Energy and water: COVID‐19 impacts and implications for interconnected sustainable development goals

Abstract

The COVID‐19 pandemic presented a chance to investigate the effects of system‐wide emergencies on major global commodities such as water and energy. In terms of environmental policies and attaining supply security, these developmental goals are interrelated. Despite pandemic disruptions, there is a compelling need for a systematization in these areas for the transition to clean water access and sustainable energy. This article presents a comprehensive assessment of the effects of COVID‐19 on these two sustainable development goals. Further, an integrated aspect of water and energy access for sustainable development is evaluated with insights on the effects of COVID‐19 on the water‐energy nexus. Additionally, technological evolution for building better water and energy supply systems is presented. An insight into developing robust healthcare systems and how the water and energy SDGs affect population dynamics is also speculated, which indicates varied short‐term adaption experiences, and highlights the need for a re‐evaluation of the water‐energy nexus. The integrated solutions contributing to stability of the water supply chain, energy storage, and policy making during and after an outbreak are critical to achieving developmental goals.

1. INTRODUCTION

The year 2020 began with an unrelenting global pandemic that originated in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. ¹ The arrival of COVID‐19, a novel and unexpected virus, has disrupted normal living and made it difficult. It is estimated that by the end of 2020, with over 22 million people have been infected with the virus, and around 800,000 have lost their lives as a direct result of it, across every continent apart from Antarctica, with most nations recording their numbers as an undercount. ² As a result, funding agencies everywhere are zeroing in on a solution to this emergency, while other, equally important areas of energy and environmental study take a back seat. However, the pandemic of 2020 is not just a public health disaster; it will also have severe repercussions for the economy and the environment specifically for the global rollout of the Sustainable Development Goals or SDGs. ³

The SDGs were defined in September 2015, where countries around the world came to an agreement on 17 interconnected goals that are to be completed by the year 2030. ⁴ These goals have the objectives of achieving economic, social, and environmental sustainability, as well as improving the quality of life for all people and expanding human potential. There are a total of 169 targets that have been established in order to provide a basis for major advances in the direction of achieving the overall goals through concrete objectives. ⁵ An important aspect of these targets includes increasing the use of renewable energy and improving water quality. ⁶ Indicators have been designed for each goal to offer a gauge of the progress that is being made toward achieving them; the development and approval of some of these indicators is still underway.

Prior to the COVID‐19 pandemic, progress in achieving the SDGs had been inconsistent. This progress came at the expense of other important goals, particularly the five “environmental” SDGs. Even though extreme poverty and infant and maternal mortality have decreased since 2000, low‐income countries have achieved less poverty reduction. ⁷ Clean water and sanitation expressed as SDG 6, with affordable and clean energy expressed as SDG 7 are included in two of the Sustainable Development Goals. ⁸ These two objectives are inextricably intertwined, and so are the political actions, infrastructure development, and resource management that are necessary to achieve them. The interconnectivity of these different industries not only raises the possibility of synergy but also the danger of having to make compromises. ⁹ In the context of this study, the term “synergies” refers to the positive effects that the achievement of one target would have on the ecosystem services that would, in turn, allow for the achievement of other targets, or the development of infrastructure and policies that would be mutually beneficial and would make it easier to carry out the SDGs.

This article explores the undertaking in the development of SDG 6 and SDG 7, and consequently how the progress made was lost during the pandemic, and about potential future routes toward achieving them. It also explores the possibility of a trade‐off occurring when the accomplishment of one goal significantly depletes the resources necessary for the accomplishment of another goal, or when the environmental degradation that results from the accomplishment of one goal reduces the likelihood of the accomplishment of another goal.

2. WATER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The impact of COVID‐19 on underdeveloped countries has been particularly severe. As can be shown in Figure 1, the pandemic is anticipated to have a negative effect on the SDG targets. This will take place at a time when several SDGs are at a crucial crossroads. There are still 736 million people who live in extreme poverty, 821 million people who are malnourished, 785 million people who do not have access to even the most fundamental drinking water services, and 673 million people who defecate in the open. ¹⁰ About three billion people do not have access to safe cooking fuels. Rural areas are home to 87% of the world's population with 840 million people who have no access to modern technologies. ¹¹ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 are not expected to be achieved by 28 developing nations by the 2030 deadline. ¹

FIGURE 1.

Impact of COVID‐19 on different SDGs

Academics and scientists need to work urgently to find solutions for environmentally friendly and economically viable water purification to meet the needs of their communities without compromising the natural environment. Additionally, politicians may have to be more resilient in the face of current economic and societal changes, and careful in assigning funds for accomplishing short‐term goals while still harboring long‐term goals for future generations' sustenance. ¹² This issue can be visualized considering the case for India, and how it was affected with COVID‐19. According to predictions provided by the United Nations, India's population is projected to surpass that of China in the year 2028, at which point it would become the most populated nation on the planet. ¹³ India is the largest democracy in the world. India has emerged as a significant power in the region due to its growing status as an economic powerhouse and a nuclear‐armed state. The homeland of some of the world's oldest civilizations still in existence today. ¹⁴ However, it is also attempting to address significant issues pertaining to society, the economy, and the environment.

For instance, considering the Indian scenario, estimates for India's usable groundwater storage (UGWS) in 2005 ranged from over 38,000 km³ down to a low of 300 km³ in Himachal Pradesh, with the rest states falling just inside this narrow band. Nationally, UGWS has been declining at a rate of about 0.11% per year over the past 15 years, and another 600 km3 (1.5% of the whole UGWS) could be lost by 2020, leaving only about 37,300 km³. ¹⁵ Although they are situated in one of the world's most prolific groundwater basins, the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam have seen significant UGWS depletion. ¹⁶ Consequently, numerous government‐backed initiatives have been established to safeguard the future supply and protection of groundwater. For India to reach Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water and sanitation, the government has implemented several initiatives. ¹⁷

While policies and schemes attempt to renew and replenish groundwater, Swatch Bharat Abhiyaan strives to optimize sanitation and prevent water pollution caused by sanitation; Har Ghar Ko Paani and Jal Jeevan Yojona endeavor to provide safe drinking water to each and every Indian family via piped water supply of 55 L per capita a day by 2024. ¹⁶ Improved sanitation, including repeated hand washing for minimum of 20 s which became popular during early days of the COVID‐19 pandemic, is one of the main recommendation and such a plan will unavoidably lead to at least a 20% rise in clean water use by each household, ⁶ further stressing clean water resources compared to groundwater, and increasing drinking water problems.

About 60% of the world's population in 2017 had safe drinking water and cleanser for hand washing. ¹⁸ Multiple studies have found evidence of the existence of the COVID‐19 viral load in sewage out of an urban drainage system. ¹⁹ Other potential transmission routes include the release of untreated sewage into surface water (such as rivers) and the distribution of traditionally treated gray water as urban recycled water. ⁹ As a result of this unexpected and unusual event, there is a great deal of uncertainty about what will happen in the future, even though in a post‐COVID situation, the economy, agricultural production, and employment would be the main priorities for politicians. To enhance output, this may necessitate an increase in water demand in both agricultural and industrial settings, which could lead to a rise in water shortages and groundwater extraction. Figure 2 shows the basic sanitation and hygiene barrier with the COVID‐19 virus and humans.

FIGURE 2.

Illustration of the coronavirus and its interaction with human contact. This effectively raises the danger of health hazards that are contributed to the barrier created by the lack of clean water. The term “sanitation barrier” refers to the consumption of contaminated water that may carry the virus. The term “hygiene barrier” refers to the additional precautions that must be taken when working with materials since COVID‐19 acts as a fomite. Additionally, an additional hygiene barrier is built on top of the existing one to protect human health.

There is hope for the future, though, because this horrible scenario underscores the significance of achieving SDG 6 through the construction of basic infrastructure to increase access to clean water and sanitation facilities, as well as guaranteeing planning for sustainable groundwater consumption. Thus, in the face of ever‐changing socio‐economic demands, it is of the utmost importance to implement effective methods of ground water management to preserve, maintain, and restore the residual supply of clean groundwater.

3. INTERLINKED ASPECTS OF ENERGY ACCESS AND WATER

Future energy system that is cleaner, more robust, and emits zero emissions would involve a plethora of technologies, some of which are currently in the early stages of research. Figure 3 illustrates a potential pathway in which assessments can be quantified for clean energy which ultimately leads to better standards of living synchronized with the elements of nature. ²⁰ Innovation is a difficult and competitive process for these new technologies. Governments have a critically valuable and a major role to play, one that extends far beyond providing funds for R&D. They establish comprehensive national aims and priorities, as well as influencing market expectations.

FIGURE 3.

The capacity for multi‐dimensional Earth System reactions is highlighted by two pathways: (a) Morbidity and Mortality. (b) Restrictions. This affects impoverishment, globalization, food, and biodiversity, energy, emissions, climate, water access and air quality. Different places and timescales will experience interactions in different ways, and the sign of the interaction may change as the event progresses. Not all possible interactions are given keeping in mind that these interactions are indicative of the main theories. CCN or Cloud condensation nuclei are small particles on which water vapor condenses.

Governments both local and at the central level also have special responsibility for ensuring information flow, investing in infrastructural facilities, and organizing large demonstration projects. After doubling between 2000 and 2012, European countries and their low‐carbon energy R&D spending has been relatively constant since 2012. ²¹ However, it is still lower than it was in the 1980 s. Low‐carbon energy technology accounts for almost 80% of overall public energy R&D spending, which increased by 3% to USD 30 billion in 2019. ²² In general, public energy R&D spending has remained relatively constant over the last decade, and other public research goals, such as the military sector receive incremental budgets every year as compared to R&D investment in energy.

Now coming to energy access, a household's initial access to enough electricity to power a basic bundle of energy services—at a minimum, several lightbulbs, phone charging, a radio, and possibly a fan or television—with the degree of service capable of rising over time is referred to as electricity access. ²³ According to one estimate, the average household with access has enough electricity to power 4–5‐h/day lightbulbs, one refrigerator, a 6 h/day fan, a mobile phone charger, and a 4 h/day television, equating to an annual electricity consumption of 1250 kWh per household with standard appliances and 420 kWh with efficient appliances. ²⁴

This service‐level definition cannot be implemented to the assessment of actual data because the level of data necessary does not exist in a substantial percentage of circumstances. Further, distribution of electricity in both rural and urban areas and the public perception of it plays a critical role. Figure 4 shows how energy utilities are likely to increase in developing powerhouses such as India and China as compared to European nations or the United States over a 15‐year period. Accountability will also increase for such nations along with their growth.

FIGURE 4.

Energy used per capita is measured as kilograms of oil equivalent on the Y‐axis. This refers to the consumption of primary energy before it is converted into other types of end‐use fuels. Energy use is equal to indigenous production imports of goods and services and stock changes, and fuels supplied to ships and aircraft involved in international transportation. Here growing economies like India and China are shown to grow incrementally in the direction of developed economies like Germany and the United States.

For instance, equal access to electrical power shows trust from the government, local solutions to region‐specific problems and its implementation (for instance with Solar panels providing electricity access to off‐grid remote villages), and transparency of the process are some of the mechanisms that can help achieve this goal. ¹⁴ Historical trends suggest sections of the government are often pulled in competing directions, the most important of them being short‐term and long‐term goals. Many political systems hold the belief that the cure is better than prevention and not vice versa. Access to modern fuels and technologies, such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, and biogas, or improved biomass cookstoves (ICS), means access to (and primary use of) modern fuels and technologies, such as natural gas, LPG, electricity, and biogas, or improved biomass cookstoves (ICS) that have significantly lower emissions and higher efficiencies than traditional three‐stone fires for cooking. ²⁵ Only the most advanced biomass cookstoves that make a meaningful difference are contributing to energy availability.

Another issue linked closely with energy resources is the access to clean water and sanitation. In 2020, 74% of the world's population (5.8 billion people) had access to a safe drinking water service, one that was on‐site, available when needed, and free of contamination. ²⁶ At least 2 billion people throughout the world consume water that has been tainted with feces. ⁹ Microbial contamination of drinking water because of fecal pollution provides the greatest threat to water safety. ²⁷

Microbiologically contaminated drinking water can spread diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio, and it is estimated that 485,000 people die from diarrhea each year ( ²⁸ ). The percentage of the urban population that obtains their drinking water from a source that has been modified or improved is what is meant by the term “access to an improved water source.” This is shown in Figure 5 as a contrast between the developed and underdeveloped economies. Piped water on the premises, also known as a piped domestic water connection, located inside the users' dwelling, plot, or yard, is included as part of the improved drinking water source.

FIGURE 5.

The timeline of 20 years is presented with economic powerhouses such as China and the United States presented with a sharp disparity with countries in the African continent. This shows how the progress has been made with access to drinking water and the impact COVID‐19 will have on such developments.

Water supply systems are already being challenged by climate change, growing water shortages, population increase, demographic shifts, and urbanization. Over 2 billion people live in nations that are water‐stressed, a situation that is likely to worsen in some areas because of climate change and population expansion. Wastewater re‐use for the recovery of water, minerals, or energy is becoming a popular method. Wastewater is increasingly being used for irrigation in poorer nations, accounting for 7% of all irrigated land. ²⁹ While improper wastewater management poses health dangers, proper wastewater management can result in a variety of benefits, including enhanced food production. Water supplies for drinking water and irrigation will continue to change, with a greater reliance on groundwater and alternate sources, such as wastewater. Rainwater harvesting will be more volatile because of climate change. To assure availability and quality, all water resources will need to be better managed.

4. COVID‐19 IMPACT ON THE SUSTAINABILITY NEXUS

The COVID‐19 pandemic is not just a health crisis, it affected almost all the aspects of life and all the biological spheres of the environment. ⁴ The pandemic might be the last lesson for mankind to switch to sustainability. This period has witnessed losses as well as some improvements to the environment. The short‐term impacts were improvements in air quality, hydrosphere, and noise pollution.

Most of the changes in the scenario are attributed to global human confinement as a part of pandemic containment measures. The pandemic brought the world to a standstill by implementing strict lockdown, travel bans, and several other restrictions. Figure 6 shows the aspect of the pandemic and how it affects different important sectors.

FIGURE 6.

Impact on COVID‐19 on different sectors such as energy, water, environment, transport, and socio‐economic aspects of global communities.

The Anthropause resulted in the slowdown of modern human activities which led to improvement in the environment for a brief period. A decrease in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was observed due to traffic restrictions and thus the reduced usage of private vehicles. The restrictions on the various festivals and the ban of fireworks resulted in improved air quality. There was 7.8% decrease in global fossil‐based carbon dioxide emissions. ³⁰ The hydrosphere also showed improvements due to industrial shutdown and business lockdown. The aquatic ecosystem got some breathing space with the reduction in plastic waste and cleaner water bodies.

The long‐term impacts might pose a greater threat as well. The world bank estimated that up to 100 million more people will drop below the poverty line by the end of 2020. ³¹ The destruction the pandemic has brought will require a lot of work to be done. All the past progress which was erased will have to build up again. In order to increase the rate of progress the countries will tend to switch full gear industries and does polluting the environment. If the SDGs are going to be brought back to life, then economies with low and moderate levels of income will need to devise policies that are both inexpensive and meet many the goals simultaneously. Three policies that meet these criteria could be: a subsidy swap for fossil fuels to fund clean energy investments and the expansion of renewable energy in rural areas; the reallocation of irrigation subsidies to improve water supply, sanitation, and wastewater infrastructure; and a tropical carbon tax, which is a levy on fossil fuels that funds natural climate solutions. Developing countries can make more progress toward the SDGs through the use of interventions that are cost‐effective, innovative, and policy measures that are not dependent on money from outside sources to implement.

5. TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION WITH THE THEORY OF DIFFUSION

The theory of diffusion refers to the propagation of an innovation throughout a population. ³² Researchers in the field of diffusion theory have developed analytical models for the purpose of explaining and forecasting the dynamics of the diffusion of an innovation (which can be defined as an idea, practise, or object that is perceived as new by an individual) within a socio‐technical system. The critical challenge for countries is to upgrade this clean energy technology such that it can compete with conventional energy. To increase its use with the surging growth of the public, it will be essential to make these available to the public with low tariffs.

Any basic psychology will put poverty above all, “How can you think of a better world when your own stomach is empty after all?” as the saying goes, ³³ these needs should be first fulfilled by the government. Along with development in food supplies, from the perspective of energy, the main advantage of renewable energy is that it can provide power to even the most underprivileged people living in the remotest areas. To better understand the insignificant rate of adoption of innovation by society one might investigate the theory of diffusion. It is the process by which innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system leading to its acceptance.

Figure 7 shows the different types of spreading of innovation through communities. The political diffusion affects social diffusion, and the social diffusion might affect economic diffusion. Social diffusion is the spreading of basic awareness and removing cultural or any other superstition barriers that may hinder the progress of new eco‐friendly innovations. Social barriers arise due to a lack of public awareness and uncertainties about financial feasibility regarding the technologies. The political diffusion involves spreading awareness about new government policies and approaches that may benefit people and make them realize why they should switch to such sources.

FIGURE 7.

Social diffusion refers to person to person opinion‐based change of behavior, political diffusion is the influence of policies and their compatibility with each other, changes in technology over time is governed by technological diffusion, regulatory refers to adopting approaches from an agency which has proven capabilities, and economic diffusion refers to mechanisms through which new products receive market acceptance.

One example of a social barrier is the Not In My Backyard Syndrome (NIMBY), here, people do support renewable energy but do not want to practically imply it to themselves or in their neighborhood. ³⁴ Clean energy projects often face a lot of resistance from citizens, political leaders, and environmental groups. For instance, many communities in India prefer the wood cook stoves over solar stoves because of their culture. The opposition from the public and environmental groups might arise due to reasons such as environmental degradation, financial loss, and inefficiency. But again, this is a result of a lack of awareness. Often, the false information is fed to innocent communities by political parties to ruin the image of the ruling party framing them as extremist agenda. The Republican Party and the Democratic Party in the United States, and their differences are an excellent example of this. ³⁵

A vast majority of renewable plants (especially wind and solar farms) occupy a huge area of land and produce an amount of energy that is unable to compete with that of a small coal fired power plant. ³⁶ When it comes to technological and regulatory barriers it is mainly due to the limited availability of infrastructure and facilities. Also, the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy requires solid foundation energy of a skilled labor force to design, build, operate and maintain a clean energy plant. Complexities occur when there are not enough efficient and safe protocols and standards available in terms of reliability and durability. This prevents renewable energy from achieving large‐scale commercialization. A few more hindrances arise due to the lack of standard certificates which are necessary to verify manufactured pieces of equipment and parts. The barriers to economic diffusion include high capital costs, lack of investors, lack of financial support systems, and mainly because of competition from power generation from fossil fuels.

The state level distribution utilities are the ones who make the decisions. This dimension impacts the policies and regulatory requirements. These policies are afraid to invest in an unpredictable and non‐dispatchable source of power that has high supply costs and offers only a 20% Plant Load Factor or PLF. Coal Plants on the other hand operate at 75%–80% PLF. ³⁷ PLF is a measure of the theoretical power that can be generated from a power plant. These utility costs are based on already having the older and completely built generation stations in the state in comparison to the expensive external power. These authorities fail to recognize the need for low carbon technology. A few technologies that can be installed at home to make a change include small solar and wind electric systems and micro‐hydrogen power systems. ³⁸

The Indian Government for example has released new incentives to promote clean energy. A program, Facility for Low Carbon Technology Deployment (FLCTD), implemented by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and the United Nations Industry Development Organization (UNIDO) was proposed which aimed for the identification of innovative low carbon technologies and to support up to $50,000 for validation and commercialization in the industrial sectors of the Indian economy. ³⁹ As per the announcement of 2019, the government also aimed on adding 4 GW of rooftop solar capacity in a residential area by 2019–2020 but only 1.31 GW capacity was achieved until 2021 per the ministry. The Prime Minister has announced a National Hydrogen Mission which aims for increasing self‐reliance and enabling clean energy transition. ⁴⁰ The mission target is to scale up the production of hydrogen using renewable sources instead of conventional processes.

6. WATER AND ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEMS

The supply and demand for water and energy infrastructure was thrown off balance because of COVID‐19 and the lockout in 2020, which caused production to come to a halt and hampered logistics. The interconnectedness between water and energy further exacerbated the Domino effect that COVID‐19's disturbance caused. Domino effect refers to the build‐up over time as a result of one circumstance setting off a chain of other circumstances. ⁴¹ The changes in the price of water supply and energy contributed to an increase in the friction that exists between supply and demand. Since January 2020, there has been a significant spike in the global price of food owing due to the enormous demand that COVID‐19 has placed on the supply chain. ⁴² An additional burden was placed on areas that lacked access to clean water and sanitation facilities because of the high demand for these services to stop the spread of infectious diseases.

In contrast, the demand for energy across the globe dropped by an average of 5% in 2020. ⁴³ Transport, commerce, and production were all hampered by COVID‐19. The oil market collapsed in April of 2020 due to excessive supply, with the benchmark price being affected. ⁴⁴ The stable operation of the international market is necessary in order to regulate the water and energy supply and demand. On the other hand, the lockdown enforced constraints and limitations in international trade, so affecting supply chain operations. The demand for these resources fell because of the economic recession, which was accompanied by a significant drop in national GDP and an increase in the rate of unemployment. Developed nations were more susceptible to the effects of hazards associated with the supply side because of the company's heavy reliance on global supply chains. Because of the increased retail prices and income shocks that occurred during the early days of the COVID‐19, developing nations were more susceptible to demand‐side risks than developed countries.

7. DEVELOPING ROBUST HEALTHCARE SYSTEM WITH ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY

An adequate water supply is necessary for a healthcare facility, especially during emergencies like a pandemic or when the water in that region is unavailable for a time being. There are various problems with this which include the availability of water, its characteristics, mechanism of capture and distribution in the facility, use treatment before discharge, and norms and standards at national and local levels. ⁴⁵ Water supply management should begin once the healthcare facility has been fully planned and constructed. The amount and characteristics of water needed are determined by the size of the healthcare facility, the clinical services it provides, the medical equipment installed, and the environmental situation of that area. For the proper functioning of the healthcare facility, various aspects of the water cycle should be investigated. These include Capture, Storage, treatment, conditioning, use, and disposal. ⁴⁶ These, if taken well care of, prevent water wastage, and hazards to patients and the public and prevent fast deterioration of medical equipment due to contamination or shortage of water. These parameters directly affect the life expectancy of people across the global communities as they define the standards of living conditions.

Figure 8 shows how the life expectancy in countries can be affected by both water and energy sources, as these are the prime backbone for better standards of life. For instance, the Japanese economy is both one of the most advanced and one of the largest in the world. At this time, approximately 28.3 billion m³ of water is used in Japan for domestic and industrial purposes. Seventy‐five percent of this water is obtained from rivers; of these rivers, 83 percent (57% of the total amount of urban water) have been developed through the construction of such water resource facilities. ⁴⁷ Hence it ranks high with countries like the United States and Sweden on the life expectancy statistics over the last 20 years. On the lower end of the spectrum, an estimated population of 14.2 million people lives in Zimbabwe, with approximately 10 million of those individuals residing in rural areas. With 63% of all households living in poverty and 16% of those households living in extreme poverty, life for the typical Zimbabwean is becoming increasingly challenging. ⁴⁸ This is consistent with the shortage of energy and water resources which has a direct impact on life expectancy in the country.

FIGURE 8.

Disparity in life expectancy can be seen in years for the underdeveloped nations (like Zimbabwe), developing economies (like India), and technologically developed economies like Japan, Sweden, and the United States. Energy and water play a significant role in the proliferation of these numbers.

The availability of water supply should be evaluated while planning for the facility in order that it is economic to consume a huge amount of water in the given region. There are three options as to where the water can be obtained. That is, from a public or municipal supply system, a private supplier, or a borewell. A municipal supply system and a private supplier are the most common source in urban areas as water is available all day and is suitable for immediate distribution and consumption within the facility. A borewell is more suitable for rural regions as there is not much access to the municipal supply system or during prolonged low rainfall periods or droughts which lead to the drying up of lands.

After choosing a more sustainable source for water supply, the type of treatment given to it must be determined. The chemical, physical and biological characteristics are obtained through laboratory tests and analyzed. It should be conditioned and treated to fit specific needs at the facility entry point. About 450–600 L of water per bed is consumed in a regional hospital with an average of 250 beds providing four basic specialties. ⁴⁹ The storage capacity of the facility depends on the environmental conditions of the area as well. The facility should have a storage capacity for at least 3–4 days in cases when the source for water supply is not attainable. The facilities located in the areas subjected to droughts should have extra capacity. In many healthcare facilities, horizontally elevated tanks are used often to compensate for a lack of water pressure and flow. These tanks should have 25%–30% of the total water storage capacity of the facility. Other options include pressure tanks or hydro‐pneumatic systems which provide the required pressure and flow. Common causes of water wastage are leaks that occur due to lack of preventive measures, decreased flow of water at delivery points or sudden increase in water consumption were not required.

8. POPULATION DYNAMICS AND IMPACT ON SDG 6

Understanding such issues require an unprecedented need for global dialogue and collaboration. Such alliances have happened globally before under the Conference of Parties (COP) within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) frameworks. ⁷ The COVID‐19 pandemic has revealed a new world where the status quo is non‐existent as the virus overwhelms societies and economies. The next phase of pandemic response in the present scenario will be to assist decision makers in areas of governance, clean energy, and a green economy by 2030 as part of the socio‐economic response.

During the early part of the COVID‐19 crisis in 2020, it was important to ensure stable and enough water and energy supplies. This required workers in sectors that needed to work despite the pandemic. As a result of this greater social distance, there was a rise in demand for communication to take place through digital channels. ⁵⁰ This resulted in a growth in the development of remote working and the acceptance of digital solutions that are utilized in the management of these sectors. In addition, the supply of high‐quality data in a timely manner is essential to the improvement of policy responses in uncertain situations. Statistical agencies continued to collect data despite the shutdown throughout the day. The collection of data on crops, energy, and water that had been taking place in the field was halted. The prevalence of these factors contributed to the acceleration of the development of food, energy and water data collecting by remote sensing.

Understanding the regional‐to‐global environmental, economic, and societal implications of COVID‐19, as well as the ways in which lockdown measures influenced food security, water quality, and energy usage, was made easier by satellite imagery. In order to monitor the effects of COVID‐19 on food security, using remote sensing data and advanced statistical approaches (such as machine learning) to map where and which crops are growing enabled allowed for the monitoring of these effects. ⁵¹ These methods are essential for understanding the impact that the pandemic will have on water and energy resources as well as for maximizing production activities without significantly increasing the likelihood of transmission of the virus.

9. WATER SERVICES INTERLINKED WITH ENERGY SERVICES

After the COVID‐19 outbreak, water and energy security became an important problem for researchers in academic sector and policymakers, and as a result, there was an explosion in the number of articles addressing this topic. Numerous works concentrated solely on water and energy, revealing the COVID‐19's detrimental effects on the safety of these resources. ⁶ , ⁹ , ¹⁵ A nexus approach was taken in some of the research that investigated the influence of COVID‐19 on both. ⁵² , ⁵³ There have been suggestions made to improve the water and energy nexus by utilizing technology that convert trash into energy. In essence, COVID‐19 was one of the forms of the threat to human wellbeing and sustainable development (as channelized the SDGs), which is challenged by the water and energy insecurity. Effective long‐term strategies are required to restore the water and energy nexus from the effects of COVID‐19.

Both water and energy sources have been confronted with problems such as restricted access (either in terms of quantity or quality or both), rising demand, and the concomitant production of advantages and risks by international markets. It is projected that by the year 2050, the global population will have reached 9 billion people, and economic growth will have accelerated. As a result, it is anticipated that the demand for water on a global scale will increase by 55%, while the production of energy and food will increase by 50% and 70%, respectively. ⁵⁴ In addition to this, it is predicted that by the year 2050, water scarcity will affect 50% of the world's population. Due to the limited quantity of land and water, there will be increased trade‐offs and rivalry between the production of food and energy. ⁵³ The combination of decreasing supplies and rising human demand poses a challenge to sustainable development. These concerns have been exacerbated both immediately and indirectly because of COVID‐19.

The immediate impacts are a result of the propagation of the virus (for example, food and agriculture as well as water contamination), while the indirect repercussions due to lockdown measures generated cascade effects on social (e.g., social unrest; “stay at home” order; unemployment), economic (e.g., obstructed supply–demand chain and international trade), and environmental issues (e.g., reduction of air, soil, and water pollution; the increase of medical waste) during the first year of the pandemic. Although the impacts of COVID‐19 on water and energy, they are of concern on a worldwide scale, undeveloped regions are more susceptible to its consequences in terms of limited supplies, restricted access routes and low efficiency of utilization.

10. OUTLOOK

Integrated solution to global issues is crucial for building a greener and more inclusive future. Societies will continue to exist on earth, and they will remain the dominant form of settlement, and making them better represents global commitments. One common theme that has been followed in many contemporary societies is looking at best practices. For instance, looking at a model outlook of ideal energy and water usage from a past timeline then mimicking the same in the present. While that would have yielded returns to a certain extent, but in the age of decarbonization and climate change, those aspects require strategic rethinking.

The COVID‐19 pandemic has presented extensive challenges and tremendous opportunities to rethink our approaches toward sustainable development. Governments and policy makers should blend innovation with calculated risks. The new normal would be to reassess our values, and mechanisms that support economic growth, social and environmental progress as envisioned by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Components of this equations will include education, clean water with sanitation, importance of clean energy and its access and only through their broad acceptance in civil societies quality indicators for life can be reaffirmed.

Understanding the implementation of SDGs depend on a complex combination of environmental, social, and economic factor. This includes strengthening civic participation and localized empowerment via social media in a manner that is not necessarily offensive. This impacts long‐term human activity and interaction that is equitable. One of the predominant views for governing growth of technologies is through emphasizing energy efficiency. It is considered that better designs contribute to reduction of water and air pollution with improved functioning of energy utilities. It is often envisaged that water and sustainable energy technologies are interrelated global issues and developing technologies for the future will have to integrate these two parameters instead of challenging them.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Riya Bhattacharya: Formal analysis (equal); investigation (equal); writing – original draft (equal). Debajyoti Bose: Conceptualization (equal); methodology (equal); resources (lead); writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing (equal).

Bhattacharya R, Bose D. Energy and water: COVID‐19 impacts and implications for interconnected sustainable development goals. Environ Prog Sustainable Energy. 2023;42(1):e14018. doi: 10.1002/ep.14018

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data available on request from the authors.