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. 2023 Jan 20;8(4):3842–3849. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06117

Dual-Mode Coupled Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Harvesting Random Vibration Energy

Mingyu Yu †, Di Yu †, Yongzhi Hua ‡, Yu Wang †, Jiuqing Liu †, Zhijie Xie †,*
PMCID: PMC9893744  PMID: 36743004

Abstract

graphic file with name ao2c06117_0007.jpg

As a new energy harvesting technology, triboelectric nanogenerators are widely used for vibration mechanical energy harvesting. However, the current schemes ignore the composite characteristics of vibration, with problems such as utilization and low collection efficiency. In this paper, a random resonance cantilever beam triboelectric nanogenerator (RCB-TENG) with dual-mode coupled is presented, the working mode is a coupling form of in-plane sliding and vertical contact-separation that can effectively collect complex vibration energy in transverse and longitudinal directions. The influences of the structural parameters of the RCB-TENG and different dielectric materials on the output performance are systematically investigated. The single vibration module achieved a power density of 463.56 mW/m2 and a transfer charge of 10.7 μC at a vibration frequency of 46 Hz, an increase in power density, and a transfer charge of 4.94 and 3.82 times, respectively, compared to the conventional contact-separation mode. Finally, the RCB-TENG was tested in practice, and it was observed that nine 1 W commercial LED bulbs and 500 5 mm diameter LED lamps were successfully lit. This work offers new ideas for distributed energy harvesting technologies and holds broad promise in the field of energy harvesting from wind, water, wave, and random vibrations caused by mechanical energy.

1. Introduction

As the fourth information revolution—the Internet of Things—continues to develop, a significant number of IP addresses, sensors, and wearable devices have emerged in everyday life. Currently, batteries are the common powering choices for widely distributed sensors. However, the limited energy storage capacity of conventional batteries is insufficient for the continuous operation of sensors. In addition, the disposal of used batteries places a huge strain on the ecology. Energy harvesting technology utilizes small amounts of energy in the environment to provide a continuous power supply for device power systems. Thus, the investment and time spent on battery systems are saved, and a new way of thinking about powering large-scale sensors is provided. The triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), a new energy technology based on frictional initiation and electrostatic induction,1−4 which can convert the energy in the environment into usable electric energy,5−8 have received attention in energy harvesting technologies due to their small size and potential to convert a wide range of environmental energy sources (e.g., wind energy,9−11 vibration energy,12−14 and water wave energy15−21) into electrical output. Underpinned by Maxwell’s theory of displacement currents, TENGs can be classified depending on their mode of working into contact-separation mode,22 in-plane sliding mode,23 single-electrode mode,24 and freestanding triboelectric-layer mode.25 Due to their unique working mechanism, TENGs have been proven to be a simple, reliable, and cost-effective means of high-performance environmental energy harvesting.26,27

As a widely distributed, renewable, and clean energy source, vibration has always been an attractive and hot target for energy harvesting processes. TENGs have been shown to harvest vibration energy from the environment, such as wearable sensors and self-powered acoustic sensors28,29 where contact-separation mode is currently the main mode of TENG working for collecting the vibration energy.30−32 When collecting vibration energy, the interaction between vibration distance and frequency results in a contact-separation mode with limited electrical output performance. Even though higher output performance can be achieved using the in-plane sliding mode,33 the electrical stability and mechanical durability of TENGs can be seriously compromised by frictional heat and material wear. It is also difficult to design structures that simultaneously generate relatively large displacements and high velocities. Therefore, it is not easy to efficiently collect vibration energy in the in-plane sliding mode.

In general, single-direction vibrations (transverse or longitudinal) are caused by the inherent properties of the vibrating body itself. On the other hand, vibrations in the orthogonal direction are caused by external factors.31 Hence, most vibrations can be characterized as multidirectional complex motions in which transverse and longitudinal vibrations are coupled. Furthermore, the existing vibration energy harvesters rarely consider composite characteristics of vibration and only employ a single working mechanism for harvesting in the TENG, with problems such as insufficient energy utilization. Therefore, the design of an energy harvesting device that can effectively harvest vibration energy is of great importance to expand practical applications of TENG.

In this work, contact-separation and in-plane sliding modes are coupled in the form of vibration energy harvesting, solving the problems associated with the underutilization of the TENG in vibration energy harvesting. First, a prototype random resonance cantilever beam triboelectric nanogenerator (RCB-TENG) is designed and tested, the coupling mode allows the collection of lateral and longitudinal composite vibrations. Consequently, a higher electrical output can be generated while efficiently collecting energy compared to the contact-separation mode. Second, the effect of system parameters on the output performance is investigated in depth. A single vibration module achieved a power density of 463.56 mW/m2 and 10.7 μC at a 3 mm separation gap, 30 mm sliding distance, and 46 Hz vibration frequency, which are 4.94 and 3.82 times higher than that in the conventional contact-separation mode, respectively. Lastly, the power management strategies for collecting vibration energy are also established for practical applications. It is demonstrated that RCB-TENG can be used to power commercial electronics, which provides a new idea for vibration energy harvesting.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Structure Design and Working Principle of the RCB-TENG

Most conventional vibration energy harvesting TENGs are focused on harvesting the vibrations of single mode, such as wind energy harvesters.34−36 In such harvesters, the harvesting mechanism is approximately homogeneous, limiting the efficiency of vibration energy harvesting. In this paper, the vibration is decomposed into transverse and longitudinal in-plane motions to address the issues mentioned above. Meanwhile, a RCB-TENG is designed, which uses a rigid spring plate as the vibration source and coupling mode that can significantly improve the energy utilization efficiency within a single vibration cycle.

A 3D structure of the RCB-TENG is shown in Figure 1a. The RCB-TENG consists of a stator, a rotor, and a vibration module. The rotor is driven by a servo motor, and the stator is a rigid platform used to fix the cantilever beam and the servo motor. The specific compositions of the RCB-TENG and the vibration module are shown in Figure 1a,b, respectively. The main vibration module body consists of a cantilever beam, electrodes, dielectric material, vibration housing, and a vibration source. The dielectric material consists of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) film, paper, and copper that serves as the electrode. The copper electrode is bonded to the PTFE film and paper via the conductive adhesive to form two composite films (the first one is the copper and PTFE composite film, and the second is the paper and copper electrode composite film). The two laminates are then bonded to the surfaces of the vibration housing and the vibration source via a double-sided adhesive. The copper electrode and PTFE laminate are connected to the outer surface of the comb finger vibration source unit, whereas the copper electrode and paper laminate are connected to the inner surface of the vibration housing (Figure S1, Supporting Information). The cantilever beam is a 1 mm spring steel sheet, and a damping block with micro bearing on the outer edge is hung in the middle of the cantilever beam to reduce friction and torque. The rotor converts its rotating motion into high-frequency vibration of the cantilever beam by pulling the damping block with the bearing. The vibration modules are evenly distributed along the circumference of the stator (Figure 1c).

Figure 1.

Figure 1

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Structural design of a RCB-TENG: (a) schematic diagram of the RCB-TENG application scenario and structure, (b) structural design of the RCB-TENG vibration module, (c) assembled RCB-TENG (scale bar: 11 cm), (d) exploded view of the vibration module structure, (e) simplified working mechanism, (f) comparison of the coupling mode (C-Mode) and the contact-separation mode (CS-Mode) electrical output, (g) comparison of the total output charge of the C-Mode with the CS-Mode, and (h) comparison of the average power density of the C-Mode and the CS-Mode.

The RCB-TENG’s working mode is designed as spatially resonant to better employ the vibration energy, as shown in Figures 1e and S2 in Supporting Information. The spatially resonant mode can be broken down into a contact-separation mode (vertical direction) and an in-plane sliding mode (horizontal direction). Consequently, the RCB-TENG can collect complex vibrations in space, which significantly increases the efficiency of energy utilization. A higher electrical output performance than the traditional contact-separation mode can be achieved due to the combined contact-separation mode and the in-plane sliding mode. As shown in Figure 1f, a vibration module can achieve a peak short-circuit current of 112 μA in a coupling mode at a vibration frequency of 46 Hz, whereas the traditional contact-separation mode can only achieve 37 μA under the same conditions (Figure S6, Supporting Information). In addition, the electrical output performance of different power generation modes under the same test conditions has been tested. The electrical output performance of the single contact-separation mode is shown in Figure S6, the single in-plane sliding mode is shown in Figure S12, and the electrical output performance of the composite mode is much higher than that of the single mode (Figure S5, Supporting Information). More importantly, compared with the traditional contact-separation mode, the coupling mode greatly improves the total transferred charge amount and average power density. The power density is 4.94 times that of the traditional contact-separation mode, and the total transferred charge is 3.82 times that of the traditional contact-separation mode (Figure 1f–h).

The working principle of the RCB-TENG is shown in Figure 2. When the cantilever beam damping block is continuously excited, it produces a high-frequency left–right oscillation with the axis as the fixed point (Figure 2b), at which point the RCB-TENG operates as an in-plane sliding mode in the horizontal direction and as a C-Mode in the vertical direction (Note S2, Supporting Information). For simplicity, when explaining the generator theory, the RCB-TENG module motion is simplified to two motion states: in-plane sliding and vertical contact-separation.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

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Working principle diagram of the RCB-TENG: (a) installation position of the RCB-TENG with the vibration module, (b) schematic diagram of the vibration triggering the vibration module, (c) working principle of the in-plane sliding mode (PS-Mode), (d) working principle of the CS-Mode, (e) potential distribution in the PS-Mode, and (f) potential distribution in the CS-Mode.

When the cantilever beam damping block is excited, relative motion between the vibration module and its source is simplified to plane sliding. Moreover, the sliding of the vibration source in the vibration shell is divided into four steps. During the initial state [Figure 2c(i)], the PTFE laminate on one side overlaps the paper laminate on the other, meanwhile, positive and negative charges on the PTFE and paper surfaces are in equilibrium. As the PTFE moves relative to the paper, the original electrostatic equilibrium is broken and gradually shifts to a second state [Figure 2c(ii)]. Due to the difference in electronegativity, a potential difference is generated between the paper composite film and the PTFE composite film. Therefore, driven by the potential difference, the positive charge on the copper electrode in the vibration source PTFE composite film is gradually transferred to the copper electrode of the paper composite film of the vibration housing, and transient current is formed on the external circuit, generating an electric signal.

When the separation distance between the two composite membranes is maximal [Figure 2c(iii)], the current in the external circuit is also the highest. As the vibration source continues to move [Figure 2c(iv)], the positive charge on the copper electrode of the vibration housing paper composite membrane flows back toward the copper electrode of the vibration source PTFE. This, in turn, generates a reverse current in the external circuit. As the PTFE composite film continues to move and reunites with the paper composite film, the positive charge on the paper composite film electrode is transferred back to the PTFE composite film electrode, and the electrostatic equilibrium is restored. As the PTFE periodically moves between two vibration housings, a periodic output signal is generated.

When subjected to continuous excitation, the cantilever beam oscillates around the center of the lower axis due to the gap between the vibration shell and the vibration source. Hence, the vibration source will slide and contact-separation periodically with the vibration shell will be driven by the cantilever beam. The contact-separation process is shown in Figure 2d. During the first stage [state I, Figure 2d(i)], the paper on the surface of the comb finger unit on the inside of the vibration housing fully contacts the PTFE membrane of the vibration source. Positive charges accumulate on the paper surface due to the frictional charging effect, while negative charges are transferred to the PTFE surface.

As the vibration housing moves upward under friction, the paper separates from the PTFE membrane, and a potential difference is established between the two surfaces due to the difference in electronegativity. This drives the transfer of electrons from the copper electrode on the back of the PTFE composite membrane to the copper electrode of the paper composite membrane and generates a transient current in the external circuit [Figure 2d(ii)]. As the vibration housing continues to move upward, the separation distance between the paper and the PTFE surface continues to increase. When the distance between the paper and the PTFE surface is maximal, the amount of charge transfer in the external circuit also reaches a maximum value [Figure 2d(iii)].

It should be noted that the distance between the vibration source PTFE and the vibration shell paper decreases as the vibration shell continues to move upward [Figure 2d(iv)]. At this time, the electric potential between the two composite membranes gradually disappears, and the current and the voltage in the external circuit gradually decrease from the maximum value until the secondary contact is made (Figure 2d(v)). Then, the charge is completely neutralized, and the external circuit voltage and current are nullified. As the vibration housing begins to fall under gravity, the distance between the paper and the PTFE surface increases, and a potential difference is re-established. At a certain position, the external circuit current and voltage return to their maximum values, thus forming a complete external circuit signal.

To illustrate the working mechanism more clearly, representative states in two independent modes are chosen to simulate the corresponding potential distribution under open circuit conditions via the finite element method. The results are shown in Figure 2e,f. Under ideal conditions, the potential increases with the separation distance between the dielectric material.

2.2. Structural Optimization

A comb-finger RCB-TENG is designed in this paper. In this section, the selection and optimization of the structural parameters of the vibration module in the RCB-TENG are clarified. Paper is uniformly used as a positive material in the vibration module. The detailed manufacturing process of these devices is described in the experimental section. Within the experiment, the rotor, a 3D-printed non-standard cam, is driven by a servo motor. The cam strikes a damping block with a miniature bearing on the cantilever beam, causing the beam to vibrate at frequencies between 5 and 46 Hz (Note, Figures S2 and S3, Supporting Information). In addition, the sliding distance and vertical separation gap between the vibration source and the vibration module are set within the range of 10–50 and 1–5 mm, and the cantilever beam is selected from 0.5 to 1 mm spring steel sheets.

The influence of system parameters (horizontal sliding distance, vertical separation gap, and cantilever beam thickness) and the dielectric material on the output performance of the vibration module is investigated in depth to optimize the output performance of the vibration module. As shown in Figure 3a,b, the effect of different sliding distances and vertical separation gaps on the output performance is first tested at 38 Hz. Here, a negative material of PTFE and a constant steel thickness of 0.8 mm are employed. The results show that the output performance tends to increase first and then decrease with an increase in the sliding distance and separation gap. The electrical output performance reaches maximum values for a short-circuit current and open-circuit voltage at a sliding distance of 30 mm and a separation gap of 3 mm, respectively. Too large or too small a sliding distance and separation gap will affect its output performance. If the sliding distance and separation gap are too small, the friction resistance between dielectric materials will increase and the actual separation distance will decrease. On the contrary, too large sliding distance and separation gap will lead to insufficient material contact and lower output performance. Subsequently, a study was carried out for different negative materials (Figure 3c) with other conditions being constant (sliding distance of 30 mm, separation gap of 3 mm, vibration frequency of 38 Hz, and steel thickness of 0.8 mm). Experiments were carried out using 0.1 mm thick Kapton and polydimethylsiloxane and PTFE films, which were attached to the electrodes and tested for open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current. The highest electrical output performance is achieved when PTFE is used for the negative dielectric layer. The corresponding peak open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current were 248.53 V and 104.9 μA for a single vibration module, respectively. Finally, the corresponding performance of spring steel sheets with different thicknesses was tested at various vibration frequencies when the PTFE was employed as a negative dielectric layer (Figure 3d–f). The results show that the open-circuit voltage of the vibration module is insensitive to the vibration frequency. However, the short-circuit current and transferred charge increase significantly with the thickness and vibration frequency. This is determined by the inherent characteristics of the cantilever beam system. The thicker the cantilever beam and the higher the vibration frequency, the more signal peaks per unit time and the greater the electrical output performance.

Figure 3.

Figure 3

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Output performance of a vibration module: (a) different sliding distances, (b) different separation gaps, (c) different negative materials, (d) open-circuit voltage, (e) short-circuit current, and (f) transfer charge for different thicknesses of spring steel plates at various frequencies.

2.3. Output Characteristics

System parameters for the individual vibration modules in the RCB-TENG are determined based on the conducted optimization of the vibration module structure. Next, the experiments were conducted for a sliding distance of 30 mm, a vertical separation gap of 3 mm, and dielectric materials of paper and PTFE. The performance of the RCB-TENG was tested at 38 Hz with 1 mm steel sheets for different vibration modules (Figure 4a–c).

Figure 4.

Figure 4

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utput performance of the RCB-TENG: (a) open-circuit voltage for different numbers of vibration modules (V-M), (b) short-circuit current, (c) transfer charge, (d) open-circuit voltage, (e) short-circuit current, (f) transfer charge at different vibration frequencies, (g) root mean square value of short-circuit current for different numbers of vibration modules, (h) short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and peak power, and (i) peak power of the RCB-TENG at different vibration frequencies.

The current values of the nine vibration modules are significantly higher than the amplitude of a single vibration module, with a maximum short-circuit current close to 410 μA (Figure 4b). A single vibration module transfers almost 10 μC. As the number of vibration modules increases, nine vibration modules transfer a total of 40 μC (Figure 4c). However, for different numbers of vibration modules, the open-circuit voltage shows minor variation due to the parallel connection between the vibration modules. Theoretically, it can be assumed that the open-circuit voltage and the total open-circuit voltage are the same in the parallel circuit. Therefore, the open-circuit voltage value under nine vibration modules is almost the same as the open-circuit voltage for a single vibration module, that is, it is stabilized at approximately 250 V (Figure 4a).

In addition, the output performance of the RCB-TENG was measured under nine vibration module conditions and at different vibration frequencies. According to Figure 4d, as the vibration frequency increases, the open-circuit voltage of the RCB-TENG first increases and then stabilizes. When the vibration frequency increases from 5 to 29 Hz, the maximum value of the open-circuit voltage increases from 200 to about 250 V. When the vibration frequency increases to 46 Hz, the voltage value remains almost constant. This can be attributed to the low vibration frequency of the cantilever beam. Because the dielectric material between the contact is insufficient, the output voltage is low. As the vibration frequency increases, the contact area becomes sufficient and is no longer characterized by a relatively large change. Lastly, the voltage value also gradually stabilizes. As the vibration frequency increases, the short-circuit current gradually increases and can reach up to 454 μA (Figure S7, Supporting Information), while the total transferred charge can reach 46 μC (Figure 4d–f).

The root mean square (rms) values and output power of this RCB-TENG were also tested (Figure 4g–i). Figure 4g depicts the rms current values at 38 Hz for different numbers of vibration modules. The rms output increases with the number of vibration modules, that is, up to 153.42 μA for nine vibration modules. The RCB-TENG based on paper and PTFE dielectric material composition has good output performance. The power diagram for nine vibration modules and a frequency of 38 Hz is shown in Figure 4h. It can be seen that the maximum power can reach 22.617 mW at 500 kΩ. Figure 4i depicts a graph of the peak power of the RCB-TENG for nine vibration modules at different vibration frequencies. When the vibration frequency increases from 5 to 46 Hz, the peak power of the RCB-TENG increases from 15.58 to 31.892 mW, while the matching resistance decreases from 3 MΩ to 500 kΩ (the reason for the matching resistance decrease can be found in Note S3, Supporting Information).

The durability and relative humidity tests for the RCB-TENG have been systematically carried out. As shown in Figure S9, the output performance of the RCB-TENG decreases slightly with the continuous increase of relative humidity when the measured average humidity changes from 27 to 83% (Note S6, Supporting Information). In addition, the durability test of the RCB-TENG demonstrates that the output performance of the RCB-TENG is almost stable after running about 1260000 cycles. The electrical output characteristic curve is shown in Figure S11 (Note S5, Supporting Information).

2.4. Application of the RCB-TENG for Collecting the Vibration Energy

To further improve the performance of the RCB-TENG, its current is improved using a circuit management system that converts AC to DC for direct drive of electronic components. Here, the half-wave rectifier circuit is chosen for the power management circuit. The half-wave rectifier circuit has a higher output performance than the full-wave rectifier circuit in the CS and PS modes.37 Moreover, it consists mainly of Schottky diodes, as shown in Figure 5a. The DC output is obtained according to the forward bias of the Schottky diodes, that is, the unidirectional conductivity. The transferred charge of the DC output is shown in Figure 5c. Here, the performance and application of the RCB-TENG to two different modes of operation are investigated (Figure 5b). The first mode of operation is a direct connection to a capacitor, intending to test the charging performance of the RCB-TENG with nine vibration modules and a vibration frequency of 38 Hz (Figure 5b(i)). The RCB-TENG can charge a commercial capacitor to over 10 V in a short time with the support of the power management circuit (Figure 5d). Similarly, the RCB-TENG can charge a 10 μF capacitor to approximately 40 V in 20 s.

Figure 5.

Figure 5

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RCB-TENG in vibration energy harvesting: (a) circuit diagram of RCB-TENG power management, (b) two typical operation modes of RCB-TENG-based vibration energy harvesting systems, (c) charging curve of RCB-TENG with circuit management for charging four different sizes of capacitors, (d) RCB-TENG directly driving commercial LED bulbs (scale bar: 8 cm), (e) RCB-TENG brightly drives the NEFU logo (scale bar: 5 cm), and (f) RCB-TENG directly lights up 500 5 mm LEDs (scale bar: 8 cm).

The second mode of RCB-TENG operation is directly connected to the load [Figure 5b(ii)], that is, the electronic components are powered directly by the RCB-TENG (Figure 5d–f). The RCB-TENG can directly drive nine 1 W commercial LED bulbs (Figure 5d), light up to 5 mm LED series parallel hybrid NEFU logo with a bright effect (Figure 5e), and directly drive around 500 small 5 mm LED bulbs (Figure 5f). The experiments are recorded in Movies S1, S2, and S3 (Supporting Information). Similarly, the RCB-TENG can harvest wind, water, wave, and vibration energy to power the sensors, continuously monitor the weather or vibrations generated by the machine, and provide alerts in case of bad weather or mechanical failure.

3. Conclusions

In summary, the RCB-TENG coupled with two types of working modes is proposed for harvesting random vibration energy. Compared with the traditional CS-Mode, the C-Mode has a higher electrical output performance. The RCB-TENG has nine vibration modules, and the single vibration module achieved a power density of 463.56 mW/m2 and a transfer charge of 10.7 μC at a vibration frequency of 46 Hz. Compared with the conventional CS-Mode, the power density and transfer charge have, respectively, increased by 4.94 and 3.82 times. Moreover, the short-circuit current and transfer charge of the RCB-TENG can be up to 454 μA and 46 μC, respectively, under conventional triggering conditions. Finally, the RCB-TENG’s array of vibration modules was used in and lit commercial lamps without an external power supply, demonstrating its potential application for vibration energy harvesting and remote environmental information monitoring.

4. Experimental Section

4.1. Fabrication of the RCB-TENG

The RCB-TENG consists mainly of a moving sub-slider and a stator electrode. The stator, rotor, and vibration module are all printed using a fused deposition (FDM) 3D printer, while the rotor is a non-standard cam driven by a servo motor. The main body of the vibration module consists of a cantilever beam, a vibration housing, a dielectric material layer, and a vibration source. In the C-Mode, the rotor is pushed against the damping block with the bearing to convert the rotor’s rotational motion into high-frequency vibration of the cantilever beam. In the traditional CS-Mode, the vibration shell is placed horizontally and a linear motor is used to drive the vibration source directly at the same frequency to make a linear motion. The dielectric material composite film consists of a copper electrode and a positive and negative material. The copper electrode is bonded with a 0.1 mm thick PTFE film and paper via epoxy resin to form two composite films. Moreover, an EVA sponge is added between the copper electrode and the PLA substrate to achieve soft contact between the dielectric materials and increase the contact area between the dielectric materials. (Note, Figure S1, Supporting Information).

4.2. Measurement

The RCB-TENG is assembled on a stator platform with a drive servo motor (Mr-J4, Mitsubishi, Japan). The motor is connected via a coupling to a non-standard cam that drives the rotor. The electrical characteristics of the RCB-TENG were measured using an electrostatic meter (6514, Keithley, USA).

Acknowledgments

M.Y. and D.Y. contributed equally to this work. The authors acknowledge financial support from the Central Universities Fund (grant no. 2572022AW49) and the Natural fund project of Heilongjiang Province (grant no. TD2020C001).

Supporting Information Available

The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.2c06117.

  • Possible use of the RCB-TENG as a direct power source. The RCB-TENG collects random vibration energy to drive 500 small 5 mm LED bulbs (MP4)

  • Possible use of the RCB-TENG as a direct power source. The RCB-TENG collects random vibration energy to drive 5 mm LED NEFU logo (MP4)

  • Possible use of the RCB-TENG as a direct power source. The RCB-TENG collects random vibration energy to drive LED bulbs (MP4)

  • Detailed structural design of the RCB-TENG; calculation of the vibration frequency; detailed operating mechanism of the C-mode, the electrical output performance of the RCB-TENG at different frequencies in the C-Mode, the CS-Mode, and the PS-Mode; DC output performance of the RCB-TENG; durability and parameters; and effect of ambient relative humidity on performance (PDF)

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Supplementary Material

ao2c06117_si_001.mp4 (13.5MB, mp4)
ao2c06117_si_002.mp4 (17.3MB, mp4)
ao2c06117_si_003.mp4 (27.2MB, mp4)
ao2c06117_si_004.pdf (835.7KB, pdf)

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ao2c06117_si_001.mp4 (13.5MB, mp4)
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