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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Dec 1.
Published in final edited form as: Fam Process. 2022 Jan 5;61(4):1593–1609. doi: 10.1111/famp.12749

Midlife Financial Strain and Later-life Health and Wellbeing of Husbands and Wives: Linking and Moderating Roles of Couple Intimacy Trajectories

Kandauda (A S) Wickrama 1, Catherine Walker O’Neal 1, Eric T Klopack 2
PMCID: PMC9851178  NIHMSID: NIHMS1861722  PMID: 34988990

Abstract

The present study investigates (a) heterogeneous trajectories of couple intimacy over the mid-later years (average ages of 40–65) and (b) how these intimacy classes are differentially associated with spouses’ midlife financial strain as well as their later-life health and wellbeing outcomes. The sample was comprised of white couples in long-term marriages from the rural Mid-west who experienced the economic downturn of the farm crisis in late 1980s. Couple-level measures of emotional intimacy and sexual intimacy were created by summing husbands’ and wives’ reports. Using growth mixture modeling with a sample of 304 couples, conjoint intimacy classes were identified from trajectories of couple emotional intimacy and sexual intimacy. Three qualitatively different latent intimacy classes of couples were identified: Consistently High, Moderate and Increasing, and Chronically Low. Intimacy classes were differentially associated with midlife financial strain and later-life health and wellbeing. Spouses with consistently high and moderate and increasing intimacy in their mid-later years averaged lower financial strain in early midlife and better health and wellbeing outcomes in later years (>67 years) compared to those with consistently low intimacy after controlling for lagged health measures. The identification of couple intimacy trajectory groups provides a potentially useful prognostic tool for counseling efforts for individuals and couples that can promote and develop resiliency factors to aid in the redirection of adverse couple intimacy trajectories.

Keywords: Emotional Intimacy, Sexual Intimacy, Intimacy Trajectories, Financial Strain, Later-Life Health

The association between stressors, such as financial strain, and poor mental and physical health outcomes is well documented (e.g., McEwen & Gianaros, 2010). Recent research has highlighted the cumulative negative impact of husbands’ and wives’ financial strain on multiple health problems in later life, including cardiometabolic diseases, physical pain, and memory impairment (Lee et al., 2021; Wickrama & O’Neal, 2021; Wickrama et al., 2019). Furthermore, some marital studies have documented a strong connection between spouses’ financial strain and couples’ poor marital functioning (Conger, Conger, & Martin, 2010), and other studies have shown that both negative and positive marital experiences have immediate and long-term consequences for the health and wellbeing of husbands and wives (Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017; Wickrama, Klopack, O’Neal, & Neppl, 2020). Although these studies produced important findings about the associations between couples’ financial strain and later-life health, a comprehensive understanding of the linkages between contextual stressors, such as financial strain, couple relationship attributes, and later-life health and wellbeing is lacking.

In particular, relationship intimacy is an important marital attribute to study in connection to contextual stressors and later-life health and wellbeing, given that it has long-term health implications for both spouses, including functional disability, depression, and anxiety for individuals in relationships that lack intimacy (Impett et al., 2012; Mancini & Bonanno, 2006). Previous research suggests emotional and physical closeness are two important dimensions of couple intimacy (Yoo et al., 2014). Emotional intimacy is characterized by spouses’ expression of emotional feelings towards their partner, such as love, affection, and caring. In contrast, physical intimacy is characterized by spouses’ intimate behaviors, such as physical touch, contact, and satisfying sexual engagement. Past studies have largely focused on how marital attributes, including intimacy, and health outcomes are connected over relatively short periods of time (typically a maximum of five years, see Amato & James, 2018). Because life-long marital experiences are thought to have cumulative health and wellbeing influences (Elder & Giele, 2009; Wickrama, O’Neal, & Lee, 2020), longer study periods are needed to fully assess linkages between contextual factors, marital attributes, and later-life health and wellbeing over the life course (Robles et al., 2014).

Literature Review

Spouses’ Midlife Financial Strain and Couple Intimacy

As one particularly stressful contextual factor, financial stress is associated with declines in positive marital interactions, which may result in decreased intimacy (Gudmunson et al., 2007). More specifically, financial hardship is thought to strain marital relationships and create tension because it requires couples to engage in undesired resource management (i.e., reducing living expenses, finding a second job) that may prompt disagreements between spouses (Papp, Cummings, & Goeke-Morey, 2009). Additionally, disagreements and marital conflicts related to finances have been shown to increase emotional distress and hostility (Conger & Elder, 1994; Wickrama et al., 2018a), which can result in decreased couple intimacy (Gudmunson et al., 2007).

Also, consistent with the spillover perspective and theories of self-regulation, stressful experiences can affect relationship intimacy through the depletion of self-regulatory resources (Baumeister, 2002; Rogers & May, 2003). That is, financial strain can erode spouses’ self-regulatory resources, thus compromising their energy and ability to manage relationship issues and conflicts, which is essential for couple intimacy (Buck & Neff, 2012).

Intimacy and Health and Wellbeing Outcomes in Later Years

Beyond intimacy serving as an important indicator of relational health, intimacy can have consequences for physical health and well-being indicators over the mid-later years. The marital relationship serves as the most intimate psychological, emotional, and physical source of support available to most adults (Bowlby, 1982) and the most salient social connection in the later years of life (Levenson et al., 1994). Given that biological vulnerabilities, such as impaired immune function, and deficiencies in social connections generally increase with age (Kiecolt-Glaser & Glaser, 2002), relationship intimacy may be more influential with advancing age (Simons, 1997).

Thus, the present study examines several health (i.e., perceived physical health and BMI) and wellbeing (i.e., loneliness, life satisfaction, and sense of control) outcomes in later adulthood as consequences of couple intimacy over the mid-later years. The link between intimacy and health may be attributed to several behavioral, physiological, and psychological mechanisms, such as promoting healthy behaviors, deterring health risk behaviors, and fostering feelings of security and emotional support (Umberson et al., 2008). For instance, research suggests that satisfying intimate marital experiences promote positive feelings, which improve physiological responsiveness and functioning and contribute to better physical health (Steptoe et al., 2008). Consistent with the reflected appraisal notion (Schwalbe & Staples, 1991), favorably reflected appraisals (inferred from others’ behaviors toward an individual) positively contribute to the development of one’s psychological resources, such as personal control. Accordingly, we argue that intimacy may contribute to the development of personal control, which is consequential for behavioral self-regulation and, in turn, engaging in health-promoting and preventive behaviors (Matthews & Gallo, 2011).

Furthermore, couple intimacy may reduce feelings of loneliness, another indicator of wellbeing, by making close intimate social connections available to both spouses and fostering feelings of social affiliation and security (Slatcher et al., 2015). Because the marital relationship is often the most salient relationship for older adults, a lack of intimacy can be closely intertwined with married, older adults’ feelings of loneliness (Cornwell & Waite, 2009; Wickrama et al., 2018b).

Spouses’ Financial Strain and Health and Wellbeing in Later Years

In addition to the influence of loneliness on health and wellbeing in later years, it is also important to recognize that persistent financial strain may act as a chronic stressor exerting a direct physiological toll on biological systems (McEwen & Gianaros, 2010), leading to cumulative dysregulation over time and, ultimately, physical health problems. Furthermore, individuals with initially high but decreasing financial strain may also have heightened dysregulation and health problems because significant periods of financial strain could cause dysregulation that persists even after financial strain decreases. In addition, family economic difficulties, as reflected by financial strain, have been shown to directly influence spouses’ health and wellbeing by constraining necessary health resources and services, such as proper housing, health insurance, and health care (Bodnar & Wisner, 2005). We argue that husbands’ and wives’ feelings of financial strain capture both family-level deprivation and also individual-specific material/structural deprivation (e.g., loss of health insurance, and unhealthy occupational conditions; Grol-Prokopczyk, 2017).

The Moderating Role of Couples Intimacy

Drawing from previous studies noting the moderating influence of positive marital experiences (e.g., marital quality and marital commitment) on stress-health associations (Conger et al., 1999), the influence of financial strain in early midlife on later-life health and wellbeing may also vary depending on couple intimacy over time. In the present study, we expect that couples with chronically low intimacy will demonstrate greater reactivity to financial strain (as evidenced by their health and wellbeing) compared to couples with consistently high intimacy who are expected to experience relatively less reactivity to financial strain. As previously noted, couples with low intimacy may lack psychological resources and spousal support, impairing the stress-coping abilities of spouses and increasing their stress reactivity.

The Present Study

Consistent with the family systems theory (Fingerman & Bermann, 2000), because husbands’ and wives’ perceptions and experiences of both emotional and physical intimacy are interconnected and interdependent, intimacy can be assessed as couple-level emotional and behavioral constructs. Thus, the first objective is to investigate trajectories of couple intimacy over the mid-later years as potential latent classes of intimacy trajectories (see Figure 1). More specifically, trajectories of both emotional and physical intimacy are investigated (1994–2015), with the expectation that husbands’ and wives’ perceived emotional intimacy may form a couple-level construct of emotional intimacy. Similarly, a couple-level construct of sexual intimacy, specifically satisfaction with their sexual relationship, is expected to exist. Together, the concurrent, couple-level trajectories of emotional and sexual intimacy may form conjoint trajectories of couple relationship intimacy (referred to as couple intimacy). This is consistent with previous studies (e.g., Wickrama et al., 2020b) demonstrating the existence of groups of couples with heterogeneous marital quality trajectory patterns over time.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Theoretical Model

These heterogeneous trajectories of intimacy may develop based on exposure to contextual influences (not only financial strain but also other contextual factors, such as quality of parent-child relations and work/retirement quality), resulting in groups of spouses with distinct intimacy trajectories over time (e.g., increasing or decreasing intimacy). However, enduring dynamics models, or maintenance, models (Caughlin & Huston, 2006), suggest that, for some couples, marital attributes may be relatively stable over time and may be consistently “positive” or “negative” depending on the beliefs and behaviors spouses bring into their marriage (Amato & James, 2018). Consequently, we expect heterogeneous classes of couple intimacy trajectories to exist with qualitatively different patterns of change/stability over the life course; for example, some couples may demonstrate consistently high intimacy over their mid-later years, while others experience chronically low intimacy. Other couples may experience decreasing or increasing intimacy over their mid-later years.

The second objective of the present study is to examine how classes of couple intimacy trajectories are differentially associated with spouses’ financial strain in early-midlife as well as multiple health and wellbeing outcomes in later years (see Figure 1). This objective is consistent with the life course perspective (Elder & Giele, 2009) by taking a “long view” to locate husbands’ and wives’ couple intimacy trajectories within the consideration of previous stressors (namely early midlife financial strain) and later-life health and wellbeing outcomes (65+ years). Furthermore, as depicted by the vertical downward arrow in Figure 1, the present study investigates whether couple intimacy trajectories over the mid-later years moderate the associations between spouses’ financial strain and health and wellbeing in later years.

To accomplish these objectives, prospective data were examined from 304 husbands and wives in enduring marriages (more than 40 years) over a period of 27 years (1991–2017), and the following hypotheses were developed:

  1. Heterogenous trajectories of couple intimacy patterns, captured by latent conjoint classes of couples’ emotional and sexual intimacy, exist over the mid-later years (1994–2015) (H1).

  2. Husbands’ and wives’ financial strain in early midlife (1991) are negatively associated with the level and slope of the couple intimacy trajectory classes (1994–2015) (H2).

  3. The level and slope of the couple intimacy trajectory classes (1994–2015) are negatively associated with multiple health and wellbeing outcomes in the later years (2017) (H3).

  4. Couple intimacy trajectory classes over the mid-later years moderates the association between financial strain in early midlife and health and wellbeing in later years (H4)

Data and Methods

Participants and Procedures

The data used to evaluate these hypotheses are from the Iowa Youth and Family Project (IYFP, 1989–1994; Conger & Elder, 1994), which was later continued as two panel studies: the Midlife Transitions Project (MTP) in 2001 and the Later Adulthood Study (LAS) in 2015 and 2017. For the latent trajectory class analysis (H1) and examining predictors (H2), data were used from 304 couples who were consistently married from 1991 to 2015. For examining health and wellbeing outcomes (H3 and H4), data were available from a sub-set of 254 couples who were consistently married and remained in the study in 2017. Data collected in 1991, rather than 1989, were used as the first time point of the current study due to the availability of study variables.

The attrition rate was 31% from 1991 to 2017, in part because the current study sample was limited to husbands and wives who were consistently married. An attrition analysis was conducted comparing the current analytic sample of consistently married couples and couples who were excluded from the current analyses due to divorce and study attrition on demographic characteristics (i.e., age, education level) economic hardship measured by counts of economic cutbacks, divorce proneness (Booth et al., 1983), and study variables (e.g., depressive symptoms, physical health) in 1991. The only significant difference noted was for divorce proneness in 1991, with higher scores reported for couples who were excluded from the current analysis.

In 1991, spouses were in their early middle years. The average ages of husbands and wives were 42 and 40 years, respectively, and their ages ranged from 33 to 59 for husbands and 31 to 55 for wives. On average, the couples had been married for 19 years and had three children. The median age of the youngest child was 12. In 1989, the average number of years of education for husbands and wives was 13.68 and 13.54 years, respectively. The average annual family income of participants was $8,050 in 1989. Because there are very few minorities in the rural area studied, all participating families were White.

Measures

Financial Strain

In 1991, financial strain was measured using a four-item scale developed by Conger and Elder (1994). Separately, husbands and wives reported on their perceived financial strain on items such as “we have enough money to afford the kind of clothing we need” and “we have enough money to afford the kind of medical care we need” with responses ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Items were averaged, and higher scores indicated greater financial strain. Internal consistencies of this measure were.78 and .80 for husbands and wives, respectively. The mean (and SDs) for husbands and wives were 2.43 (.74) and 2.52 (.81), respectively.

Couple Intimacy

In 1994, 2001, and 2015, ten items captured husbands’ and wives’ emotional intimacy from spousal reports of expressions of warmth from their partners in the month preceding survey completion (Lorenz et al., 1993; Surjadi et al., 2011). Sample items include how often in the past year their spouse: “let you know she/he really cares about you” and “acted loving and affectionate toward you.” The items were rated using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = always, 7 = never) and reverse scored with higher scores indicating greater warmth. Mean scores were then computed for husbands and wives separately for each data collection point. The internal consistencies ranged from .85 to .88. Wives’ average warmth scores were 5.15, 5.09, and 5.62 (SD=1.16, 1.11, and 1.08) in 1994, 2001, and 2015, respectively, and husbands’ average scores were 5.23, 5.16, and 5.55 (SD=1.17, 1.16, and 1.19. A couple emotional intimacy measure was created for each data collection point by adding wives’ and husbands’ reports. Spouses’ report were significantly correlated (r = .51, .52, and .63 in 1994, 2001, and 2015, respectively).

In 1994, 2001, and 2015, respondents rated their agreement to eight items on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) describing positive behaviors and feelings about their sexual relationship (e.g., “My spouse and I have a wonderful sex life” and “My spouse is happy with our sex life”) (Conger & Wickrama, 1993; Scott et al., 2012; Yeh at al., 2006). Cronbach’s alpha was greater than .82 for husbands and wives for each wave. Responses were coded such that higher scores indicated higher sexual intimacy. Wives’ average sexual intimacy scores were 3.38, 3.50, and 3.61 (SD=.71, .63, and .63) in 1994, 2001, and 2015, respectively, and husbands’ average scores were 3.37, 3.57, and 3.66 (SD=.66, .63, and .62 ). A couple sexual intimacy measure was created for each data collection point by adding wives’ and husbands’ reports. Spouses’ reports were significantly correlated (r = .52, .50, and .53 in 1994, 2001, and 2015, respectively).

Health and Wellbeing Outcomes in Later Years

Global Physical Health.

Self-assessments of poor global health were obtained using two items in 1994 and 2017 from the Rand 36-Item Health Survey 1.0 (Hays et al., 1993). The first item asked participants to indicate on a 5-point scale (1 = excellent, 5 = poor): “How would you rate your overall physical health?” The second item asked participants to indicate on a 5-point scale (1 = much better, 5 = much worse): “Compared to one year ago, how would you rate your physical health in general now.” These two items were averaged with higher scores representing poorer physical health. The means (and SDs) for husbands were 1.61 (1.50) and 1.71 (0.93) in 1991 and 2017, respectively. The means (and SDs) for wives in 1991 and 2017 were 1.52 (.40) and 1.65 (0.93), respectively. These two items were highly correlated (r > .70 for each spouse at both measurement occasions).

Body Mass Index (BMI).

Respondents reported their height and weight in 1992 and 2017. Their BMI, the ratio of weight to height squared ([lbs*703]/inches2), was used to assess their degree of being under/normal/overweight. The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives in 1992 were 28.03 (4.43) and 26.35 (6.25), respectively. The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives in 2017 were 30.58 (5.38) and 30.04 (6.87), respectively.

Loneliness.

The UCLA Loneliness Scale (Russell et al., 1978) measured husbands’ and wives’ loneliness in 2017. This 20-item scale captures subjective feelings of loneliness as well as feelings of social isolation (e.g., “I feel completely alone” and “No one really knows me well.”) on a 4-point scale (1 = I never feel this way, 4 = I often feel this way). The internal consistencies for husbands and wives, respectively, were .85 and .80. The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives were 1.69 (.46) and 1.67 (.68), respectively.

Sense of Control.

Using Pearlin’s 7-item Mastery Scale (Pearlin et al., 1981) in 1991 and 2017, participants rated their agreement to items, such as “sometimes I feel that I am being pushed around in life,” and “I have little control over the things that happen to me. Responses ranged from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Items were averaged, and higher scores indicated greater mastery (α = .78 and .81 in 1991 and .60 and .70 in 2017 for husbands and wives, respectively). The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives in 1991 were 3.80 (.58) and 3.73 (.61), respectively. The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives in 2017 were 3.91 (.58) and 3.85 (.61), respectively.

Life Satisfaction.

In 2017, subjects responded to “Overall, how satisfied are you with your life at this point?” on a 0 – 10 scale (0 = Not at all satisfied, 10 = Very satisfied). The means (and SDs) for husbands and wives were 30.58 (5.38) and 30.04 (6.87), respectively. This single-item measure was developed for the Iowa Midlife project (PI. F.O. Lorenz, 2001) and used in Later Adulthood Study (PI. Kandauda Wickrama, 2017). Similar single-item life satisfaction measures have been shown to have sufficient criterion validity (Cheung & Lucas, 2014).

Statistical Analysis

First, means (or proportions) and correlations were examined for all study variables. In Mplus (version 8; Muthén and Muthén, 2017), a growth mixture model (GMM; Wickrama et al., 2016) was estimated to identify latent conjoint classes of couple intimacy trajectories considering emotional and sexual intimacy simultaneously. Log Likelihood (LL) values, sample size–adjusted Bayesian Information Criterion (SSABIC), Bootstrap Lo-Mendell-Reuben likelihood ratio test (BLRT), and entropy values were used to assess model fit (Wickrama et al., 2016).

Second, to examine the association between spouses’ financial strain in early midlife and conjoint couple intimacy trajectory classes, multinomial logistic regression analyses were performed by specifying husbands’ and wives’ financial strain as independent variables and class membership as the dependent variable in SPSS (version 28). Third, to examine the effects of couple intimacy trajectory classes on health and wellbeing outcomes in later years, regression analyses were performed in SPSS by specifying class membership as independent variables (using one group as the reference group) and health and wellbeing outcomes as dependent variables after controlling for the lagged health measures in 1992/1994. This approach to investigating the association identified latent classes with covariates has been used in a number of previous studies (e.g., Wickrama et al., 2020b).

We entered product terms between financial strain and couple intimacy classes to examine their interactions on health and wellbeing outcomes (i.e., moderation by intimacy classes). Age was entered as a covariate in all analyses. Missing data were accounted for using Full Information Maximum Likelihood procedures (Enders & Bandalos, 2001).

Results

Husbands’ and wives’ reports of financial strain were correlated with most of their own health and wellbeing outcomes in later adulthood (2017) (p < .05). Husbands’ and wives’ emotional intimacy (average r >.48) and sexual intimacy (average r >.53) in 1994, 2001, and 2015 were significantly correlated across variables and across spouses. Spouses’ reports of their partners’ emotional intimacy were significantly correlated with their own health and wellbeing outcomes in 2017 (p < .01). Similarly, spouses’ reports of sexual intimacy were significantly correlated with their own health and wellbeing outcomes in 2017 (p < .01).

Identification of Conjoint Latent Classes of Couple Intimacy (H1)

Using couple-level scores of emotional and sexual intimacy over time, multiple class trajectory models were estimated with 1, 2, 3, and 4 classes (see Table 1) (Wickrama et al., 2016). The 3-class estimation produced the best fitting model. According to the BLRT, the 3-class model was a significant improvement compared to the 2-class model (p < .05). This model also had an acceptable entropy value (.70), indicating that these classes were distinct. This model produced reasonably large classes, with no class representing fewer than 20 people. Although the four-class solution had improved model fit indices, it produced unacceptably small classes.

Table 1.

Model Fit Statistics for Alternative Class Models

1 Class 2 Classes 3 Classes 4 Classes
LL −2401.21 −2380.00 −2366.11 −2358.01
SSABIC 4904.81 4893.32 4893.10 4783.41
Entropy 0.60 0.70 0.72
BLRT p < .05 p < .05 p > .05
Group Size (%)
C1 245 (100%) 53 (17%) 194 (64%) 140 (46%)
C2 192 (83%) 85 (28%) 118 (39%)
C3 25 (8%) 30 (9%)
C4 16 (5%)
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Note. LL = Log Likelihood. SSABIC = Sample-size Adjusted Bayesian Information Criterion. BLRT = Boostrap Lo-Mendell-Reuben Likelihood Ratio Test. Percentages do not sum to 100 due to rounding.

The 3-class solution, plotted in Figure 2, produced qualitatively distinct patterns of marital trajectories. Variations in the initial levels of trajectories appear to be a primary characteristic contributing to the differences between the classes, demonstrating the existence of a consistently high intimacy class and a chronically lower intimacy class (hereafter termed chronically low). A third group was comprised of couples with moderate and increasing intimacy. The initial levels and slopes for the intimacy trajectories for each class are shown in the boxes in figure 2. For members in the consistently high intimacy class, the average initial level of couple intimacy (averaging across emotional and sexual intimacy) was more than 7.0, and this level was maintained over the mid-later years (1994–2015). As shown in figure 2, couples in this class averaged relatively higher levels of intimacy than couples in the chronically low intimacy class at both the initial level (1994) and later in life (2015). Couples in the consistently high intimacy class also averaged relatively higher initial levels of intimacy than couples in the moderate and increasingly class. The slopes of the emotional and sexual intimacy trajectories in the consistently high and chronically low classes were not significantly different from zero (i.e., stable slopes). The moderate and increasing intimacy class averaged a significant increase in emotional and sexual intimacy over time.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Latent Classes of Conjoint Trajectories of Couple Intimacy

* p < .05.

Predicting Couple Intimacy Trajectory Classes (H2)

Results of the multinomial logistic regression predicting class membership are shown in Table 2. When husbands and wives reported greater financial strain in 1991, the couple was more likely to be in the chronically low intimacy group than the consistently high intimacy group (β=−.30 and −.27, p < .05, respectively). Furthermore, wives’ financial strain in 1991 was also implicated in greater likely membership in the chronically low intimacy group (β=−.83) than the moderate and increasing intimacy group. Thus, it appears that higher financial strain was associated with lower initial levels of intimacy.

Table 2.

Predicting latent classes of intimacy trajectories by financial strain – Multinomial regression.

Predictor Consistently High Intimacy Moderate and Increasing Intimacy
Wife Financial Strain (1991) −0.27* −0.83*
Husband Financial Strain (1991) −0.30* −0.46*
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Note. Log odds are shown. The reference group is the chronically low intimacy group (Group C).

*

p < .05.

Predicting Health Outcomes (H3)

Results from the regression analyses predicting husbands’ and wives’ health and wellbeing outcomes in their later years are shown in Table 3. For wives, greater financial strain in 1991 predicted poorer global health (β=.16, p < .01), more loneliness (β=2.70, p < .01), and less life satisfaction (β=−.43, p < .01) in later adulthood (2017). Membership in the consistently high intimacy group (compared to the chronically low intimacy group) was related to less loneliness (β=−.25, p < .01), a greater sense of control (β=.19, p < .05), and more life satisfaction (β=.76, p < .01). Similarly, compared to the chronically low intimacy group, membership in the moderate and increasing intimacy group was associated with better global health (β=−.25, p < .05), less loneliness (β=−.29, p < .05), a greater sense of control (β=.32, p < .05), and more life satisfaction (β=1.15, p < .05).

Table 3.

Predicting Health Outcomes in 2017 (N=254).

Panel A. Wives’ Health Outcomes in 2017
Global Poor Health BMI Loneliness Control Life Satisfaction
Financial Strain 0.16** (0.04) 0.14 (0.36) 2.70** (0.37) −0.08 (0.05) −0.43** (0.15)
Consistently High Intimacy Group −0.05 (.09) −0.96 (0.68) −0.25** (0.07) 0.19* (0.09) 0.76** (0.29)
Moderate & Increasing Group −0.25* (0.12) −0.65 (1.00) −0.29* (0.12) 0.32* (0.15) 1.15* (0.46)
Consistently High Intimacy Group × Financial Strain −0.19* (0.09) −1.86* (0.72) --- --- ---
Lagged Health 0.31** (0.07) 0.99** (0.06) 0.17** (0.07) 0.32** (0.05) −0.65** (0.18)
Age 0.01 (0.01) −0.17 (0.68) 0.02 (0.02) 0.01 (0.01) 0.03 (0.03)
R2 0.26 0.66 0.16 0.21 0.18
Panel B. Husbands’ Health Outcomes in 2017
Global Poor Health BMI Loneliness Control Life Satisfaction
Financial Strain 0.15** (0.05) 0.57* (0.28) 0.12* (0.04) −0.05 (0.05) −0.57** (0.15)
Consistently High Intimacy Group −0.02 (0.12) 0.60 (0.60) −0.27** (0.07) 0.12 (0.08) 0.52* (0.26)
Moderate & Increasing Group 0.15 (0.16) 0.69 (0.60) −0.28* (0.12) 0.11 (0.14) 0.72** (0.40)
Consistently High Intimacy Group × Financial Strain --- −1.87* −0.92 --- --- ---
Lagged Health 0.46* (0.06) 0.92* (0.06) 0.05 (0.04) 0.46** (0.08) −0.01 (0.02)
Age 0.01 (0.01) −0.01 (0.01) 0.01 (0.01) −0.01 (0.06) −0.01 (0.02)
R2 0.29 0.59 0.13 0.23 0.16
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Note. N = 254 couples; standardized coefficients are shown with standard errors in parentheses; All the other outcomes variables were controlled for the lagged measure. Chronically low intimacy was the reference group; only statistically significant interactions were included in the models.

*

p < .05.

**

p < .01.

Similar results were found for husbands. Greater financial strain in 1991 was associated with husbands’ poorer global health (β=.15, p < .01), higher BMI (β=.57, p < .05), more loneliness (β=.12, p < .05), and less life satisfaction (β=−.57, p < .01) in later adulthood (2017). Compared to couples in the chronically low intimacy group, husbands in the consistently high intimacy couple group averaged less loneliness (β=−.27, p < .01) and greater life satisfaction (β=.52, p < .01). Membership in the moderate and increasing intimacy group was associated with husbands experiencing less loneliness (β=−.28, p < .05) and greater life satisfaction (β=.72, p < .01) in later adulthood compared to husbands in the chronically low group.

Testing Moderating Influence (H4)

Regarding the moderating role of intimacy (H4), for wives, a statistically significant interaction term (see Table 4) indicated that being in the consistently high intimacy group served as a protective factor to dampen the effects of financial strain on their poor global health and BMI. For husbands, being in the consistently high intimacy group attenuated the effect of financial strain on BMI. Together, these findings providing evidence for the moderating role of intimacy.

Discussion

In the present study, we identified three latent classes of couple intimacy trajectories, considering emotional and sexual intimacy over couples’ mid-later years, including a consistently high class, a moderate and increasing class, and a chronically low class. Couple emotional and couple sexual intimacy trajectories were mostly parallel, suggesting longitudinal comorbidity between the two intimacy dimensions over the mid-later years. However, the three classes differed in the similarity between emotional and sexual intimacy trajectories. The consistently high intimacy class showed a larger separation with more emotional than sexual intimacy, on average; whereas, the chronically low class showed less separation with similar levels of emotional and sexual intimacy. That is, in the chronically low intimacy class, longitudinal synchrony was observed between couples’ emotional and sexual intimacy, and emotional and sexual intimacy were less closely connected in the consistently high intimacy class. It appears that couples who experience high levels of intimacy over their mid-later years became emotionally closer during this period (whereas their sexual intimacy was relatively unchanged. These findings suggest increases in emotional regulation and mood stability in later years with advancing age (Henry et al., 2007). This is also consistent with the cumulative advantage notion in relation to close relationships in later years, as couples who experienced low couple intimacy maintained poor quality relationships.

Nearly 72% of couples were classified into either the consistently high intimacy class or the chronically low intimacy class, which both showed high stability in couple intimacy over the mid-later years. The remaining 28% of couples were classified as having moderate and increasing intimacy (recovery), suggesting that only a portion of couples in low-quality relationships experienced improvement during their mid-later years. This is consistent with the enduring dynamics and maintenance models (Caughlin & Huston, 2006), which contends that the majority of spouses who bring more positive or negative beliefs and behaviors into a marriage are likely to maintain their same beliefs and behaviors over the course of marriage resulting in stable trajectories marital attributes (e.g., marital quality). Moreover, studies have shown that marital quality in enduring marriages often changes very little over the mid-later years (Amato & James, 2018). Spouses who experienced unstable marriages may have already separated/divorced in the early period of marriage.

Over a quarter of couples (approximately 28% of the sample) showed moderate initial levels of intimacy (in early midlife) and steep increases in couple intimacy over the mid-later years. These couples could represent a group who were actively reflecting on and evaluating their experiences and making efforts to modify their environment (Shultz & Wang, 2011). In addition, some positive contextual factors may have occurred for these couples, with beneficial consequences for their intimacy. Successful retirement, improved social connections, enhanced leisure, and improved relations with adult children in the later half of the life course may be potential candidates for such positive contextual factors that warrant future research (Noone et al., 2009).

The results demonstrated that husbands’ and wives’ midlife financial strain is associated with latent trajectory classes of intimacy. Husbands and wives who experienced high levels of financial strain were less likely to experience consistently high or moderate and increasing intimacy; instead, they were more likely to be in the chronically low intimacy class. Financial hardship may lead to tension and disagreements related to family resource management, resulting in psychological distress and, in turn, less warm and intimate interactions (Conger & Elder, 1994; Gudmunson et al., 2007). The persistent association of financial strain may be attributed to the continuity of midlife financial problems over this period. In addition to financial strain and previously noted spouses’ continuing beliefs, contextual factors, such as working conditions, may also contribute to the initial level of intimacy trajectories and the subsequent stability in intimacy over time.

For both wives and husbands, consistently high and moderate and increasing intimacy classes were associated with less loneliness and greater life satisfaction relative to those in the chronically low intimacy class. The chronically low intimacy class averaged the poorest wellbeing outcomes, which suggests comorbidity of low emotional and sexual intimacy may strongly impact their wellbeing in later years. Alternatively, it seems that consistently high and increasing couple intimacy over the mid-later years may operate as a psychosocial resource providing couples with social connection and satisfying feelings in later years. The impact of intimacy trajectories on life satisfaction in later years highlights the salience of spouses’ marital experiences when they evaluate their previous successes and failures. This process appeared to be stronger for wives than for husbands, potentially because women have more relationally interdependent self-representations (Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001).

For the present sample of long-term married couples, moderate and increasing intimacy was associated with wives’ better physical health compared to chronically low intimacy as well. This is consistent with the previous research showing that satisfying intimate marital experiences promote one’s positive feelings with implications for physiological functioning (Steptoe et al., 2008). Given that this association was significant only for wives, wives may be more physiologically sensitive to couple intimate behaviors than husbands, which aligns with previous research documenting a greater negative health impact of hostile marital interactions for wives compared to husbands. These findings may suggest greater psychological reactivity to marital interactions for women compared to men comprising the current sample because of the social hierarchy found in these relatively traditional, older couples where wives are often deferential to their husbands (Wanic & Kulik, 2011).

Couple intimacy partly operated as a moderator of the effect of financial strain on the physical health of wives and BMI of both husbands and wives, specifically for couples with consistently high intimacy who generally experienced a health buffering effect against financial strain. That is, findings suggest that these couples’ intimacy protected them from adverse health influences of stressful experiences, such as financial problems. This moderating influence may be attributed to positive feelings associated with intimate marital experiences promoting healthy physiological functioning (Steptoe et al., 2008). Also, couples with high levels of intimacy may be able to avoid some of the adverse consequences of financial problems through behavioral strategies such as working together to adjust their spending patterns. Future research should further investigate the moderating role of couple intimacy.

Even after accounting for the association between couple intimacy classes and health and wellbeing outcomes, long-term financial strain-health associations persisted for most of the health and wellbeing outcomes, with a few gender differences. For instance, financial strain was associated with BMI for husbands but not for wives. As previously noted, the influence of financial strain may operate through additional physiological, psychological, behavioral, and structural mechanisms (c.f., Bookwala, 2005; Miller et al., 2009).

Several factors potentially limit the scope and generalizability of the results. First, the sample was comprised only of European American middle-aged rural husbands and wives. This cohort of husbands and wives experienced the economic downturn of the farm crisis in the late 1980s. Thus, the findings of the present study may be specific to couples who have experienced family economic pressure in their early middle years. Also, observed associations among study constructs may by specific to rural white couples and may differ across race/ethnicity groups and locations. Caution must be exercised in generalizing these results, and studies testing similar models with more diverse (e.g., racial/ethnic, geographic) samples are needed. Second, replication using more objective measures (e.g., official documents such as tax returns, social welfare receipts) and clinical health measures are needed. Third, there may be other aspects of intimacy that warrant exploration, particularly non-sexual physical aspects (e.g., hugging, touching) and close communication. Fourth, the present study may not fully reveal the continuity and intricacies of changes in intimacy trajectories because of large measurement intervals. However, estimated trajectories using three measurements over two decades begin to expose how the patterning of intimacy trajectories lead to health problems in later years.

Previous studies in this area have been largely fragmented and have not investigated a comprehensive model with a “long view” that includes linking and moderating processes. Fragmented investigations may produce biased estimates of parameters and may be subject to spurious findings. The present study addressed this research deficiency by investigating long-term trajectories of couple intimacy and associations with financial strain and health and wellbeing outcomes. This study highlights the importance of investigating the influence of long-term marital trajectories on health and wellbeing outcomes in later years.

In sum, the present study expands on previous research findings in several important ways. First, the findings demonstrate the value of conceptualizing intimacy as a couple-level construct operating as a common cause for both spouses. Second, the findings are an example of how homogeneous groups of couples with varying intimacy patterns can be identified for early interventions. Third, the findings showed that couple intimacy operates as both a mediator and a moderator in relation to the adverse health effects of financial stress. Fourth, using prospective data over a longer period of the life course, the study showed that intimacy is an important psychosocial resource for husbands and wives from enduring marriages, and intimacy is especially effective in later years, the period during which other social connections begin to weaken. Finally, the study showed that intimacy might be influential for an array of physical and mental health outcomes in later years, which have not been investigated in previous studies.

The results emphasize that future interventions should not overlook socioeconomic factors and couple marital experiences as potential causes of, and protective factors against, health and wellbeing challenges in later years. Clinical implications include consideration of the comorbidity of emotional and sexual dimensions of intimacy in efforts to reduce health problems in later years. Interventions should promote and develop positive intimacy behaviors in aging couples. There are also clinical implications related to the recognition of the heterogeneity that exists in intimacy trajectory patterns. Groups of homogenous couples can be identified for different intervention approaches. This is a potentially useful prognostic tool for counseling efforts. In turn, by studying the psychosocial profiles of couples who show low intimacy trajectories, modifiable resources/vulnerabilities can be targeted to enhance protective factors of couples’ intimacy trajectories. Similarly, targeted interventions may benefit couples who show high intimacy but a discrepancy between emotional and sexual intimacy trajectories. The findings suggest such discrepancies likely involve higher levels of emotional intimacy relative to sexual intimacy. Thus, sexual intimacy may be an important component of intimacy that deserves more clinical attention for aging couples. Strengthening couples’ intimate positive behaviors in this way may improve later-life health and quality of life at both the individual and population levels. Overall, the present study’s findings contribute to the efforts targeting positive intimate behaviors of husbands and wives over the second half of the life course.

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