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. 2021 Feb 27;69:102803. doi: 10.1016/j.scs.2021.102803

COVID-19 recovery for the Nigerian construction sites: The role of the fourth industrial revolution technologies

Andrew Ebekozien a,b,c,*, Clinton Aigbavboa d
PMCID: PMC9760279  PMID: 36568854

Abstract

Fourth industrial revolution (4IR) technologies have been proved as successful platforms to communicate and visualise construction projects within team meetings. These techniques possibly can enhance compliance with Covid-19 rules on sites. How far concerning Nigerian construction contractors in the use of 4IR technologies are yet to receive in-depth studies. Therefore, this paper offers a collective insight into the issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR technologies. Given the unexplored nature of the problem, a virtual face-to-face type of qualitative research method was employed. Twelve semi-structured interviews from selected construction firms and consultant experts were engaged and collated data analysed via a thematic approach. Findings group the 4IR technologies into smart construction site, simulation and modelling, and digitisation and virtualisation in Nigeria’s context, and majority of the 4IR technologies can be useful to enhance Covid-19 compliance. Reluctant to adopt, high implementation cost, inadequate knowledge management, resistance to change, among others emerged as the factors hindering 4IR technologies usage. Findings will strengthen and provide a rich insight into the impact of Covid-19 on construction sites and contribute towards informing key stakeholders to create an enabling environment for the implementation of 4IR technologies on site.

Keywords: Construction firm, Construction site, Covid-19, Fourth industrial revolution technologies, Nigeria

1. Introduction

In many developing countries, the construction industry is one of the largest industries and provides the infrastructure for economic growth (Ebekozien, 2020a). The sector is also known as the “physical infrastructure sector” and organisational backbone of an economy (Jallow, Renukappa, & Suresh, 2020). The construction sector forms an essential component of our lives because it creates economic wealth, maintains the society’s well-being, and organisational backbone of an economy (Weber & Alfen, 2016). The sector worth over $10 trillion per annum, yet is faced with inadequately skilled workers, lack of knowledge in advanced technologies, and insufficient productivity growth (Bogue, 2018). The author affirmed that the construction sector may have been slow to adopt advanced digital technologies, such as cyber-physical systems, big data, blockchain, digital twin, augmented reality, robots, three-dimensional (3D) printing (3DP), among others. These technologies belong to the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), which is enabled by employing advanced technologies such as 3DP into the production (Hirschi, 2018; Tjahjono, Esplugues, Ares, & Pelaez, 2017). Thus, it is pertinent to integrate these technologies into construction because of their potential significance. Among the potential advantages are the decrease in waste from precise material placement, ability for mass customisation of designs and parameters for functional and aesthetic uses, and the use of recycled waste materials (Goulding, Pour Rahimian, Arif, & Sharp, 2015; Shakor, Nejadi, Paul, & Sanjayan, 2020). The use of some of these technologies such as blockchain, robots, and 3DP has increased over the years, there are still some barriers in adoption and implementation regarding organisational change, policy-oriented, technological, and behavioural aspects (Dwivedi et al., 2020; Lemieux & Lemieux, 2016).

The role of 4IR in construction activities has become pertinent because the world is uncertain. Other sectors such as the telecom sector, food industry, oil industry, automotive sector, tourism industry, aviation industry, and healthcare industry were not left out (Chamola, Hassija, Gupta, & Guizani, 2020). The pandemic probably started from Wuhan, China in late November 2019 (Bong et al., 2020; Loayza, 2020). This is one of the many surprises and several uncertainties in today’s world. Initial cases of the virus were first reported in December 2019 and regarded as symptoms of pneumonia in the Wet Markets of Wuhan City and later termed as Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) (Rothan & Byrareddy, 2020). The World Health Organisation (WHO) formally declared Covid-19 as an epidemic on 11th March 2020 (Jallow et al., 2020). This brought all sectors, including the construction industry to a halt, leading to the closure of construction sites and related manufacturing companies across the globe. The direct and indirect negative impacts of Covid-19 on the construction sector are unquantifiable because of the uniqueness of the sector to both developed and developing countries. Examples of the possible impacts are increased unemployment, construction projects and costs overrun, among others. To curb the spread on construction sites, Black (2020a, 2020b), World Bank (2020), and World Health Organisation (2020) suggested procedures to be practiced. This includes staggered shifts within trades, remote working, 6-foot physical distancing for two or more workers on-site, engage Covid-19 supervisor to ensure compliance, provide full personal protective equipment, washing hand/sanitizers station at the site entrance, among others.

Many of the issues may be mitigated by taking advantage of 4IR and the digital era in the future. These techniques possibly may enhance Covid-19 rules and compliance on construction sites but are confronted with many issues. Manda and Dhaou (2019) identified poor infrastructure and technological challenges as some of the issues facing developing countries. Few studies in this area, for example, Kabiru and Yahaya (2020) and Ezeokoli, Okongwu, and Fadumo (2020) did not address their studies from the perspective of the role of 4IR technologies regarding enhancing Covid-19 rules and regulations. Kabiru and Yahaya (2020) examined whether Covid-19 can be considered as a force majeure event regarding construction projects. Ezeokoli et al. (2020) focused on evaluating how Covid-19 safety rules can be used on construction sites in Anambra State, Nigeria. Thus, this paper attempts to offer a collective insight into the issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR on construction sites in Nigeria. This study aim will be achieved via the following stated objectives:

  • i

    To identify major 4IR technologies relevant to Nigerian construction sites and their benefits.

  • ii

    To investigate the impact of Covid-19 pandemic on Nigerian construction sites.

  • iii

    To investigate the issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction activities in sites during Covid-19.

This study focused on the main research question – What is the impact of Covid-19 and issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction sites during a pandemic? The paper intends to investigate the impact of Covid-19 pandemic on Nigerian construction sites and identify the issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction sites. Also, to proffer policy solutions that may create an enabling environment that will encourage Nigerian construction contractors in the use of 4IR technologies for construction activities.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Impact of Covid-19 on construction sites

The Covid-19 crisis brought all sectors, including the construction industry to a halt, leading to the closure of construction sites across the globe. At the time of revising this manuscript (30/01/2021), there have been reports of over 102,672,283 Covid-19 cases, over 2,217,333 deaths, and 9ver 74,390,967 recovered across the world (Worldometer, 2021). The uncertainties of Covid-19 vaccine effectiveness give concern to many across the globe (Josephs & Lovelace, 2020). However, the United Kingdom medicines regulator in early December 2020, approved Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine and the injection was administered to the first person (Margaret Keenan), who is above 90 years, on 8th December 2020 (Roxby, 2020). Recently, the vaccination to prevent Covid-19 in the United States of America commenced (Centres for Disease Control & Prevention, 2021). Some other countries have followed, but Nigeria is yet to join as the time of revising this manuscript.

On 27th February 2020, Nigeria recorded the first case of Covid-19. Following the WHO declaration on 11th March 2020 as a global epidemic, the Nigerian Government put cities/states with commercial hubs under lockdown on 30th March 2020, and construction sites were not exempted from the movement restriction to stem the spread of the deadly virus. The lockdown was with rules and regulations that restricted the movement of people and crowd gathering. For ongoing construction projects, the impact of lockdown may be influenced by many variables, such as the host country of the project, activities to execute, nature of the project, size of the project, and location of the project (Jallow et al., 2020). Some authors such as Black (2020a, 2020b), World Bank (2020), and World Health Organisation (2020) recommended minimum procedures to be practiced on active construction sites to curb the spread of the virus. Some of the procedures include employees to inform Covid-19 supervisor if there is a sick family member at home, sick employees to stay away from the site until medically certified to return to the site, and post in visible locations within the site hygienic practices and responsibility expected from the employee’s requirement, among others. These rules and regulations are in line with working guidelines on construction site during Covid-19. As a result of this, there is a delay in most construction projects. Jallow et al. (2020) found that the pandemic has caused negative legal contractual obligations on infrastructure business operations. This is because many of the activities are conducted on-site and require the physical presence of people for the tasks. Coombs (2020) found that the Covid-19 pandemic has increased the advanced digital technologies but there are still many activities that rely on human skills. Kabiru and Yahaya (2020) discovered that the influence of Covid-19 can cause a force majeure event in the Nigerian construction sector. The interconnection, intricacy, and universal nature of the sector’s supply chains and personnel influence the cost and plan of construction projects throughout the Covid-19 epidemic (PwC, 2020). The PwC report recommended five actions that can help mitigate risks on construction projects. This includes critical suppliers’ need to be identified, consider financial and legal implications, enhanced communication system within the stakeholders, carry out scenario analysis, and lastly, create a plan B should there be a need. Laing (2020) identified possibly sunk investments in the construction sector, stakeholders operated at reduced profits or losses, lower investment, reduction in wages of staffers, lower tax for governments, among others as the impact of Covid-19 on the industry.

It is no longer news that the global pandemic hit heavily on the economies of many nations, including Nigeria. Nigeria is yet to recover from the 2016 economic recession, reported a slight-down to recession in November 2020 because of the Covid-19 effect. Before the Covid-19 crisis, the last unemployment report by the National Bureau of Statistics ranks Nigeria 21st among 181 nations, and Prof Yemi Osibanjo’s panel forecast that 39.4 million Nigerians may be out of a job because of the Covid-19 pandemic (Madueke, Iheonu, & Emmanuel, 2020). The construction sector is one of the major sectors that may be affected negatively as a result of the pandemic. The sector is one of the largest sectors that engage workers directly or indirectly. Enforcing these guidelines to the few construction sites attract extra cost to the project and may disrupt site operations (Ezeokoli et al., 2020). Therefore, this paper explores a collective insight into the issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR technologies to mitigate the virus spread while being productive.

2.2. Hindrances facing fourth industrialised revolution (4IR) technologies usage in construction sector

The role of 4IR technologies in the construction industry has become pertinent because technology is evolving at a fast rate to possibly address unknown uncertainties such as the Covid-19 outbreak that created serious impacts on the sector that worth over $10 trillion per annum (Bogue, 2018). The impact of the deadly virus brought all sectors to a halt leading to the closure of construction sites and related manufacturing companies across the world. Weber and Alfen (2016) affirmed that the sector forms an essential component of our lives because it creates economic wealth, maintains the society’s well-being, and organisational backbone of an economy. The direct and indirect negative impacts are unquantifiable because of the uniqueness of the sector to both developed and developing countries. The pandemic hits the infrastructural sector, and the sector faces severe challenges during the Covid-19 era. Taking advantage of the 4IR technologies and the digital era possibly would have mitigated some of the issues faced by construction management and staff. Several studies have been conducted concerning 4IR technologies in the construction sector, but none connected to the Covid-19 pandemic except for Jallow et al. (2020) that focused on the hindrances faced by operators in the industry. This is because of movement restriction and highlighted that the results were from a pre-study and exploratory, thus, cannot be generalised. Jallow et al. (2020) found that BIM design has been helpful in meetings with the project teams to obey the Covid-19 rules and physical distancing via online video meetings. Thus, physical distancing is believed to be one of the satisfactory precautions against the spread of the virus (Ahmed, Ahmed, Rodrigues, Jeon, & Din, 2021; Sun & Zhai, 2020). Kim, Lee, and Kim (2020) explored ways to apply blockchain technology to the construction sector and found that procurement evaluation, contract bidding and formation, and project cost/change management were the three major areas the blockchain technology can be applied with significant impact. Tahmasebinia et al. (2020) presented the sustainable performance criteria for three-dimensional (3D) printing practices into house construction in the construction sector’s 4IR. Bogue (2018) found that many classes of robots are at an advanced phase of development while few that are in use seek to automate conventional building practices. Nkosi, Aboginije, Mshwama, and Thwala (2020) analysed 4IR mechanisms that should be implemented to enhance infrastructures in developing countries higher institutions with an emphasis on industrialisation and humanising innovative capacity. Dwivedi et al. (2020) investigated the impact of Covid-19 on advanced digital information systems with an emphasis on how these technologies can be used to transform learning and workplaces. And found that artificial intelligence will stimulate better-informed decision-making during a crisis such as the Covid-19 scenario. Wang (2021) evaluated China’s future city construction reform in the face of pandemic and prevention and found that the fast development of digital advanced technologies in construction will help to balance the disaster incidence probability and stop-loss cost of construction projects.

In sub-Sahara Africa, Ayentimi and Burgess (2019) found large informal economy, inadequate facilities to enhance ICT growth, lack of technical/expert staff, among others as the major constraints facing 4IR in this region. This is one of the regions that is behind when it comes to policy development to mitigate these challenges. This has generated concern to many given its young population profile. Sutherland (2020) found poor physical infrastructure, weak policy formulation and implementation, and fallen standards in the education system as the many issues facing South African companies attempting to use the 4IR. Sutherland (2020) study’s validated Ayentimi and Burgess (2019) findings. There are key challenges to the applications of the 4IR technologies, especially in developing countries. One of the issues is how to develop policies that will mitigate them and enhance 4IR technologies usage. The significance of 4IR technologies can no longer be over-emphasised. This technology is replacing the traditional work tasks with automated software, cognitive technologies and artificial intelligence in many developed countries (Rotatori, Lee, & Sleeva, 2021). The authors found that both the developed and developing countries are not prepared for the vast socioeconomic changes that the 4IR is bringing and suggested reskilling for the workforce via collaboration to enhance transformation. This may increase cognitive technologies and artificial intelligence. In Nigeria, not many of the sectors have embraced the 4IR technology. Owoseni and Twinomurinzi (2020) identified the service sector and Ajibade and Mutula (2020) identified ICT and the banking sectors. The latter authors found that inadequate output from these sectors in the area of 4IR. Therefore, this research will investigate the roles of 4IR technologies in Nigeria’s construction industry with an emphasis on sites and possible hindrances facing the operators.

2.2.1. Justification of the present study

The paper’s justification is to theoretically investigate the roles of 4IR technologies on construction sites during Covid-19 as one of the possible measures to curtail the spread of the pandemic and proffer feasible policy solutions that intend to create the enabling environment for more engagement of the operators to welcome the challenges catching up with change regarding emerging technologies. These technologies are reshaping the labour force because many decision-makers are reassessing the use of advanced digital technology in their operations (Dwivedi et al., 2020). The extend of this reshaping may be researched in the future. This paper also hoped to inspire practitioners and scholars to further research on the findings. This is one area that places great responsibility on construction-related scholars to find out exactly how emerging technologies are reshaping construction activities in practices. Apart from Jallow et al. (2020) that covered the outbreak of Covid-19 on the UK infrastructure, academic literature on the role of advanced digitisation and automation regarding Covid-19 has been remarkably silent. The paper attempts to fill this gap in Nigeria’s context and other developing countries with similar attributes (political, economic, social, and cultural). The existing theoretical gap will be filled in this study. Findings from previous studies (e.g., Manda & Dhaou, 2019; Andam, Edeh, Oboh, Pauw, & Thurlow, 2020; Ezeokoli et al., 2020; Kabiru and Yahaya, 2020; Madueke et al., 2020; Wang, 2021), although not within the 4IR technologies on construction sites context, except for Oesterreich and Teuteberg (2016) and Jallow et al. (2020) guided the selection of this study. Andam et al. (2020) analysed the economic effects of the epidemic and the policies to mitigate the circulation of the deadly disease across Nigeria with a focus on the first 5-week lockdown implemented by Nigeria’s Government from late March to early May 2020. Many Nigerians were not pleased with the government approach because there was no transparent palliate provision for the vulnerable, especially the informal income earners. Manda and Dhaou (2019) examined the encumbrances facing developing nations in the adoption of 4IR technologies and found that South Africa’s political leadership has recognised the potentials of the 4IR, if implemented, to address the encumbrances of poverty, unemployment, and inequality. The authors identified potential employment losses, inadequate skills, inadequate infrastructure, and security and privacy issues as the major challenges confronting developing countries.

Ezeokoli et al. (2020) assessed how safety rules were observed on construction sites in Anambra State, Nigeria during the Covid-19 pandemic. They found workers stay at home when sick, use of covering/face mask, hand sanitisers, and wash stations at strategic locations within the sites, use of personal protective equipment, and among others as the most highly ranked Covid-19 safety guidelines. But these rules were rarely applied in the state. The extra cost involved in the practice and lax synergy between government agencies and contracting organisations may have contributed to the weak enforcement. Kabiru and Yahaya (2020) examined whether Covid-19 can be considered as a force majeure event on a construction project and found that the impact of Covid-19 can cause force majeure. Apart from causing force majeure, Covid-19 hinders site operations, affects the bills of quantities, leads to time and cost overrun, and it is a challenge to a smooth flow of contract agreement. Madueke et al. (2020) evaluated the impact of post-Covid-19 on the governance and infrastructural development in Nigeria. The authors found that the pandemic has sent many Nigerians to an early grave because of policy/military brutality to enforce movement restriction, hunger, and starvation; and suggested the strengthening of various institutions and critical sectors of her economy. This includes addressing the infrastructural decay. This is where the 4IR technologies may play a key to revitalise the sector. Wang (2021) examined how future urban construction reform in China can prevent and mitigate epidemics via regulations and recommended the need to establish a comprehensive and integrated prevention mechanism. This can be realised via rapid development of digital advanced technologies. Therefore, this paper intends to provide a collective insight into the issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR on construction sites via an unexplored dimension. The proposed possible recommendations may be used by other developing countries with similar construction status regarding 4IR technologies, cultural, social, and economic features as a contribution to the construction sector to enhance infrastructural development policies.

3. Research method

Research is gaining fresh information of the basic phenomena and obvious facts via the experimental or theoretical study with no application in perspective (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Denzin & Lincoln, 2017; Stysko-Kunkowska, 2014). Given the fresh and unexplored dimension of the issue (issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR on construction sites), a phenomenology type of qualitative research method was employed. This offers a suitable mechanism in dealing with study context change and the intricacy of sizable-scale establishment change (Garcia & Gluesing, 2013). Twelve semi-structured interviews from selected six construction firms (A–F) and consultant experts (G–H) were carried out to collate the primary data and analysed via a thematic approach as presented in Table 1 from Lagos and Abuja. Referring to Table 1, the participant rank, years of experience, location, and a number of employees were captured. Both locations are commercial hubs in Nigeria with large construction activities. These interviews aided in proffering answers to the main research question: what are the impact of Covid-19 and issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction sites during a pandemic? Semi-structured virtual oral interviews offer some flexibility to the study and one of the ways to attain a realistic view of the participant from the selected study’s sample (Gruber, Szmigin, Reppel, & Voss, 2008). Saunders, Thornhill, and Lewis (2019) described sampling as the procedure in which a pre-determined number of observations are chosen from a larger population to represent their views. For this paper, snowball and purposive sampling techniques were adopted and assist to achieve representativeness. The purposeful selected the major participants, followed by snowball sampling to achieve good saturation and representation (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2010). The paper sample included ten contracting firm construction/project managers and two construction IT experts from Abuja and Lagos, both in Nigeria. Regarding the selection of the construction companies, four medium and six large firms were engaged. The face-to-face virtual interviews via video conferencing lasted between 45 and 60 min and collated data analysed using thematic analysis.

Table 1.

Summary of Participants’ Description.

ID Company Firm Code Location Number of Employees Years of Experience Participant Rank
P1 Construction firm (Large) A Abuja 350 15 Equipment and Safety Coordinating Manager
P2 Construction firm (Large) A Abuja 350 18 Management staff (CEO & Operational Manager)
P3 Construction firm (Medium) B Abuja 70 32 Project Coordinating Manager
P4 Construction firm (Medium) B Abuja 70 22 Project Manager and Software Engineer
P5 Construction firm (Large) C Abuja 400 30 Top management staff/Operation Manager
P6 Construction firm (Large) D Lagos 330 29 C.E.O/Managing Director, Medium Construction Firm
P7 Construction firm (Large) D Lagos 330 23 Management Staff/Safety Officer & Quality Controller
P8 Construction firm (Large) E Lagos 300 20 Site Safety Officer & Safety Coordinating Officer
P9 Construction firm (Medium) F Lagos 60 34 Chief Maintenance Engineer
P10 Construction firm (Medium) F Lagos 60 35 Management staff (Construction Contract Manager & Project Manager)
P11 Mechanical Engineering Firm G Abuja 15 27 Hard and Software Expert in Heavy Duty Equipment
P12 Software Consultant H Lagos 10 21 Software Expert in Construction Equipment
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Letters of invitation were sent to intending participants and 12 virtual interviews took place from late September 2020 and early November 2020, and saturation was achieved. This is in line with Dwivedi et al. (2020) study that engaged 12 subject experts in a related study. The authors investigated the impact of Covid-19 on information systems and technology management with an emphasis on transforming learning, life, and workplaces in the absence of inadequate workers but not in Nigeria’s context and construction sector. The participants’ firms even though concealed were considered knowledgeable in the subject matter. For example, Participants P4, P11, and P12 have over 20 years of work experience in construction-related information technology whilst participant P8 is a top management staff of a construction company attempting the use of technologies in construction. Regarding ethical issues, the interviewees were told about the main aim of this study and accepted to participate without coercion. This research follows ethics and was approved by the local ethics committee and interviewees presented in an anonymous form. This paper adopted open coding of meaning units in the coding of the transcribed interview data. This implies that words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs were assigned a label to generate concepts in line with the objectives. Narrative, themeing, emotion, and invivo coding techniques were adopted (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). One hundred and twenty-seven codes emerged and re-arranged based on occurrence, frequency, and reference. From the 127 codes (such as the internet, automation, radio-frequency identification, modularisation, cyber, cyber-physical-systems, robotics, human-computer interaction, reluctant to adopt, high implementation cost, inadequate knowledge management, resistance to change, absence of regulatory compliance, and legal and contractural hesitation, higher regulations for computing equipment, absence of standards, inadequate data security and protection, organisational and process changes, among others), eight categories (such as smart construction site, simulation and modelling, digitisation and virtualisation, impact of Covid-19 on the society, impact of Covid-19 on construction sites, among others) were derived and mapped into three themes (major 4IR technologies and their benefits, impact of Covid-19 on construction, and Issues affecting 4IR technologies usage). The themes were cross-checked on group discussions by an independent expert. Also, threats to the validity of findings were mitigated and made possible via triangulation of data collection methods (Tajeddini & Mueller, 2009). Thematic analysis was employed to analyse the data and guided by prepared interview questions. This is in line with Ebekozien’s (2020a, 2020b) as presented in Appendix A. The three themes are the main findings and presented in the following section that was based on the opinion of 12 interviewees across the two commercial hubs in Nigeria.

4. Results and discussion

Issues affecting construction firms from the use of 4IR on construction sites is one area that has been under-researched by Nigerian scholars and may have interrupted possible mitigation of the spread of Covid-19 during the pandemic. This is because the emerging technologies work as end-to-end advanced and digitalised technology in engineering across the value chain in the construction industry and can enhance Covid-19 guidelines regarding physical distancing and a large crowd gathering on construction sites as revealed. Therefore, findings and discussion from this paper are presented as follows:

4.1. Theme one: major 4IR technologies and their benefits

This sub-section gives a platform to the interviewees to identify major 4IR technologies and their uses on construction sites. One of the pertinent points which emerge from this theme is the categorisation of the identified 4IR technologies into three main groups as presented in Table 2 . They are smart construction site, simulation and modelling, and digitisation and virtualisation in Nigeria’s context. Participant P4, a Project Manager and Software Engineer, opines that smart construction site, also known as “smart construction factory”, comprises technologies and concepts to automate the construction environment. This is one of the major components of the 4IR and has a relationship with others (Participant P11). Examples of “smart construction sites” that emerged from this paper are the internet of things/services, automation, radio-frequency identification (RFID), modularisation/prefabrication, cyber-physical-systems, robotics, and human-computer interaction (HCI). Findings agree with Coombs (2020) and found that these technologies are components of artificial intelligence (AI), to compensate for the absence of work forces. Majority of the participants agree that these technologies can comply with the Covid-19 rules and compliances while still conducting construction activities on sites if installed. Cyber-Physical-Systems (CPS) can be used to monitor the use of PPE all through construction activities. This can be referred to as part of real-time monitoring system (Participant P5). For the RFID, Participant 12 says, “…if the mechanism is well understood by the operators of the construction site, construction site assets like tools, equipment, and materials can be tracked and well managed. This will optimise project schedule and cost…” Regarding the internet of things and services, this allows sensors to be embedded in cranes, bulldozers, payloaders, tractors, machines, etc, with the ability to link to the internet. Participant P9 says, “…. we attempted to use this mechanism last year in one of our construction sites to enable performance data of these types of equipment to be sent for analysis. This would have allowed us to carry out predictive and proactive maintenance but failed because of technical skill to execute the project…” Findings agree with Oesterreich and Teuteberg (2016) and it was found that the technology (internet of things and services) has not been adopted by construction firms, though many scholars such as Ajibade and Mutula (2020), Ayentimi and Burgess (2019), Bogue (2018) and Rotatori et al. (2021) have written concerning the benefits. Robotics is one of the components to support the concept of “smart construction factory” (Participant 1). Majority of the participants agree that the usage of robotics technology on construction sites is low. Participant P5, P6, P8, and P10 opine that various types of autonomous robotics have been constructed to make construction activities easier, safer, and efficient but require an additional enabling environment for usage in Nigeria. The use of robotics can assist to reduce material wastage and cost (Participant P5). Findings agree with Manyika et al. (2015) and it was found that the technology can save up to $160 billion to $930 billion annually on construction sites. Participant P6 says, “…how many of our construction sites have electricity and for those that managed to have power, how long does it last in a day….? Findings agree with Kajander (2016) and it was found that the unfriendly construction environment, such as inadequate or absence of electricity supply, does not allow a perfect environment for robotics.

Table 2.

Emerged Major 4IR Technologies.

Categorisation
Smart Construction Site Simulation and Modelling Digitisation and Virtualisation
Internet Of Things/Services Building Information Modelling Mobile Computing
Automation, Radio-Frequency Identification Augmented Reality Big Data
Modularisation Simulation Models Digitisation
Cyber-Physical Systems Social Media
Robotics Cloud Computing
Human-Computer Interaction
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Simulation and modelling technologies belong to the 4IR technologies. Participant P11 says, “…some construction companies in developed countries use this technology to enhance the design of construction activities because the industry itself is complex and can be affected by external variables like supply fluctuations, weather, and personnel performance…” Examples of “simulation and modelling” that emerged from this research are building information modelling (BIM), augmented reality, and simulation tools/simulation models. Participants P3, P5, P7, and P10 opine that simulation tools, simulation models, and frameworks are used for project management, project planning, and resource planning on construction projects. Participants across the board agree that simulation and modelling technologies comply with the Covid-19 rules such as physical distancing during usage while conducting construction activities on sites. Participant P11 affirms that in some few cases, at a low spread but not necessarily shutting down the entire construction site like the Nigerian construction sites experience. The augmented reality is used to support defect construction project management, though still at the development stage (Participant P6). Findings agree with Oesterreich and Teuteberg (2016) and it was found that virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality is at the developmental phase and still being developed for construction sites. One of the findings from this paper is the identified contributions and benefits provided by BIM to the construction industry. BIM assist to decrease construction project cost and delivery time (Participant P11). BIM is at a very low usage in Nigeria, yet is one of the vital technologies to strengthen the key idea of 4IR (Participant P12). Participant P8 asserts that some developed countries have made the application of BIM on construction activities compulsory because the governments have invested in the BIM programme. Findings agree with Smith (2014) and it affirmed that the Scandinavian region, USA, and the UK construction sector are considered as world leaders regarding BIM implementation. This is because their top government leaders have profoundly invested in funding programmes, implementation plans and incentives, BIM mandates, and created the enabling environment.

Concerning “digitisation and virtualisation”, findings identify mobile computing, big data, digitisation, social media, and cloud computing, as the technologies associated with “digitisation and virtualisation.” Among the technologies that enhance compliance to Covid-19 rules and regulations regarding physical distancing and other guidelines, digitisation and virtualisation technologies are ranked with the highest frequencies in this paper. Zoom meetings, video meetings, micro team meetings, etc., are all components of digitisation and virtualisation and enhances physical distancing and self-isolation at home while work is on-going. Findings agree with Coombs (2020) and Gbadamosi, Oyedele, Olawale, and Abioye (2020). Coombs (2020) found that digitisation and virtualisation are components of artificial intelligence and attempts to increase business confidence and can be utilised when there are inadequate workers to achieve efficiency and productivity. Gbadamosi et al. (2020) found that self-isolation is one of the resourceful ways for slowing down the spread of unidentified Covid-19 cases. The digitisation of construction sites will transform the sector’s image and mitigate the harsh working environment (Participant P1). Participant P3 viewpoint says, “…In the era of digitisation, we (construction professionals) cannot be left behind if we must improve on construction productivity. One way this can be achieved via digitised and automate the construction activities…”

4.2. Theme two: impact of Covid-19 on construction

This sub-section provides the participants a platform to evaluate the impact of Covid-19 on Nigerian construction sites. Findings across the board indicate that the lockdown during the movement restriction to curb the spread of the virus across the country makes managing construction projects to be more difficult with evidence of lax enforcement of Covid-19 guidelines. Findings agree with Ezeokoli et al. (2020) and it was found that lax compliance to Covid-19 safety guidelines in the study area. Participant P6 says, “...it was a difficult experience for us, paying our key staff for over six months doing nothing whilst others were placed on redundancy without pay. This is because our sites were shut-down. Who bears the cost incurred during this unprecedented lockdown? Recruiting new staff with skills in technologies was not an option during the pandemic...” Also, findings agree with Jallow et al. (2020) and it was found that job applicants were not willing to attend job interviews in person. Digital technologies via virtual recruitment have been effective in the developed countries but the reverse is the case for developing countries like Nigeria (Participant P12). “We are having issues with a backlog of outstanding salaries to pay staff and our client is financially incapacitated to honour our previous certificates certified and issued by the Consultant Architect. Our major fear is the issue of Nigeria’s Government economic crippling into recession. Do you know how many people will be out of a job if we collapse? There is an urgent need for the government to intervene because of the uniqueness of the construction sector to the economy….” said Participant P2. Findings agree with Jallow et al. (2020) and it affirmed that infrastructure via the construction sector is key to re-booting economic growth. In one of our projects, we are planning to apply for an extension of time and make claims for force majeure (Participant P8). Force majeure is a French law term that simply means ‘Act of God”, captured in JCT 1963, Clause 23(a) and JCT 1980, Clause 25.4.1. It is a term used to describe a situation independent of the will of man, which is an overwhelming super-human event such as the global outbreak of Covid-19. Before a party can claim for force majeure, the party should be able to establish that the event relied upon such as the Covid-19, must make the performance of the contract wholly impossible. “…We are facing liquidation because of many extra costs on us and caused by the pandemic lockdown except there is government intervention like in some developed countries intervention such as tax waivers, government assisting them to pay their workers, etc…”

The supposed giant of Africa (Nigeria) was ranked 21st among 181 nations with an unemployment rate of 23.1 % as reported by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) before the Covid-19 crisis. The preliminary reports submitted to Mr President by Vice President Prof. Yemi Osibanjo’s committee reveals that about 39.4 million Nigerians probably will lose their jobs because of the Covid-19 pandemic (The Guardian, 2020). Nigerian construction workers probably take the largest share compared to other sectors (Participant P12). One of the negative effects is that an estimated 91.8 million Nigerians live on less than US$2 a day and rated as the poverty capital of the world (World Economic Forum, 2020). This negative statistic may increase if nothing is done to mitigate the impact of Covid-19 on the construction sector. Stakeholders are concern, knowing the significance of the construction sector to economic growth and development (Participant P2). “…The negative impact of Covid-19 on the medium and small building contractors is unquantified because some of our clients are businessmen and workers overseas but their jobs and businesses shut down. What next, many of our workers, mostly the junior staff have been fired…” said Participant P4. Findings agree with Bisong, Ahairwe, and Njoroge (2020), Madueke et al. (2020), and Omobowale, Oyelade, Omobowale, and Falase (2020). Bisong et al. (2020) reported that World Bank estimates an extreme decline in world remittance of US$110 billion with sub-Saharan Africa probable to experience a decline of around 23.1 %. The authors found that remittance flows to developing countries, including Nigeria, have reduced because many migrants have lost their jobs. Madueke et al. (2020) found that laying-off of workers and the closing down of businesses overseas have affected remittance of financial flow hugely. Omobowale et al. (2020) found that many casual workers have fallen below the poverty line because of no job and struggling to supply basic needs. In the opinion of some of them, “Hunger Virus is deadlier than Corona Virus.” This is where the fast development of digital advanced technologies in developing countries construction may assist to balance the disaster incidence probability in construction projects (Wang, 2021). Nigeria is one of the developing countries that are lucky regarding the damage of Covid-19 compared to many developed countries (Participant P1) Findings agree with Li, Peng, He, Wang, and Feng (2021) and it affirmed that the damage caused by Covid-19 is more serious in urban districts in advanced countries than in developing countries. The mild impact of Covid-19 should not be taken for granted. The Nigerian Governments should continue to improve on prevention mechanisms as recommended by international organisations.

4.3. Theme three: issues affecting 4IR technologies usage

There are many literature regarding the benefits of 4IR technologies in the construction sector but evidence shows diverse encumbrances and unsolved issues facing the transformation of the construction sites in Nigeria. Therefore, this sub-section provides the participants a platform to identify the challenges affecting 4IR technologies usage in Nigerian construction sites. Ten issues emerged from the field data as the factors hindering 4IR technologies usage across Nigerian construction sites. This includes a reluctance to adopt, high implementation cost, inadequate knowledge management, resistance to change, absence of regulatory compliance, and legal and contractural hesitation. Others are higher regulations for computing equipment, absence of standards, inadequate data security and protection, and organisational and process changes. From the ten encumbrances, initial high implementation cost, reluctance to adopt, resistance to change, and lack of standards were common among the participants as issues affecting 4IR technologies usage in Nigerian construction sites. Participant P8 says, “…we attempted to try the robotic technology for concrete block moulding and laying but a high cost of technical equipment coupled with training and consultancy fees discouraged us from the programme. Moreover, we were not sure regarding the cost savings after a long time…” Findings agree with Oesterreich and Teuteberg (2016) and it was found that high implementation cost, high investment costs of new technologies, lack of certain level of knowledge because of the new technologies, regulatory compliance, among others were the challenges of 4IR for the construction sector. Government has a role to play in this regard via funding programmes for industry and research regarding 4.0 industry. Findings agree with Smith (2014) and suggested that a functional collaboration between the construction contractors association and the government. This association should be devoid of political affiliation. The political issue in all spheres of life is one of the issues that have hindered collaboration in Nigeria. The movement restriction and physical distancing have put the stakeholders in the construction sector to start rethinking advanced digital technology usage on construction sites (Participants P3, P10, & P12). Findings agree with Coombs (2020) and Dwivedi et al. (2020). Coombs (2020) affirmed that stakeholders across all businesses, including governments are engaging advanced digital technology to bridge the gap of the absence of human workers in the field and offices. Dwivedi et al. (2020) found that the pandemic has stirred governments and decision-makers to re-evaluate the use of information systems and advanced digital technology in transforming work for a sustainable life. Participants P3, P6, P9, and P12 opine that the “political will” from the Nigerian top political office-holders to transform the construction sector is absent. Participant P12 says, “…where are the stable electricity and strong internet network for these technologies to operate? These two things should be addressed first in residential properties before talking about construction sites…” Findings agree with Manda and Dhaou (2019) and found infrastructure and technological challenges (poor ICT infrastructure) as one of the encumbrances facing developing countries, Nigeria not exempted. These advanced technologies are driven in “smart society” by digital connectivity, advanced digitalised technology, among others.

5. Implication and benefit of this study

As part of this paper’s implications, the policies and mechanisms to encourage the implementation of 4IR technologies in Nigerian construction sites have far-reaching benefits to the sector, firms, employees, and environment in post-Covid-19 era and future pandemic. Besides the economic advantages of the 4IR technologies, such as improving quality and collaboration, improving productivity, and efficiency, the application of the technologies can mitigate the spread of Covid-19 while construction is on-going. Examples are robotics construction, zoom meetings, 3D design models, among others. These are components of artificial intelligence and gaining consumer preferences and business confidence (Coombs, 2020). The zoom meetings can assist to visualise the construction works within the team meetings, therefore, enhancing the physical distancing guidelines and self-isolation at home. This is one of the measures as suggested by Sun and Zhai (2020) and Ahmed et al. (2021) to mitigate the pandemic spread. Apart from Jallow et al. (2020) that covered the United Kingdom construction sector, academic literature on the role of advanced digitisation and automation regarding the Covid-19 has been remarkably silent and the theoretical gap was filled in this study. This paper’s findings will strengthen and provide a rich insight into the impact of Covid-19 on construction sites and contribute towards informing key stakeholders to create an enabling environment for the implementation of 4IR technologies on site. The adoption of the 4IR technologies on construction sites can help to improve site safety because it enhances the Covid-19 guidelines rules and regulations regarding many gathering and physical distancing and construction sustainability. The paper is intended to stir up stakeholders regarding issues affecting construction firms with emphasis on the impact of Covid-19 and the role of 4IR technologies. The output intends to strengthen and provide a rich insight into the impact of Covid-19 on construction sites and contribute towards informing key stakeholders to create an enabling environment for the implementation of 4IR technologies on site. This may help to curb future pandemics on construction sites. The emerged suggestions from this study are informative to the key stakeholders.

Concerning the advantages of this paper to social work and sustainable development, this study intends to stir governments and decision-makers to reassess the use of 4IR technologies as one of the mechanisms to curb the spread of Covid-19 on construction sites via BIM, video conference, robotic, radio-frequency identification, cyber-physical systems, etc. Thus, curbing the spread of Covid-19 on a construction site is a component of mitigating social health problems via pragmatic feasible policies that will enhance 4IR technologies usage on construction sites. This paper validates Wang (2021) study’s and affirmed that fast development of digital advanced technologies in construction would help to balance the disaster incidence probability and stop-loss cost of construction projects. This can be achieved in Nigerian construction sites but the impartation of this paper intends to show that to harvest these benefits, legal, political, social, economic, technological, and environmental issues need to be addressed via pragmatic policies. Moreover, the globe is entering the “Decade of Action (2030)” and all stakeholders should fast-track their efforts to deliver on the promise of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The 4IR technologies on construction sites can play a significant role in this direction. This is because it has been proven that 4IR technologies can mitigate poverty, climate change discrimination, unemployment, among others (Manda & Dhaou, 2019), which are components of issues being addressed by the 17 SDGs. The use of 4IR technologies on construction sites can generate economic prosperity, reducing environmental degradation, mitigating social inequality, and building stronger infrastructures. These are components of transformative change if successfully implemented. This again justifies the strength of advanced technologies in construction and a matter of concern to many stakeholders in the industry because many studies have shown that the sector is behind regarding advanced technology (Jallow et al., 2020).

6. Policy and recommendation

Evidence shows that it is difficult to manage projects during Covid-19 and majority of Nigerian construction contractors engaged are knowledgeable regarding the 4IR technologies but usage is poor. The weak enforcement and implementation of the 4IR policy in the Nigerian Government economic plan may have hindered technology usage in the construction sector. Few results from the 4IR technology in Nigeria are private sector driven, such as banks, ICT, and manufacturing. The construction sector is backward in this regard. This would have assisted to curb the spread of the pandemic because it enhances compliance with the Covid-19 rules and follows physical distancing guidelines. Besides mitigating the spread, technology can save construction cost and time, improve project quality and collaboration, enhance staff and environment safety, improve construction project sustainability, among others. Among the possible feasible policies that emerged from this paper include construction companies should be ready to make provision for their budget to accommodate high implementation costs of advanced digitalised technologies and deal with organisational resistance to change. Collaboration is germane during the transformation phase from the conventional mechanism to advanced digitalised construction sites with a focus on developing strategies that will be suitable for Nigeria as against adopting the so-called “exemplary models” that cannot fit into the developing countries context. For example, how constant is the electricity supply in Nigeria? So, for one to procure software that should be under air-conditional for 24 h to operate a machine on-site, is likened to “cobra effect mechanism.” That is, creating a new problem unintentionally in an attempt to proffer a solution to an existing issue. Training and re-training of technical staff, including new employees by management team cannot be over-emphasised. This will expose them to modern advanced technologies and how they operate. Findings agree with Papadopoulou (2020). The author recommended that because of the rapid change in the 4IR, technology and engineering-based graduates need to be equipped with adaptable and flexible leadership skills that will support their transformational learning.

Furthermore, the government should be clear regarding policies on technical issues such as standards for 4IR technology that should be imported into the country, regulatory compliances, legal issues, and enhancing communication networks. The government should motivate construction companies through collaboration between major actors, provide interest-free loans for 4IR equipment procurement, and funding programmes tailored towards enhancing the practice of 4IR technologies on construction sites. The government-funded construction projects should be prioritised to construction companies willing to digitalised their sites. The government should support construction companies willing to transform their sites to technology-driven construction sites via policies that will enhance “smart construction sites.” There should be an all-inclusive mechanism (a collaboration between government and construction companies owners) to diversify from the conventional mechanism of construction to productivity-enhancing emerging innovative technologies. This was missing. At present, it is an individual approach. This requires a huge investment and capital intensive, especially for indigenous contractors. In this way, federal and state policies should support and create the enabling environment to build a more resilient construction sector that can be used to mitigate future pandemics. Therefore, commitment from policymakers and political leadership is needed to develop and create the enabling environment for digital transformation and innovation in the construction sector. The policy can be tailored towards reforms in the construction sector for possible transformation from the conventional approach to “smart construction sites mechanism” in phases.

7. Conclusion

This paper highlights a collective insight into issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 and the role of 4IR technologies on sites. The study discusses the three main groups of 4IR technologies in use on construction sites (smart construction site, simulation and modelling, and digitisation and virtualisation). This paper contributes towards enlightening policymakers and construction practitioners that many of these technologies such as mobile computing, modularisation, cloud computing, or the internet of things, BIM, among others are available in the market for use on construction site and can be useful to manage the spread of Covid-19 or future pandemic while construction activities are on-going on-site. The lockdown across the construction sites shows that construction projects are difficult to manage during such a scenario. This is because of the movement restriction but technological tools such as zoom meetings, micro team meetings, and video calling through internet connection mechanisms have proven to be efficient in communications with team members. Thus, the findings in this study should be considered as an early evaluation because further analyses may be undertaken on possible research problems around the emerging technologies used in the construction sector in other developing countries with similar attributes.

Some conclusions can be drawn from this paper to guide policymakers, researchers, and construction practitioners in Nigeria and similar developing countries concerning how 4IR technologies on construction sites can be used as prevention disease measures in the future while site work is ongoing. This paper is not without some limitations such as the qualitative approach adopted but does not negatively affect the robustness of the paper. The paper suggested a mixed-methods type of research design for future study for generalisability in line with Creswell and Creswell (2018), Ebekozien (2019), and Ebekozien, Abdul-Aziz, and Jaafar (2019, 2020). This will enlarge the coverage and empirical findings. They acknowledged that the exploratory sequential mixed methods approach aids researchers to verify and validate the qualitative findings. This methodological gap is lacking in previous papers regarding Covid-19 and the 4IR technologies to the best knowledge of this paper. Also, concerning the area for further studies, from an empirical perspective, the identified benefits and encumbrances can be further considered and investigated in the future research plans. Moreover, the components such as virtual technologies in construction management can be investigated in future studies to validate the findings of this paper and enhance an in-depth understanding of the subject matter. From a practice point, they can be utilised as a framework for the digitalisation of Nigerian construction sites. The need for further research on other developing countries with similar attributes regarding technology, economic, political, and culture cannot be over-emphasised.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Bekos Energy Services Limited, Nigeria (SR/02/2020/005). Special thanks to the anonymous reviewers for providing constructive comments to enhance the quality of this paper. Also, thanks to the participants for their cooperation and valuable responses, which form the basis of this study.

Appendix A. Virtual Face-to-Face Interview Questions

Dear Participant,

Request for Virtual Face-to-Face Interview

Following the global Covid-19 pandemic, many nations’ governments have been brainstorming on the possible way out of this crisis. Since the construction sector is known as an “economic catalyst and key to re-booting economic growth”, and technologies have been significant to human capacity building, this study investigates a collective insight to many underlying issues affecting construction firms from Covid-19 regarding lockdown rules and the role of 4IR technologies and proffer feasible policies that will support and create the enabling environment to build a more resilient construction sector via 4IR technologies, that can be used to mitigate future pandemic. Therefore, this research is titled: COVID-19 Recovery for the Nigerian Construction Sites: The Role of the Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies. Specifically, this research is proposed to be achieved through the following objectives:

  • i

    To identify major 4IR technologies relevant to Nigerian construction sites and their benefits.

  • ii

    To investigate the impact of Covid-19 pandemic on Nigerian construction sites.

  • iii

    To investigate the underlying issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction activities in sites during Covid-19.

Please note, questions for the virtual interview are going to be within the stated objectives. Also, responses provided by you will be collated and analysed together with that of other participants. This will make up the valued and helpful contribution to achieving the success of this work and all information provided will be handled with the greatest confidentiality.

Hence, your valuable time and other inputs in answering the questions and other contributions will be highly cherished. Note, findings from this study will be shared with the participants that indicate interest after the virtual face-to-face interview via email address to be supplied by them.

With kind regards.

Yours faithfully,

(Researchers)

BASIC QUESTIONS FOR THE PARTICIPANTS

  • 1

    Please, for record purpose, what is the name of this organisation

  • 2

    What service does the organisation render?

  • 3

    Please, what is your position in this organisation and how long have you been working?

  • 4

    Please, are you knowledgeable regarding the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) or Industry 4.0 concerning the construction sector?

  • 5

    If yes to question 4, in general terms, from your perception, how can you describe managing construction projects under Covid-19 pandemic in Nigeria?

  • 6

    Please, from your experience, can you identify the technologies you know in connection with the 4IR that can be of benefit to the construction sector?

  • 7

    Are these equipment on your sites?

  • 8

    Do you think these types of equipment can enhance the Covid-19 guidelines regarding physical distancing and large crowd gathering?

  • 9

    If yes to Question 8, how?

  • 10

    From your perception, do you think Covid-19 pandemic affects Nigerian construction sites?

  • 11

    If yes to Question 10, can you give a practical example?

  • 12

    As a stakeholder in the construction sector, are you satisfied with the equipment used in the construction sector regarding the 4IR technologies?

  • 13

    If no to Question 12, what do you think are the issues affecting the use of 4IR technologies on construction activities in sites?

  • 14

    What role do you think the government can play to support and create the enabling environment to build a more resilient construction sector via 4IR technologies?

  • 15

    What is your take on the role of other stakeholders in improving young professionals homeownership in Nigerian cities?

  • 16

    What are the feasible policies to support and create the enabling environment to build a more resilient construction sector via 4IR technologies, that can be used to mitigate future pandemics?

  • 17

    Do you think 4IR technology is achievable in Nigerian construction sites?

  • 18

    If yes, how can this be achieved?

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