Table 1.

Cell-derived vesicles for mRNA loading and delivery.

Cell-Derived Nanocarriers	Surface Markers	Size	Source Cell	Loading Strategies	mRNA Cargos	Target Strategies	Application	Ref.
Exosomes	TSG101 and CD9	50–200 nm	293T	Passive loading	Luciferase or PGC1α	miRNA-dependent mRNA expression and ultrasound	Obesity	[44]
Exosomes	CD9, TSG101, and CD63	30–160 nm	293T	Passive loading	Bmp7	Ultrasound	Obesity	[45]
MVs	NA	Mostly 100–150 nm	HEK-293T	Passive loading	CD-UPRT-EGFP	Prodrug	Schwannoma tumor	[46]
Exosomes	TSG101 and CD9	50–200 nm	HEK293T	Passive loading	Il-10	miRNA- dependent mRNA expression	Inflammation of atherosclerosis	[47]
Exosomes	Lamp2b, CD63, Alix, and Tsg101	20–500 nm	HEK293	Passive loading	Nerve growth factor	RVG-Lamp2b	Cerebral ischemia	[48]
Exosomes	CD9, CD63, CD47, and Tsg101	NA	MEFs and DCs	Passive loading based on a cellular nanoporation system	PTEN	Fuse glioma-targeting peptides to CD47	Glioma tumor	[49]
Exosomes	CD9, TSG101	30–150 nm	AML12	Passive loading	Ldlr	NA	Familial hypercholesterolemia	[50]
Exosomes	CD63, Lamp2b, CD9 and TSG101	50–200 nm	HEK-293T	Active loading based on L7Ae-CD63 fusion protein	nluc or catalase	RVG-Lamp2b	Parkinson’s disease	[51]
Exosomes	Lamp2b and CD63	50–200 nm	293FT	TAMEL platform	DTomato or Cas9	NA	NA	[52]
Exosomes	CD63, CD9, and TSG101	100–200 nm	293T	Active loading based on CD9-HUR fusion protein	Cas9	NA	NA	[53]
Exosomes	CD9 and Lamp2b	100–300 nm	293T	Active loading based on a specific DNA aptamer	GFP, PGC1α or Il-10	ATS-Lamp2b	Obesity and intestinal inflammation	[54]
Exosomes	CD63, Alix, and TSG101	Average ~100 nm	HEK293T	Active loading based on L7Ae-CD63 fusion protein	ZPAMt	NA	HIV-1 infection	[55]
Exosomes	CD63, CD81, and lactadherin	30–100 nm;	HEK293	Active loading based on EV-loading zipcode sequence	HChrR6	Prodrug	HER2 + ve human breast cancer	[56]
MVs	ARRDC1	<100 nm	293T	Active loading based on Tat-ARRDC1 fusion protein	GFP or p53	NA	NA	[57]
Outer membrane vesicles	ClyA	average 28.1 nm	BL21 (DE3) Escherichia coli	Active loading based on ClyA-L7Ae fusion protein	EGFP, OVA or ADPGK	NA	Melanoma and colon cancer	[58]
Exosomes	Glycophorin A, ALIX, and TSG1–1	120–200 nm	Red blood cells	Post-loading based on REG1 loading reagent	Luciferase	An enzymatic method	NA	[59]
A mixture of exosomes and MVs	ALIX, TSG101, hemoglobin A, and Stomatin	100–300 nm (average ~140 nm)	Red blood cells	Post-loading based on electroporation	Cas9	NA	NA	[60]
Exosomes	CD63	~110 nm	HEK293T or lung spheroid cells	Post-loading based on electroporation	GFP	NA	NA	[61]
Exosomes	NA	~200 nm	HEK293T or lung spheroid cells	Post-loading based on electroporation	GFP or SARS-CoV-2 spike protein	NA	COVID-19	[62]
Cell membrane-coated PLGA NPs	NA	average 185 nm	B16F10	Double emulsion method with the assistance of G0-C14	EGFP or Cypridina luciferase	NA	NA	[43]

MEFs, mouse embryonic fibroblasts; DCs, dendritic cells; HUR, human antigen R; ARRDC1, arrestin domain containing protein; Cas9, CRISPR-associated protein 9; GFP, green fluorescent protein; nluc, NanoLuc luciferase; EGFP, enhanced green fluorescent protein; OVA, ovalbumin; Ldlr, low density lipoprotein receptor; RVG, rabies viral glycoprotein. PTEN, a tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10; Lamp2b, lysosome-associated membrane protein 2; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; NA, not applicable.