplastics on the sediments of Marina beach and the Chennai coast (Karthik et al., 2018; Sathish et al., 2019; Sunitha et al., 2021; Venkatramanan et al., 2022). However, the current state of PPE pollution is yet to be assessed.

In this context, we have conducted wide range of surveys focusing on PPE pollution in the world's second longest beach (Marina beach), Tamil Nadu, India. In addition, a subsample of various types of PPE especially face mask and gloves was collected and analyzed by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR), which may provide additional information on their chemical composition and degradation in the environment.

2. Materials and method

2.1. Study area

With a shoreline of >7500 km, India has been of the main centers of intense tourism and recreational, fishing, and shipping activities along the shore. The density of its population, the growing plastic consumption, and the presence of large rivers can constitute threatening factors for the increasing plastic pollution in the marine environment. In India, plastic consumption has increased 20-fold between 1990 (0.9 MT) and 2018 (18.45 MT; Indian Plastic Industry Report, 2019). Plastic litter mismanagement continues to be a major problem in India. The growing generation and inappropriate uses of PPE have introduced vast amounts of this type of litter into the environment and aquatic ecosystem. In India, the current average quantity of COVID-19-related biomedical waste generation during May 2022, is estimated at about 3.54 TPD (CPCB, 2022). The government of Tamil Nadu state contributed 0.338 tons per day in May 2022, while COVID-19 biomedical waste kept increasing in June (0.776 tons per day) and July (0.925 TDP) 2022. Particularly, the capital city of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, is the second highest generation of COVID-19 biomedical waste (0.216.82 TDP) during July 2022, took place. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, India and the Tamil Nadu government have proactively taken several measures for containing the disease which are in line with guidance from WHO, CDC, and other international best practices guidance and learning. Despite all these efforts, PPE litter is found on parks, beaches, roads, and sewers.

Chennai Metropolitan city is the fourth largest city in India and the capital city of Tamil Nadu state, located on the southeast coast of India (Fig. 1 ). According to the UN World population prospects, (2022) the Chennai population is estimated 11.5 million. Marina beach (13.05°N, 80.2824°E) is a natural urban beach in Chennai. It is the second largest urban beach in the world, situated by Fort Saint George in the north, Foreshore Estate in the south, and Bay of Bengal in the East. With a length of 6 km, it is India's longest natural city beach (Fig. 1). The mean width of the beach is 300 m with a maximum width of 437 m. It is one of the busiest beaches in the country, attracting nearly 30,000 visitors a day on weekdays and 50,000 visitors per day on weekends and public holidays. The fishing industry is the main activity for the people in the coastal areas, and the urban coastline people are working in industries and government and non-government organizations (Venkatachalapathy et al., 2011). Furthermore, the Adyar and Cooum rivers carry the plastic litter to the shoreline and make Marina beach unhygienic (Gowri et al., 2008). However, solid waste management across the Tamil Nadu state is very poor, resulting in a significant amount of marine litter and plastic debris contaminating coastal areas (Arun kumar et al., 2016). Especially, marine litter and microplastic pollution have been evidenced in the study area (; Arun kumar et al., 2016; Sathish et al., 2019; Ranjani et al., 2022; Venkatramanan et al., 2022).

Fig. 1.

Map of the sampling sites in Marina beach, Tamil Nadu, India.

2.2. PPE monitoring

A total of 10 sampling sites were selected in Marina beach (Fig. 1). The selected sites were well distributed along the beach and were representative of different coastal activities, such as recreational and fishing activities (Table 1 ). PPE surveys were carried out from the summer (May & June) to the beginning of the post-monsoon (July) season of 2022. During the sampling campaign, Marina beach was open to the public, thus gathering an enormous number of beachgoers and workers wearing various types of face masks. The sampling method was followed based on the previous studies conducted on the beaches of Morocco and Peru (Ben Haddad et al., 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2021). In short, a sampling area that covered the entire extent of the beach (from the low-tide line to the upper beach limit) was determined at each location and many transects (parallel to each other) were separated by 8–10 m intervals to cover entire beach areas.

Table 1.

The major activity, substrate, surveyed area of each sampling site, geographical coordinates Marina beach, number and density of PPE recorded in Marina beach, Tamil Nadu, India.

Code	Site	Coordinates		Activity	Area covered (m2)	Number of PPE	Density (m−2)
		Starts	End
S1	MGR memorial spot	13°03′58.77”N; 80°17′22.42″E	13°03′51.63”N; 80°17′18.83″E	Recreational	25,678	194	7.55 × 10−3
S2	Marina beach 1	13°03′42.98”N; 80°17′15.26″E	13°03′33.19”N; 80°17′10.87″E	Recreational	41,476	275	6.63 × 10−3
S3	Marina beach 2	13°03′31.69”N; 80°17′07.71″E	13°03′24.18”N; 80°17′09.15″E	Recreational	30,588	205	6.70 × 10−3
S4	Masi Magam theerthavari spot	13°03′22.78”N; 80°17′06.16″E	13°03′14.01”N; 80°17′05.77″E	Recreational	31,798	146	4.59 × 10−3
S5	Mobile restaurant of Tamilnadu fisheries	13°03′07.90”N; 80°17′02.47″E	13°03′00.44”N; 80°17′00.68″E	Recreational	25,623	85	3.31 × 10−3
S6	Marina creek	13°02′56.29”N; 80°16′01.88″E	13°02′50.45”N; 80°16′57.02″E	Recreational	21,897	74	3.37 × 10−3
S7	Gandhi beach 1	13°02′45.86”N; 80°16′58.20″E	13°02′39.27”N; 80°16′55.03″E	Recreational	21,286	76	3.57 × 10−3
S8	Gandhi beach 2	13°02′31.79”N; 80°16′53.68″E	13°02′23.56”N; 80°16′51.12″E	Recreational	23,811	49	2.05 × 10−3
S9	Marina beach fish market	13°02′19.87”N; 80°16′52.51″E	13°02′14.10”N; 80°16′50.67″E	Fishing	11,424	33	2.88 × 10−3
S10	Foreshore estate beach	13°02′08.06”N; 80°16′50.41″E	13°02′01.45”N; 80°16′48.16″E	Fishing	12,687	17	1.33 × 10−3

PPE sampling strategies consist of walking along each transect, visually scanning the environments, and detectable PPE litters were identified, which were categorized as face masks, gloves, face shields, and bouffant caps. Every PPE litter was photographed. Various PPE litters were carefully collected and stored in zip lock bags to be transported to the laboratory for further analysis. In each site, the sampling area was estimated using Google Earth (https://www.google.com/earth/) (Table 1).

2.3. FTIR analysis

The various subsamples of PPE litter (n = 4, 2- weathered surgical face mask, 1 glove, and 1 N-95 face mask) collected from the sampling site of Marina beach were analyzed by Fourier- transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, following De-la-Torre et al. (2022b). In order to analyze PPE litter with FTIR spectroscopy, face masks were cut open and three layer was determined separately. The readings were carried out in transmittance mode at wavelengths varied from 3500 to 500 cm⁻¹ at 8 cm⁻¹ resolution (De-la-Torre et al., 2022b). The adsorption bands were analyzed manually to determine the presence of various functional groups and suspected polymer types. Additionally, brand-new surgical, KN95 face masks, and gloves were analyzed by FTIR for comparison.

2.4. Statistical analysis

The PPE litter density in each sampling site was followed by Okuku et al. (2020a).

$$\mathrm{C}=n/a$$

where C represents the density of PPE (PPE m⁻²), n denotes the number of PPE and a is the sampled area (m²). The mean density of PPE in each station was presented as a boxplot. Sample locations were combined by activity (recreational activities and fishing activity) to investigate its influence on PPE density. PPE density data were examined for normality and homoscedasticity. PPE densities were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and Levene test, p < 0.05). Therefore, nonparametric tests were employed. Significant differences in PPE density between all sites and weeks were analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test. The significance level was fixed at 0.05 for all statistical tests. Statistical tests were performed using SPSS software (version 20 for Windows).

3. Results and discussion

The occurrence and distribution of COVID-19-driven PPE items were monitored in the world's second longest beach (Marina beach), Tamil Nadu, Southeast coast of India. A total of 1154 COVID-19-associated PPE items were found on Marina beach. Fig. 2 shows examples of COVID-19-driven PPE items. The entire beach was predominantly polluted by face masks (99.81 %) and only 2 surgical gloves were found (0.17 %) (Fig. 3 ). Among the total face masks, 97.83 % were surgical masks, 1.21 % were cloth masks and 0.77 % were KN-95 respirators. Face shields and hazard suits were not found on the beaches. The predominance of surgical masks in the marine environment has been recorded in most studies with some exceptions (Ben Haddad et al., 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2021; Hatami et al., 2022; Rakib et al., 2021b; Aragaw et al., 2022; Dioses-Salinas et al., 2022; Mghili et al., 2022; Ribeiro et al., 2022; Sajorne et al., 2022). This is probably due to the accessibility of surgical masks and their low cost, as well as the mandates of their use. This study showed that face masks are still abundant in the marine environment. Despite the increase in vaccination rates, the number of cases affected by the COVID-19 during the summer period is rapidly increasing. Likewise, in Tamil Nadu, the number of active cases gradually increased in May and June 2022 (10,033), whereas active cases started to reduce at end of the August 2022 (PRS, 2022). During the study period, the use of face masks is mandated by the government in public places. In addition, the WHO strongly recommends wearing masks even after vaccination to combat this virus. For this reason, visitors and tourists to Marina Beach have continued to wear masks.

Fig. 2.

Various types of surgical face masks, gloves found in different sampling sites on Marina beach.

Fig. 3.

a) Contribution of each type PPE items. b) Weekly evolution of the total number of PPE across sampling sites.

A higher number of PPE items were recorded in all the stations on May 2022, followed by June 2022 and a lower number of PPE items was found on July 2022. The higher number of PPE items found in May 2022 may be due to the start of the summer holiday in India, therefore schools, colleges and the public kept visiting Marina beach. The number of tourists reached a peak during May and June which explains the large number of PPE recorded during these two months. This is consistent with the results of studies in the coastal zone, which have linked increasing numbers of beach visitors to higher PPE disposal (De-la-Torre et al., 2021; Thiel et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2022; Sajorne et al., 2022). Following Fig. 3b, the sampling surveys with the highest densities of PPE were registered during the first four weeks. A similar temporal pattern has been recorded in Iran, Morocco, Peru, Bangladesh, Ethiopia and Brazil (Rakib et al., 2021; Aragaw et al., 2022; De-la-Torre et al., 2022a; Hatami et al., 2022; Mghili et al., 2022; Ribeiro et al., 2022). Concerning the PPE accumulation rates, we also observed a remarkable rise in the density of PPE items in weeks 2 and 3, which were marked to be Sunday and Monday. These two days of sampling coincided with the weekend. This may be attributed to the weekend effect. A total of 733 PPE litter were collected on the weekend while 421 were collected on the weekday. The number of visitors in the beach zones has increased during these weekend days, and consequently, PPE dumping increased in the coastal area. Our results were also similar to the findings of Hassan et al. (2022), where the number of PPE litter increased during weekends in Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Sajorne et al. (2022) also observed a large amount of PPE on the weekend. There was a decrease in the number of PPE during week 6 (W6). From the beginning of W6, the number of visitors suddenly decreased, which coincided with the start of the reopening of schools. In Morocco, Ben Haddad et al. (2021) recorded a low occurrence of PPE items during closures and a suddenly raised just after the beaches were reopened to the public.

The overall mean density of PPE items was 4.00 × 10⁻³ m⁻² and ranged from 0.00 to 2.25 × 10⁻³ PPE m⁻² (Table 2 ). These findings indicate a relatively higher abundance compared to previous studies (Table 2). The mean density of PPE in the study area was comparable to the values reported from the beaches of Tamil Nadu, India. Specifically, the abundances reported in this study are much higher than those from Morocco, Peru, Brazil, Ethiopia, Iran, and Argentina beaches. At the same time, these values are lower than the abundance recorded in Chile and Bangladesh. As the table shows, the abundance of PPE varies from one country to another. This variation may be affected by population density, COVID-19 restrictions and protocols, sampling area, weather conditions, and population density (Ben Haddad et al., 2021; Sajorne et al., 2022). The boxplot displays the mean density in each station (Fig. 4 ). PPE densities were grouped according to the principal activities performed in each sample area. A large number of PPE were recorded in the recreational activity (n = 1104; 0.0037 m⁻²) compared to the fishing activity (n = 50; 0.0004 m⁻²). PPE density differed significantly between the different activities (Kruskal Wallis test, p < 0.05). Previous research indicated a clear effect of the type of activity on the mean density of PPE. The present survey results observed that the highest number of PPE litter was found in more intensive touristic sites (S1 to S4) on Marina beach (Table 1). Particularly, the highest number of PPE items was found in S2 (n = 275), probably due to the larger number of beachgoers who occasionally gather and celebrated birthday parties, practice horse riding, and bathing. There is also a large number of commodities and snack shops located near to the S2 sampling site. Similarly, S5 to S8 are tourist sites in Marina beach where recreational and cultural activities (e.g., playing, bathing, spiritual activity) take place. Therefore, this touristic zone was also contaminated with a significant number of PPE items (n = 284). Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed that the PPE density differed significantly between the study sites (p < 0.05). Many residents and visitors were observed wearing facemasks. With a large number of visitors on recreational sites, the number of PPE litter was also reported to increase. For instance, recreational beaches in Lima, Peru (De-la-Torre et al., 2021), Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh (Rakib et al., 2021), Tetouan, Morocco (Mghili et al., 2022), and the Bushehr coast of the Persian Gulf (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2021) were considerably more polluted than the fishing beaches. Interestingly, in S9 (Marina beach fish market) and S10 (Foreshore estate beach) fishing activities primarily take place. Only 50 PPE items were found in these locations (representing 4.33 % of the total number of PPE), probably due to the reduced number of beachgoers and visitors in contrast with recreational beaches. Rakib et al. (2021) also recorded low densities in the fishing areas. Okuku et al. (2020b) indicated that beaches utilized for mixed activities had a higher density of litter than those utilized only for recreational or fishing activities.

Table 2.

Comparison of the mean density of PPE on different beaches in the world.

Country	City	PPE density (PPE m−2)		Reference
		Mean	Range
Morocco	Tetouan	1.2 × 10-3a	0.00–3.67 × 10−3	Mghili et al. (2022)
Morocco	Agadir	1.13 × 10−5	0.001.21 × 10−4	Ben Haddad et al. (2021)
Kenya	Kwale and Kilifi	–	0.00–5.6 × 10−2	Okuku et al. (2020a)
Ethiopia	Bahir Dar	1.54 × 10−4	1.22 × 10−5–2.88 × 10−4	Aragaw et al. (2022)
Peru	Lima	6.42 × 10−5	0.00–7.44 × 10−4	De-la-Torre et al. (2021)
Peru	Multiple	6.60 × 10−4	0.00–5.01 × 10−3	De-la-Torre et al., 2022a, De-la-Torre et al., 2022b, De-la-Torre et al., 2022c
Peru	Protected areas	1.32 × 10−3	–	Dioses-Salinas et al. (2022)
Argentina	Multiple	7.21 × 10−4	0.00–5.60 × 10−3	De-la-Torre et al., 2022a, De-la-Torre et al., 2022b, De-la-Torre et al., 2022c
Brazil	Santos	7.46 × 10−5	0.00–3.89 × 10−4	Ribeiro et al. (2022)
Chile	Nationwide	6.00 × 10-3a	–	Thiel et al. (2021)
Bangladesh	Cox’s Bazar	6.29 × 10−3	3.16 × 10−4–2.18 × 10−2	Rakib et al. (2021)
Iran	Bushehr	–	7.71 × 10−3 –2.70 × 10−2	Akhbarizadeh et al. (2021)
Iran	Mazandaran	1.02 × 10−4	0.00–7.16 × 10−4	Hatami et al. (2022)
Iran	Kish Island	2.34 × 10−4	0.00–1.18 × 10–3	Mohamadi et al. (2023)
India	Tamil Nadu	1.08 × 10−3	2.80 × 10−4 –2.80 × 10−3	Gunasekaran et al. (2022)
India	Marina beach	4.00 × 10−3	0.00–2.25 × 10−3	Present study

Fig. 4.

Box plot diagram of the PPE number among sampling sites.

The intertidal zone displayed a higher abundance of PPE (n = 664, mean = 0.0026 items/m²) compared to the supralittoral zone (n = 490, mean = 0.0019 items/m²). In contrast, Kaviarasan et al. (2022) reported a larger amount of marine litter accumulating in the supralittoral zone compared to the intertidal zone. This suggests that the vast majority of litter found may have been brought and incorrectly discarded by beachgoers instead of washed ashore. This behavior is probably due to the lack of awareness and poor environmental education (Mghili et al., 2020). The significant abundance of PPE on the supratidal zone shows that this zone is a critical litter sink. The large amounts of PPE from the intertidal zone are not only explained by recreational activities but probably due to environmental processes. Disposed masks can be carried to surface waters where they can be transported further into marine environments. In addition, PPE is discarded in landfills without appropriate management due to the lack of resources to manage this type of litter. Drainage systems are also identified as sources of PPE on beaches (Gunasekaran et al., 2022). Wind, inundation by rainwater, and rivers are the primary pathways of face masks to marine environments. Several rivers flowing from west to east transport significant quantities of plastic litter into the study area. Neelavannan et al. (2022) previously attributed a large amount of plastic litter on Poompuhar beach to the inflow of the Cauvery River, which plays an important role in the deposition of plastic on the Tamil Nadu coast. The significant presence of PPE on the intertidal zone is likely the result of this litter washing up on the beaches. This highlights that Indian waters are widely affected by this new type of pollution, which are subject to local hydrodynamics and poor environmental awareness.

Tamil Nadu is located on the South-Eastern coast of India, with a shoreline length of 1076 km (∼13 % of India's total shoreline) comprising multiple ecologically significant places, including Palk Bay (home to reefs and sea grass beds), the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, Vedaranyam and Pichavaram (mangrove swamps), and Lake Pulicat (lagoon of ecological importance). The diversity of the environment of this region is accompanied by a great biological diversity with the presence of hundreds of endemic species of different taxa. This site is endowed with a wide range of marine biodiversity, such as fishes, bivalves, gastropods, crustaceans, corals, sea anemones, polychaete worms, echinoderms, and bryozoans (ZSI 2007; Venkatraman and Venkataraman, 2012; Tenjing et al., 2019). In addition, Marina beach supports turtle nesting sites, especially olive ridley turtles (Bhupathy et al., 2007). This region has lost its pristine and aesthetic condition due to high anthropogenic pressure, such as recreational activity, dumping untreated domestic waste, and fast-growing urbanization (Arunkumar et al., 2016; Venkatramanan et al., 2022). With the increasing number of COVID-19-related litter in Indian marine environments, the threats to marine life are becoming more and more numerous. PPE will probably become an entanglement and ingestion threat to marine fauna in Indian waters. Entanglement is the most reported impact of PPE on wildlife. Ammendolia et al. (2022) reported 114 cases of interaction between wildlife and COVID-19-related litter, most of which were affected by entanglements. Birds, mammals, and invertebrates were most affected by entanglements. These authors have documented two entanglements of animals by PPE in India. In this study, we observed the presence of a face mask near the hole of a crab (Fig. 5b). Mohamadi et al. (2023) already recorded a crab entangled in a face mask. Marine wildlife can also ingest face masks. The first case of face mask ingestion by a Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) was documented in Brazil (Neto et al., 2021). Also, the presence of masks in the feces of a juvenile green turtle has also been documented in Japan (Fukuoka et al., 2022). In India, many studies have documented the ingestion of microplastics by marine wildlife. Bioaccumulation of microplastics in epipelagic and mesopelagic fish, commercially important fishes, Indian white shrimp, Indian edible oysters, bivalves, and other marine animals has been reported in India (Patterson et al., 2019; Daniel et al., 2020a, Daniel et al., 2020b; Dowarah et al., 2020; James et al., 2020; Karuppasamy et al., 2020; Sathish et al., 2020). PPE can pose a hazard to many marine animals, especially those vulnerable to plastic ingestion in India. It is expected that PPE items, which are primarily composed of synthetic polymers, degrade periodically in the marine environment, leading to its fragmentation into smaller pieces (De-la-Torre et al., 2022b). PPE items may serve as a suitable substrate for the colonization of alien species. Studies have already indicated the adequacy of PPE as an artificial substrate for benthic organisms and also microorganisms, which increases the chances of biological invasion (De-la-Torre and Aragaw, 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2021; Crisafi et al., 2022). Zhou et al. (2022) experimentally demonstrated that face masks enrich and host microbial communities, potentially acting as pathogen vectors. In addition, PPE in the marine environment acts as a carrier for the transfer of contaminants to marine organisms, which could potentially induce a range of deleterious and cytotoxic effects (Dobaradaran et al., 2018, Dobaradaran et al., 2021; Takdastan et al., 2021; Hajiouni et al., 2022). Recent studies have revealed that masks and wipes contain a large number of inorganic and organic pollutants used as UV stabilizers, plasticizers, and flame retardants in plastic production, including organophosphate esters, phthalates (di- and mono) and non-phthalates, bisphenols, antioxidants and plastic additives (Liu and Mabury, 2021; Sullivan et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021a; Kutralam-Muniasamy et al., 2022). Face masks also contain metallic nanoparticles, such as Ag and Cu (Ardusso et al., 2021; De-la-Torre et al., 2022c). Based on previous work, the massive use of single-use plastics due to the COVID-19 clearly added additional stress to Indian marine ecosystems that are already threatened by numerous pressures.

Fig. 5.

a) Degraded masks found in the study area. b) a face mask near a crab hole.

3.1. FTIR results

Weathered and brand-new PPE (2 surgical face masks, 1 KN95 respirator, and 1 glove) were analyzed by FTIR to determine their polymeric composition and signs of degradation (Fig. 6 ). Both surgical face masks and KN95 respirators showed typical PP absorption bands characterized by the presence of strong peaks around 2950, 2915, 2838 cm⁻¹ (assigned to C—H stretching), 1455, and 1377 cm⁻¹ (assigned to CH₂, and CH₃ bending, respectively), and weaker peaks around 1166, 997, 972, 840, and 808 cm⁻¹ (assigned to the stretching, bending, and rocking of C—C, C—H, CH₂, CH₃) according to Jung et al. (2018). The spectra coincide with those from the brand-new surgical face mask and KN95 respirator with slightly weaker absorption bands. The weathered samples, regardless of the mask type, showed an increase in the strength of peak at around 1700–1780 cm⁻¹, which is normally attributed to carboxyl groups (C O). Similar observations have been reported in face masks extracted from the environment in Peru, Argentina, Ethiopia, and The Persian Gulf (Aragaw et al., 2022; De-la-Torre et al., 2022b; Mohamadi et al., 2023). These changes are due to exposure to the sun, which induced chain scission and later oxidation of the polymer chains (Gewert et al., 2018). Highly weathered plastics tend to change their structure, mostly increasing their crystallinity in the case of polyolefins, like PE and PP (Hsu et al., 2017), ultimately becoming more brittle and subject to fragmentation under a mechanical stressor (Andrady et al., 2022).

Fig. 6.

Photographs of a weathered surgical face mask and their corresponding FTIR spectrum.

The glove was identified as Latex, characterized by the presence of a broad peak at around 3394 cm⁻¹ attributed to OH stretching (Fig. 7 ), as well as sharper peaks at 2957, 2918, and 2851 cm⁻¹ attributed to C—H stretching (Agostini et al., 2008). Weaker peaks at around 1795 cm⁻¹, and between 1650 and 1500 cm⁻¹ are likely associated with vibrations of the C O and C C structures, respectively (Jung et al., 2018). The peak at 830 cm⁻¹ was attributed to the CCH₃ CH structure, typical of natural rubber (Rolere et al., 2015). Absorption bands at around 1412 and 872 cm⁻¹ may be due to the presence of calcium carbonate (CO₃ ⁻² stretching and out of plane deformation), which is a common additive in latex gloves (Baeta et al., 2009). The wavenumber and peak intensity of the weathered glove were similar to those from the brand-new one, except for a sharper peak at 3394 cm⁻¹ (OH stretching). Wang et al. (2022) reported the occurrence of stronger peaks around 1780–1700 cm⁻¹ assigned to C O groups in weathered latex gloves, as well as a drop in the strength of O—H absorption bands (~3000–2800 cm⁻¹). This behavior was not followed by the IR spectra of the weathered glove in the present study. However, this is likely due to the reduced/uncontrolled time exposed to the sun, resulting in photooxidation.

Fig. 7.

Photographs of a weathered glove (top) and KN-95 face mask and their corresponding FTIR spectrum.

According to the above data, the presence of PPE in the marine environment can generate large concentrations of microplastics and continuously pollute the environment. Several studies have documented the release of micro- and nanoplastics from disposable masks and other PPE (Aragaw, 2020; Fadare and Okoffo, 2020; Ma et al., 2021; Saliu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021b). Some items of the face masks showed some degree of damage or physical degradation (torn layers, Fig. 5a), similar to those reported by Akhbarizadeh et al. (2021). With a large number of PPE litter entering Indian beaches, we assume that microplastic pollution may become more extensive, especially in the areas most impacted by this type of pollution.

4. Recommendations

There is an urgent need for viable management actions to save the marine resources in Marina beach from illegal littering of PPE items. As mentioned earlier, the lack of awareness is one of the major causes of PPE pollution on Indian beaches. Awareness and education may encourage more pro-environmental behaviors and decrease incorrect disposal of plastics and PPE on beaches. One of the best methods is to involve citizens and children in the cleanup campaigns, and apply citizen science to obtain litter contamination baselines while encouraging the population to get involved in educational activities (Bouzekry et al., 2022). The reappearance of the Olive Ridley turtles on the beach of Mumbai after 20 years, following the largest cleaning operation, is one of the best examples of the importance of involving people in the cleanup efforts (AFP, 2018). Extensive media coverage of the negative impact of incorrect PPE and plastic disposal is necessary to raise awareness of better practices through promotional videos and educational campaigns. During the survey, it was observed that none of the garbage cans were placed on the beach. For this, we recommend the installation of garbage cans every 100 m on the entire beach. Periodic beach cleaning campaigns should be implemented in order to collect misplaced debris. Reusable masks should be promoted, as they can be used repeatedly and are a better choice compared to surgical masks. Recycling PPE litter provides a higher benefit to the society. Today, there are a number of initiatives to recycle PPE in India, but they are still insufficient to make up for the amount of waste generated in coastal areas. It is imperative that local and competent authorities allocate an appropriate budget to combat marine litter in India while reducing waste generation at the source by improving solid waste management systems and developing education programs.

5. Conclusions

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the PPE pollution in the beach environment, negatively impacting marine biota, potentially harbour pathogens and non-native species, and release of MPs and chemical contaminants. In the present study, COVID-19-driven PPE litter was monitored for 10 continuous weeks in 10 different sampling sites on Marina Beach, India, the longest urban beach in Asia. The observed results are comparable to those from the coastal environments around the world. The overall mean density of PPE items was 4.00 × 10⁻³ PPE m⁻² and ranged from 0 to 2.25 × 10⁻³ PPE m⁻². The entire Marina beach was predominantly polluted by face masks (99.81 %) and only 2 surgical gloves were found (0.17 %). A higher number of PPE items were recorded in all the stations on May 2022 (summer season), likely due to the summer holiday in India, where a higher number of people visited Marina beach. The results of the present surveys demonstrate that poor solid waste management and lack of environmental awareness among beachgoers on Marina beach are the main drivers of PPE pollution. The abundance of COVID-19-driven PPE items may cause entanglement, and ingestion hazards to the intertidal biota and top predators, as well as posing a potential source of microplastics and chemical contaminants. The authorities should make the alternative mitigation routes in a durable plan with waste-to-energy recycling policies. However, further research and development are needed regarding the leaching of chemical additives and microplastic, as well as elucidating the ecotoxicological consequences in order to obtain a clear picture concerning the environmental implications of COVID-19-driven PPE pollution.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Gunasekaran Kannan: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing- Original draft preparation.

Bilal Mghili: Conceptualization, Writing- Original draft preparation.

Gabriel Enrique De-la-Torre: Methodology, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Prabhu Kolanthasamy: Writing- Reviewing and Editing,

Mayakrishnan Machendiranathan: Writing- Reviewing and Editing,

Mayavan Veeramuthu Rajeswari: Writing- Reviewing and Editing,

Ayyappan Saravanakumar: Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.