Abstract
Background
Studies have reported that the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak led to reduced levels of physical activity, but this has been rarely studied in patients with hypertension. This study investigated the association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity of patients with hypertension during the COVID-19 outbreak.
Methods
Data were from the Korea Community Health Survey (KCHS), conducted between August to November 2020. The KCHS is a nationwide cross-sectional survey that evaluates information on various sociodemographic, economic, and health related variables. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Physical activity was measured using a questionnaire inquiring whether participants experienced any changes in physical activity after the pandemic. The association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity level were analyzed using a multivariable logistic regression analysis.
Results
Out of 55,203 patients, 39.6% responded that they had experienced lower levels of physical activity due to the pandemic and showed increased likelihoods of depressive symptoms (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.14–1.54) than individuals who responded that they had performed similar levels of physical activity. This tendency was stronger in patients that did not receive treatment for hypertension (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.02–4.23) than those who did receive treatment with marginal significance (p-value of interaction term: 0.1241).
Conclusions
Decreased levels of physical activity due to the outbreak was experienced by a noticeable proportion of patients with hypertension and was associated with increased likelihoods of depressive symptoms.
Keywords: COVID-19, Depression, Physical activity, Hypertension
1. Introduction
Since the first coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) case reported in December 2019, the disease remains an important public health issue worldwide [1]. In order to contain the rapid dissemination of the disease, which may inevitably impact the mental and physical health of numerous individuals, many countries adopted stay-at-home restrictions and case isolation strategies [2]. It has been suggested that the possible side effects of the pandemic include psychiatric disorders such as depression, which is particularly crucial in South Korea which has a high rate of suicide deaths [3,4]. In fact, previous reports have revealed that the COVID-19 outbreak and the imposition of various measures to restrict the spread of the virus were associated with poorer mental health and increased suicide deaths [5].
Physical activity, defined as the bodily movements of the skeletal muscles resulting in the expenditure of energy, is an important protective factor against depression [6,7]. Specifically, structured physical activity or exercise, is known to have beneficial effects for health improvement and has been cited as a modifiable risk factor for many diseases, including depression [8,9]. However, due to the implementation of physical distancing and isolation strategies during the outbreak, many countries reported reduced levels of physical activity in the general population [10]. This tendency is hardly surprising since it is comparatively difficult to perform high levels of physical activity in periods of confinement [11]. Such findings have presented a health concern as physical activity is known to provide immediate and long-term psychological benefits [12]. Low physical activity has also been related to loneliness and feelings of low social support [13,14].
Considering the potential impact of decreased physical activity due to the COVID-19 outbreak on the psychological health of individuals, this hindrance may act as a particular challenge for patients with hypertension because in addition to pharmacological treatment, non-pharmacological treatment involving lifestyle factors is commonly used to effectively manage blood pressure [15]. Management of high blood pressure is stressed because it is a strong risk factor for cardiovascular diseases [16]. As such, physical activity may play a comparatively important role in managing the health of patients with hypertension and as psychiatric diseases often co-exist with hypertension, physical activity may benefit the symptoms of both these problems [17]. Hence, lower levels of exercise due to the pandemic may be particularly associated with depression in patients with hypertension [18]. This leads to the hypothesis that decreased physical activity experienced during the COVID-19 outbreak may be associated with a higher likelihood of depressive symptoms in patients with hypertension. This study investigated whether reduced levels of physical activity caused by the COVID-19 outbreak was associated with higher likelihoods of depressive symptoms in patients with hypertension. Different moderators, including gender, socioeconomic status, and current treatment status for hypertension were tested in the subgroup analysis. A particular focus was put on current treatment status because the impact of physical activity may differ according to disease severity.
2. Methods
2.1. Data and study population
For this study, we used raw data from the 2020 Korean Community Health Survey (KCHS), conducted by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA). This survey was conducted during the pandemic (August 2020 to November 2020). The KCHS is a cross-sectional survey that collects reliable health-related data. The survey is conducted annually, and it collects information through in-person interviews. Since the population sample is extracted from the national survey data, the samples are representative of the Korean population [19].
The study only included individuals diagnosed with hypertension by a physician. From an initial total of 64,022 patients with hypertension, those with missing data in relevant variables were excluded, and the remaining 55,203 participants were included in the present study (see details in Fig. 1 ).
Fig. 1.
Flow-chart of study participants selection process.
2.2. Dependent variable
The dependent variable was depressive symptoms, which were measured based on the Korean version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). The PHQ-9, a tool used to screen for depression, measured the frequency of the relevant symptoms experienced in the past two weeks [20]. This tool is inquired to the KCHS participants by trained interviewers using the computer assisted personal interview (CAPI) method and recorded accordingly. Scores on the PHQ-9 ranges from 0 to 27. The validity and reliability of the Korean PHQ-9 has been previously verified [21]. In accordance with preceding studies [22], a cut-off score of 10 was applied to indicate depressive symptoms and higher scores indicated more severe symptoms.
2.3. Independent variables
The independent variable was the level of changes in physical activity during the outbreak compared to before. This was measured based on a question measured in the KCHS, “Compared to before the COVID-19 outbreak, did you experience any changes in the level of physical activity (both indoor and outdoor)?” The data was collected during the pandemic (from August 2020 to November 2020) based on the CAPI method administered by trained interviewers. The available responses were i) more than before, ii) similar to before, and iii) lesser than before.
This study also incorporated various sociodemographic, economic, and health related covariates. These were sex, age, education level, income, job classification, area of residence, monthly drinking status, smoking status, moderate to vigorous physical exercise, perceived stress level, subjective health status, hypertension treatment status, unmet care needs, and the level of changes in daily activities experienced due to COVID-19. Current hypertension treatment status was categorized into two groups, no treatment and received treatment. In the KCHS data, individuals were inquired whether they were diagnosed with hypertension by a physician. Individuals who replied to have been diagnosed were further asked whether they were currently receiving non-pharmacological or pharmacological treatment for hypertension. The treatment group included those who were currently receiving pharmacological treatment or non-pharmacological treatment to control their blood pressure. The moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [23]. The IPAQ was also inquired and measured using the CAPI method in the KCHS. Regarding MVPA, responses were divided into 2 categories (“yes” or “no”), with the “yes” group consisting of individuals who exercise moderately more than two hours and thirty minutes per week or intensively more than one hour and fifteen minutes per week. One minute of intensive physical activity was defined as equivalent to two minutes of moderate physical activity.
2.4. Ethical approval
The Korea Community Health Survey (KCHS) data are openly published. Participants' data were fully anonymized prior to release. Our study was excluded from the review list pursuant to Article 2.2 of the Enforcement Rule of Bioethics and Safety Act in Korea, since the data was exempted from IRB review.
2.5. Statistical analysis
A chi-square test was conducted to analyze the general characteristics of the study participants. The association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity level compared to before the COVID-19 outbreak were examined using a multivariable logistic regression analysis. The analysis was conducted after adjusting for all covariates. The subgroup analysis was performed based on the current hypertension treatment status. All results were expressed as Odds Ratio (OR) and their 95% Confidence Interval (95% CI). P-values were two-sided and considered significant at p < 0.05. All analyses were conducted using the SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) software.
3. Results
Table 1 presents the general characteristics of the study participants. A total of 55,203 individuals with hypertension were included, of which 1765 (3.2%) had depressive symptoms. Compared to before the COVID-19 outbreak, 2850 (5.2%) participants responded they had higher levels physical activity, 30,478 (55.2%) had similar levels, and 21,875 (39.6%) had lower levels during the pandemic. The proportion of individuals with depressive symptoms were noticeably higher in the group of individuals who experienced decreased physical activity (4.1%) due to the pandemic (similar level of physical activity was 2.6%; higher level of physical activity was 2.4%). Depressive symptoms were also more commonly found in participants who did not meet the recommended MVPA level (3.4%) than those who did (1.8%).
Table 1.
General characteristics of the study participants.
| Variables | Total |
Depressive symptoms |
P-Value | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No (PHQ-9 < 10) |
Yes (PHQ-9 ≥ 10) |
||||||
| N | % | N | % | N | % | ||
| Level of physical activity | <0.001 | ||||||
| Higher than before COVID-19 | 2850 | 5.2 | 2781 | 97.6 | 69 | 2.4 | |
| Similar to before COVID-19 | 30,478 | 55.2 | 29,686 | 97.4 | 792 | 2.6 | |
| Lower than before COVID-19 | 21,875 | 39.6 | 20,971 | 95.9 | 904 | 4.1 | |
| Sex | <0.001 | ||||||
| Male | 24,948 | 45.2 | 24,394 | 97.8 | 554 | 2.2 | |
| Female | 30,255 | 54.8 | 29,044 | 96.0 | 1211 | 4.0 | |
| Age | <0.001 | ||||||
| 19–29 | 249 | 0.5 | 227 | 91.2 | 22 | 8.8 | |
| 30–39 | 820 | 1.5 | 777 | 94.8 | 43 | 5.2 | |
| 40–49 | 3469 | 6.3 | 3373 | 97.2 | 96 | 2.8 | |
| 50–59 | 9445 | 17.1 | 9208 | 97.5 | 237 | 2.5 | |
| 60–69 | 16,152 | 29.3 | 15,736 | 97.4 | 416 | 2.6 | |
| 70+ | 25,068 | 45.4 | 24,117 | 96.2 | 951 | 3.8 | |
| Education level | <0.001 | ||||||
| None | 9645 | 17.5 | 9124 | 94.6 | 521 | 5.4 | |
| Elementary school | 14,167 | 25.7 | 13,686 | 96.6 | 481 | 3.4 | |
| Middle school | 8929 | 16.2 | 8670 | 97.1 | 259 | 2.9 | |
| High school | 14,117 | 25.6 | 13,770 | 97.5 | 347 | 2.5 | |
| College or above | 8345 | 15.1 | 8188 | 98.1 | 157 | 1.9 | |
| Income | <0.001 | ||||||
| Low | 15,023 | 27.2 | 14,195 | 94.5 | 828 | 5.5 | |
| Low-middle | 21,053 | 38.1 | 20,460 | 97.2 | 593 | 2.8 | |
| Middle-High | 10,213 | 18.5 | 10,002 | 97.9 | 211 | 2.1 | |
| High | 8914 | 16.2 | 8781 | 98.5 | 133 | 1.5 | |
| Job classification | <0.001 | ||||||
| Professional or administrative position | 2760 | 5.0 | 2714 | 98.3 | 46 | 1.7 | |
| Office work | 2008 | 3.6 | 1986 | 98.9 | 22 | 1.1 | |
| Sales and service | 5048 | 9.1 | 4955 | 98.2 | 93 | 1.8 | |
| Agriculture and fishery | 7334 | 13.3 | 7234 | 98.6 | 100 | 1.4 | |
| Blue collar work or simple labor | 10,918 | 19.8 | 10,715 | 98.1 | 203 | 1.9 | |
| Unemployed | 27,135 | 49.2 | 25,834 | 95.2 | 1301 | 4.8 | |
| Area of residence | <0.001 | ||||||
| Urban | 26,274 | 47.6 | 25,346 | 96.5 | 928 | 3.5 | |
| Rural | 28,929 | 52.4 | 28,092 | 97.1 | 837 | 2.9 | |
| Monthly drinking status | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 35,826 | 64.9 | 34,507 | 96.3 | 1319 | 3.7 | |
| Yes | 19,377 | 35.1 | 18,931 | 97.7 | 446 | 2.3 | |
| Smoking status | 0.0288 | ||||||
| No | 48,288 | 87.5 | 46,774 | 96.9 | 1514 | 3.1 | |
| Yes | 6915 | 12.5 | 6664 | 96.4 | 251 | 3.6 | |
| Moderate-to-vigorous physical exercise | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 48,977 | 88.7 | 47,326 | 96.6 | 1651 | 3.4 | |
| Yes | 6226 | 11.3 | 6112 | 98.2 | 114 | 1.8 | |
| Perceived stress level | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 44,933 | 81.4 | 44,291 | 98.6 | 642 | 1.4 | |
| Yes | 10,270 | 18.6 | 9147 | 89.1 | 1123 | 10.9 | |
| Subjective health status | <0.001 | ||||||
| Poor | 37,506 | 67.9 | 35,870 | 95.6 | 1636 | 4.4 | |
| Fair | 17,697 | 32.1 | 17,568 | 99.3 | 129 | 0.7 | |
| Hypertension treatment status | <0.001 | ||||||
| No treatment | 1479 | 2.7 | 1391 | 94.1 | 88 | 6.0 | |
| Yes treatment | 53,724 | 97.3 | 52,047 | 96.9 | 1677 | 3.1 | |
| Unmet care needs | <0.001 | ||||||
| No | 52,569 | 95.2 | 51,090 | 97.2 | 1479 | 2.8 | |
| Yes | 2634 | 4.8 | 2348 | 89.1 | 286 | 10.9 | |
| Changes in daily activities due to COVID-19 | <0.001 | ||||||
| High level of disruption | 14,273 | 25.9 | 13,641 | 95.6 | 632 | 4.4 | |
| Mediocre level of disruption | 14,356 | 26.0 | 13,944 | 97.1 | 412 | 2.9 | |
| Low level of disruption | 13,184 | 23.9 | 12,889 | 97.8 | 295 | 2.2 | |
| No disruption | 13,390 | 24.3 | 12,964 | 96.8 | 426 | 3.2 | |
| Total | 55,203 | 100.0 | 53,438 | 96.8 | 1765 | 3.2 | |
Table 2 shows the results of the multivariable logistic regression analysis on the association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Compared to individuals who performed similar levels of physical activity during the pandemic, participants who had lower levels (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.14–1.54) had increased likelihoods of depressive symptoms. Additionally, individuals who received treatment for hypertension (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.39–0.78) showed lower odds for experiencing depressive symptoms. Participants who met the recommended MVPA level also tended to have a lower likelihood of depressive symptoms (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.62–1.17).
Table 2.
The association between depressive symptoms and changes in the level of physical activity due to the COVID-19.
| Variables | Depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 ≥ 10) |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adjusted-OR⁎ | 95% confidence interval | |||
| Level of physical activity | ||||
| Higher than before COVID-19 | 1.05 | 0.73 | – | 1.50 |
| Similar to before COVID-19 | 1.00 | |||
| Lower than before COVID-19 | 1.33 | 1.14 | – | 1.54 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1.00 | |||
| Female | 1.31 | 1.09 | – | 1.58 |
| Age | ||||
| 19–29 | 1.00 | |||
| 30–39 | 0.84 | 0.42 | – | 1.67 |
| 40–49 | 0.41 | 0.22 | – | 0.76 |
| 50–59 | 0.41 | 0.23 | – | 0.74 |
| 60–69 | 0.34 | 0.19 | – | 0.61 |
| 70+ | 0.33 | 0.18 | – | 0.60 |
| Education level | ||||
| None | 1.00 | |||
| Elementary school | 0.78 | 0.63 | – | 0.96 |
| Middle school | 0.71 | 0.56 | – | 0.90 |
| High school | 0.61 | 0.47 | – | 0.79 |
| College or above | 0.51 | 0.36 | – | 0.71 |
| Income | ||||
| Low | 1.00 | |||
| Low-middle | 0.55 | 0.46 | – | 0.66 |
| Middle-high | 0.46 | 0.35 | – | 0.59 |
| High | 0.31 | 0.23 | – | 0.42 |
| Job classification | ||||
| Professional or administrative position | 1.00 | |||
| Office work | 0.77 | 0.41 | – | 1.45 |
| Sales and service | 1.17 | 0.72 | – | 1.91 |
| Agriculture and fishery | 0.68 | 0.42 | – | 1.12 |
| Blue collar work or simple labor | 0.96 | 0.61 | – | 1.51 |
| Unemployed | 2.27 | 1.47 | – | 3.51 |
| Area of residence | ||||
| Urban | 1.00 | |||
| Rural | 0.94 | 0.80 | – | 1.10 |
| Monthly drinking status | ||||
| No | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 0.98 | 0.82 | – | 1.18 |
| Smoking status | ||||
| No | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 1.32 | 1.06 | – | 1.66 |
| Moderate-to-vigorous physical exercise | ||||
| No | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 0.85 | 0.62 | – | 1.17 |
| Perceived stress level | ||||
| No | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 7.08 | 6.14 | – | 8.15 |
| Subjective health status | ||||
| Poor | 1.00 | |||
| Fair | 0.28 | 0.22 | – | 0.36 |
| Hypertension treatment status | ||||
| No treatment | 1.00 | |||
| Yes treatment | 0.56 | 0.39 | – | 0.78 |
| Unmet care needs | ||||
| No | 1.00 | |||
| Yes | 2.63 | 2.12 | – | 3.26 |
| Changes in daily activities due to COVID-19 | ||||
| High level of disruption | 1.00 | |||
| Mediocre level of disruption | 0.77 | 0.64 | – | 0.92 |
| Low level of disruption | 0.72 | 0.59 | – | 0.88 |
| No disruption | 0.94 | 0.77 | – | 1.15 |
The adjusted odds ratios were calculated using multivariable logistic regression analysis and adjusted for sex, age, education level, income, job classification, area of residence, monthly drinking, smoking status, moderate-to-vigorous physical exercise, perceived stress level, subjective health status, hypertension treatment status, unmet care needs, and changes in daily activities due to COVID-19.
Fig. 2 reveals the results of the subgroup analysis. The general tendencies of the main findings were maintained regardless of hypertension treatment status. The degree of the association found between depressive symptoms and changes in level of physical activity due to the COVID-19 outbreak was stronger in patients that did not receive treatment (lower levels of physical activity: OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.02–4.23) than those who did receive treatment (lower levels of physical activity: OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.13–1.52) with marginal significance (p-value of interaction term: 0.1241). The results of other moderators, namely gender, income, and occupation, can be found in Supplementary Tables 1–1, 1–2, and 1–3.
Fig. 2.
The results of subgroup analysis of the association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity due to COVID-19 outbreak by hypertension treatment status. The adjusted odds ratios were calculated using multivariable logistic regression analysis and adjusted for sex, age, education level, income, job classification, area of residence, monthly drinking, smoking status, moderate-to-vigorous physical exercise, perceived stress level, subjective health status, unmet care needs, and changes in daily activities due to COVID-19. Statistically significant values are denoted with an asterisk.
4. Discussion
The findings of this study revealed that alterations in level of physical activity, during the COVID-19 outbreak compared to the pre-pandemic period, was experienced by a significant proportion of patients with hypertension. A higher percentage of patients who reported lower levels of physical activity during the outbreak had PHQ-9 scores of 10 or higher, which indicated depressive symptoms. These individuals were also more likely to express depressive symptoms than those who experienced no change in their level of activities compared to the pre-pandemic period. Furthermore, such escalations were particularly pronounced in patients who had not received treatment for hypertension.
Studies have demonstrated the potential benefits of physical activity on prevention of depressive symptoms, and even minor amounts of activity such as walking <150 min per week showed a lower incidence rate of depressive episodes [24]. The pandemic has impaired the opportunities to be active due to the closing of common sporting facilities and promotion of home confinement which has led to reductions in physical activity [10]. A general lack of sporting activities, which was correlated with lower levels of physical activity, was also reported by many individuals [25]. Hence, although habitually active individuals may be able to maintain or even increase their physical activity levels, those who did not exercise daily may not have experienced a decrease [26]. Such inevitable disruptions may result in various negative effects that can elevate the risk of depressive symptoms, such as physical discomfort, feelings of less control in everyday activities, poorer mood, and lower body satisfaction [27]. Although the mechanism for explaining the correlation between depressive symptoms and physical activity are diverse and require further understanding, both biochemical mechanisms and psychosocial factors have been known to interfere with this correlation [7]. These tendencies need to be addressed as many individuals reported increased levels of negative mental health outcomes than before the COVID-19 outbreak [28].
The results of the analysis are particularly important because they demonstrate a relationship between depressive symptoms and reductions in physical activity in patients with hypertension due to the pandemic. Previous findings have reported that physical activity reduced the development of depressive moods, and such decreases were more pronounced in patients with chronic diseases [29]. Chronic diseases, including hypertension, are demonstrated to enhance the risk of depression. Simultaneously, a lack of physical activity can also increase depressive symptoms, which may lead to increased functional impairment and loss of productivity loss, that is known to adversely impact the course of chronic diseases [30]. Many studies have cited physical activity as an important modifiable risk factor in the prevention of the development of hypertension and have consistently demonstrated that exercise was beneficial in the reduction of blood pressure in individuals with hypertension [31]. Hence, while facing uncontrollable environmental changes, opportunities for physical activity may have been particularly significant in patients with hypertension. This is because, in addition to physical activity itself, increase in the odds of depressive symptoms and decrease in physical activity can influence disease outcomes and lead to a poorer mood [29].
Previous literature has reported different moderators, including gender and socioeconomic status [32]. As such, this study explored gender, income, occupation, and treatment status of hypertension in the analyses. The results revealed that the association between depressive symptoms and changes in physical activity due to the COVID-19 did not vary distinctively according to gender or occupation. Although some differences were found regarding income, the interaction tests were not significant for all three variables. However, in the case of current treatment status for hypertension, the analyses showed that the degree of the relationship between depressive symptoms and reductions in physical activity was stronger in patients with hypertension who did not receive treatment, with the results showing marginal significance. This is noteworthy as it suggests that restraints in physical activity experienced during the pandemic may have been stronger in patients with lower severity as they are more likely to use a lifestyle only approach in managing blood pressure [33]. Moreover, considering that the global treatment rate of hypertension is approximately 47% in women and 38% in men, attention should be given to the correlation found between changes in physical activity and depressive symptoms during the pandemic in this study [34]. The findings together infer the importance of maintaining physical activities in patients with hypertension to prevent depressive symptoms during the pandemic, particularly if the patients are currently not receiving treatment.
This study has some limitations. First, since this study was cross-sectional, causal inferences should be made with caution. The possibility of reverse causality, in which depression may perhaps precede or contribute slightly to lower physical activity, cannot be completely ignored. Second, information on the practice of physical activity was measured based on self-reports in the KCHS, which means that the possibility of the self-reporting bias cannot be completely ruled out. Third, the KCHS data only inquired whether respondents experienced a general decrease in physical activity due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Hence, specific information on the frequency and intensity of physical activity could not be assessed due to data limitations. Fourth, the severity of hypertension (duration, blood pressure level, etc.) could not be accounted for in the analysis due to data limitations. However, this study did consider whether hypertension diagnosed individuals received further treatment. Last, although the validity and reliability of the PHQ-9 has been verified, the measurements may not necessarily infer a clinical diagnosis of depression. However, despite the abovementioned limitations, this study offers some important insights as it uses data from a nationally, representative sample and reveals that a noticeable percentage of patients with hypertension experienced a decrease in physical activity during the COVID-19 outbreak. Additionally, such reductions were associated with increased likelihoods of depressive symptoms. Moreover, the findings also reveal that this correlation may be stronger in patients who had not received any treatment for hypertension, and suggests the potential need to monitor and manage this particularly vulnerable group of individuals.
In conclusion, due to the COVID-19 outbreak, a noticeable proportion of the patients with hypertension experienced decreased levels of physical activity. This reduction in physical activity was associated with the increased likelihoods of depressive symptoms. Additionally, the magnitude of the relationship between depressive symptoms and alterations in physical activity compared to the pre-pandemic period was pronounced in patients who were currently not receiving any type of treatment. Considering that the pandemic can present significant risks to the mental health of individuals, our findings suggest the potential importance of promoting the integration of physical activity into daily life routines of patients with hypertension.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (Ministry of Science and ICT) (No. NRF-2022R1C1C2003977) and the National Cancer Center of Korea (Grant number NCC-2210802-1). The funding source was not involved in the study design, data analysis and interpretation, writing of the manuscript or in the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
None.
Footnotes
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2023.111160.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material
Data availability
Data will be made available on request. The dataset is available on the Korea Community Health Survey website (https://chs.kdca.go.kr/chs/rdr/rdrInfoProcessMain.do).
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary material
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available on request. The dataset is available on the Korea Community Health Survey website (https://chs.kdca.go.kr/chs/rdr/rdrInfoProcessMain.do).