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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Aug 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Neurosci Res. 2021 Feb 1;100(8):1529–1537. doi: 10.1002/jnr.24796

Reflections of six neuroscientists: The influences of training at minority serving institutions

Wendy Grillo 1, Comfort A Boateng 2, Lillian J Brady 3, Monica M Gaudier-Diaz 4, Kerry-Ann Mitchell 5, Vernon A Ruffin 6, Hugo A Tejdeda 7, S Alex Marshall 1,4
PMCID: PMC9942539  NIHMSID: NIHMS1834900  PMID: 33527411

The current cultural and political climate has reignited conversations across the United States and internationally about the experiences of Black and Brown scholars in academia, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) disciplines (Dzirasa, 2020; Valenzuela, 2020). While there are various issues that impact the experiences of underrepresented minority (URM) scientists, ranging from funding decision disparities to additional expectations of minority faculty (Choudhury & Aggarwal, 2020; O’Meara et al., 2018), one of the unifying themes is the lack of diversity and inclusion measures in the STEM workforce. In fact, the feelings of isolation sprouted new organizations such as #BlackInNeuro, which was created to celebrate the contributions of Black neuroscientists and to facilitate networking across the globe (Dukes, 2020). Although gender disparity continues to be an issue in neuroscience, the field has been at the forefront of diversification efforts within STEM disciplines and has increased the representation of women obtaining doctoral degrees achieving parity with males (“Promoting diversity in neuroscience,” 2018). Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about the gains of historically underrepresented racial groups. The number of URM students who matriculate in neuroscience fields has steadily increased as the general field expands, but the percentage of Black, Hispanic, and Indigenous individuals appears to be stagnant (Ramos et al., 2017). The broad field of neuroscience is one of the leading scientific disciplines with regard to funding, numbers of scientists, and numbers of trainees (Akil et al., 2016), so initiatives that prioritize inclusion and equity in neuroscience have a great impact on minority faculty STEM and has the potential to reach far beyond academia to other STEM careers. Various societal and institutional initiatives have been intentional in their efforts to increase the recruitment and retention of URMs in neuroscience (Jones-London, 2020; Matthews et al., 2019; Poe & Ramirez, 2019), but it is clear that more strategies are necessary to diversify the system.

The current programs and initiatives have been effective tools in retention of trainees and faculty, but Minority-Serving Institutions (MSIs) are uniquely suited to improve the diversity of the STEM and neuroscience workforce through increased recruitment and representation (Cohen, 2016; National Academies of Sciences & Medicine, 2019). The term MSI is a federal designation based on the historical or current enrollment of an institution being primarily minority students. This term is used in juxtaposition to the various predominantly white institutions (PWIs). MSIs include Historically Black Colleges & Universities (HBCUs), Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs), and Tribal Colleges and Universities. MSIs have historically been the source of the majority of URM students in STEM disciplines, and this continues to be true today, especially undergraduates.

In a recent survey to discover variables that contribute to the success of URMs in life science academic (e.g., faculty) and nonacademic (e.g., research-related in government or private sector) positions, it was concluded that key factors in their careers included undergraduate research experiences (UREs), performing research in small- to medium-sized laboratories, and access to mentors throughout all stages of training (Martinez et al., 2018). This supports the expansive literature which suggests that participation in UREs has a positive impact on career choices, knowledge of experimental design, increase in practical skills such as problem-solving and communication, increase in understanding their field of study, attitudes toward science, and confidence in research abilities (National Academies of Sciences & Medicine, 2017). Studies show that URMs who participated in UREs reported higher learning gains than comparison students and benefit the most from faculty mentoring (Linn et al., 2015; Munawar, 2015). With a specific focus on students at MSIs, those who participated in UREs with a faculty member reported more learning strategies, increased collaborative learning, and having more experience with quantitative reasoning (Collins et al., 2017; Haeger et al., 2015). Moreover, it has been well established that UREs translate into increased student persistence in STEM, including for URMs (Eagan et al., 2013; Graham et al., 2013; Rodenbusch et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2012). It has been reported that factors that cause students to persist in research include gaining skills and knowledge, valuing the importance of research for a career, interest in research topic, flexibility in time, relationship with research mentor, and positive laboratory environment (Cooper et al., 2019). Although this aforementioned study focuses on students in general, these reasons for persistence are also applicable to URMs. To further ensure that URM students are retained in undergraduate research, the study recommends that the mentor plans specific tasks and activities for the URE with the intent that the student will learn specific knowledge and skills. Little research has been done to specifically determine what factors lead to persistence in STEM of URM, especially at an MSI. In comparison to large research institutions with many resources, faculty conducting STEM research at MSIs have to be creative and find ways to maximize resources. This may serve as motivation and set the stage for students from MSIs to thrive when they subsequently enter graduate programs at research institutions.

The Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN) has long recognized the importance of providing undergraduate students with the opportunity to conduct research as an essential educational experience (Ramirez, 2020). Furthermore, the top neuroscience graduate programs rank basic research experience at the undergraduate level as the most essential component of the application (Boyette-Davis, 2018). UREs in neuroscience are advantageous for both the professional and personal growth of students, especially URMs (Cohen, 2016; Collins et al., 2017). Thus, early exposure to neuroscientists who can serve as role models and who provide mentoring and experiential research opportunities are needed to increase diversity in the neuroscience field (Ramos et al., 2017). This is particularly relevant at MSIs where the faculty are more likely to be reflective of the cultural and racial demographics of the student body than at most PWIs (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020; Hagan et al., 2016; Vargas et al., 2020). This special issue serves to highlight the unique role of MSIs in improving the representation of minorities in neuroscience. Included in this special issue are original research articles and commentaries on graduate training and diversifying the neuroscience workforce. This article provides reflections of individuals who trained at MSIs at various levels to provide anecdotes of success and transitions within neuroscience.

1 |. REFLECTIONS OF 6 NEUROSCIENTISTS

Dr. Comfort A Boateng (PhD), Assistant Professor Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences; Fred Wilson School of Pharmacy, High Point University

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University: Medicinal Chemistry (PhD)

Current Research: My laboratory focuses on the design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of selective ligands for the dopaminergic receptor systems, as molecular tools and leads toward potential treatment medications for psychostimulant abuse and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Recently, I was awarded a NIDA R21 grant to further my studies on dopamine D4 receptor ligands as a target for cocaine addiction. This grant grew from my recent publications on novel D3 (Boateng et al., 2015; Michino et al., 2017) and D4 (Keck et al., 2019) agonists and their effects on behavior. Our group has been able to identify several novel D4 receptor-selective compounds, and we are expanding our library of compounds to treat dependence on cocaine and other drugs of abuse. In addition to my primary research, I serve on NIH Grant Review study sections, the American Chemical Society-Committee on Minority Affairs (CMA), and I am the HPU faculty delegate for the American Association for Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP)-Medicinal Chemistry Section. At the School of Pharmacy, my duties include lecturing on medicinal chemistry principles, neuroscience, anti-infectives, natural products, and serving on HPU academic committees and supervising research.

Reflection: I grew up in Ghana and received a B.S. in chemistry from the University of Cape Coast. I moved to the United States and obtained my Ph.D. degree in Medicinal Chemistry at an HBCU, Florida A & M University (FAMU) College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences under the guidance of Dr. Seth Ablordeppey. During my graduate years at FAMU, I received the best training and mentorship. Ablordeppey’s laboratory was very diverse with postdoctoral fellows and graduate students from all different races and ethnicities, especially individuals from URM groups. Training with this group was critical to my sense of belonging as I transitioned into life in America. Prof. Ablordeppey was one of the most outstanding mentors I have ever worked with. He is an intelligent, hardworking, reliable, and congenial individual, who was open to everyone’s research ideas and contributions. He closely monitored each graduate student’s scientific research, and he never failed to demonstrate constant dedication to everyone’s work. He is meticulous in his deliberations and highly motivates each graduate student to be the very best in our research endeavors. Based on my experiences at FAMU, I can attest that all the professors were striving for the best for their students and they were outstanding mentors. Prof. Ablordeppey mentorship efforts led me and other fellow graduate students in his laboratory to publish our research findings in peer reviewed journals, attend conferences, and to develop as a scientist at various workshops. My research in Dr. Ablordeppey’s laboratory focused on the development of novel compounds on pathogens (Boateng, Eyunni, et al., 2011; Boateng, Zhu, et al., 2011), but It was the training at FAMU that provided the foundation for my current work in neuroscience.

Dr. Lillian J. Brady (PhD), Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Pharmacology; Vanderbilt University

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: Alcorn State University: Biotechnology (MS) and Chemistry (BS)

Current Research: My current research in Dr. Erin Calipari’s laboratory in the Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research and Department of Pharmacology uses a variety of innovative techniques to outline the neural circuit dysfunction that underlies neuropsychiatric disease. My current research focus is on sex differences in neural circuit regulation of dopamine release mechanisms that underlie reward and motivated behavior in Substance Use Disorder (Brady et al., 2019; Kutlu et al., 2020). For example, we have shown the importance of the estrous cycle and neuroimmune factors on the rewarding effects of cocaine using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry and pharmacologic manipulations (Brady et al., 2019). I have also been involved with projects elucidating the influence of Vitamin C deficiency on Alzheimer’s disease pathology and the dopaminergic system (Consoli et al., 2020). This work branches from my graduate work in the laboratory of Dr. Lynn Dobrunz (University of Alabama-Birmingham) on the role of the dopamine system in the modulation and regulation of inhibitory synaptic transmission and neural circuit function within the hippocampus (Bartley et al., 2015; Brady et al., 2016).

Reflection: My research training experience at Alcorn State University (the oldest public historically Black land-grant institution in the United States and the second-oldest state-supported institution of higher learning in Mississippi) was multidimensional. As an undergraduate Chemistry major, one of the requirements of the Chemistry and Physics department was to do summer research internships. The summer after my freshman year I participated in a summer research program on Alcorn’s campus where I learned basic laboratory and research skills from faculty within the Chemistry and Physics department. This did not include doing a specific research project but was more of an introduction to fundamental laboratory skills like pipetting and making solutions, as well as gaining experience with scientific writing and reading scientific journal articles. The next two summers of my undergraduate years were spent off campus participating in the NIH funded T35 Summer Research Opportunities Program at Indiana University School of Medicine. During my senior year of undergrad, I was a laboratory assistant for a newly formed research group by two professors in the Chemistry and Physics department at Alcorn where I gained more research experience. It was this research experience and direct mentorship/sponsorship from faculty within the Chemistry and Physics department at Alcorn (as well as my initial research experience after my freshman year) that laid the foundation for my research training and career trajectory. I learned from these UREs several concepts: (a) networking within my department (with faculty and peers), (b) developing a mentoring team, and (c) gaining diverse research experiences. I was fortunate to have these experiences at Alcorn State University during my undergraduate years.

My undergraduate research training at Alcorn led directly to my matriculation through Alcorn’s Master of Science program in Biotechnology which was new at the time (2009). During my masters work, I gained more research experience with professors in the Department of Agriculture and Center for Biotechnology and Genomics at Alcorn. I was also encouraged to continue doing summer internships off campus to broaden my portfolio, which I did with the USDA and Army Corp of Engineers. Additionally, I gained experience with mentoring during this time, as I trained/mentored undergraduate students. My research training at Alcorn laid the foundation for how I approach research today as well as how I view the value of mentorship. The mentoring and research training I received at Alcorn gave me confidence in myself and my abilities that I have taken with me every day since.

Dr. Monica M. Gaudier-Diaz (PhD), Teaching Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez: Biology (BS)

Current Research: During my graduate and postdoctoral training I examined the effects of environmental stressors on behavior, health, and well-being (Gaudier-Diaz et al., 2018; Gaudier-Diaz et al., 2017; MacCormack et al., 2021; Walker et al., 2020). Today, as a Teaching Assistant Professor, I do not direct a research laboratory but instead remain active in research via collaborations and by bringing research into the traditional classroom. In collaboration with the Social Neuroscience and Health Laboratory, I am working on a project that investigates the physiological response to exam stress in undergraduate students. The goal of this project is to elucidate the physiological (i.e., biological) mechanisms that mediate the association between generation in college and academic performance (i.e., grades). By examining the mechanisms by which academic stress disrupts diverse systems of the body, this ongoing research will contribute to the understanding of the detrimental effects of stress on health and to the potential mechanisms underlying educational and health disparities. By integrating my interest in stress with my passion for promoting inclusivity and diversity in higher education, I have extended my portfolio by researching effective pedagogy in neuroscience education. In a nation-wide survey study examining anxiety and academic performance in neuroscience majors, I found that first-generation college students are more anxious and have lower grades than their continuing-generation counterparts (Gaudier-Diaz et al., 2019). In the coming years I plan to expand this work by empirically testing different teaching strategies to determine which are most effective in alleviating stress among nontraditional students. In addition to traditional research, I strive to incorporate research into my courses. For example, I teach a research-related skills course in Neuroimmunology, where students write a review article and generate a novel research question. Moreover, I am developing a Neuroimmunology Research Methods course in which students will learn different molecular neuroscience techniques while developing and testing hypotheses regarding changes in microglia, the innate immune cells of the nervous system. As a neuroscience educator, I am motivated to integrate research and teaching, because I recognize that regardless of the career path a student decides to pursue, involvement in research is valuable, as it enables critical thinking, communication skills, and team building, among other skills (Lopatto et al., 2010).

Reflection: When it was time for me to apply to college, I already knew where I was going and what I was studying. I only applied to the University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez where I could commute to, where at the time of enrollment I declared a Biology major. Despite a growing interest in the field of neuroscience, sparked by my dad’s profession in neurology, I decided to major in Biology because a Neuroscience degree was not offered (and it is still not offered) at this institution. As an undergraduate, I filled my desire to learn about the brain by taking electives in Psychology. During my junior year, I was really enjoying my course work, which included classes in genetics, biochemistry, and physiological psychology. Still, I felt as if something was missing and was unsure about the career choice I wanted to pursue. In conversation with friends, I learned about research as a career option and decided to apply to summer research programs. During the summer before my senior year, I participated in the Research Experience for Undergraduates program in Biochemistry at the University of Kentucky. While working with Dr. Qingjun Wang, to examine the composition of the autophagy protein Beclin-1 complex in a mouse model of aging, I realized that I wanted to pursue a career in scientific research. While Dr. Wang was primarily interested in exploring the composition of the Beclin-1 complex in the liver, she allowed me to also investigate it in the brain, which narrowed my interests to the molecular study of the nervous system.

Following the summer, I wanted to gain additional research experience. Due to limited local opportunities in my field of interest (i.e., neuroscience), I reached out to faculty members at the Ponce School of Medicine. A flexible schedule with no classes on Fridays allowed me to volunteer at Dr. James Porter’s laboratory, where I helped graduate students assess the effects of acute stress in a rat model of fear extinction. Indeed, being open to research opportunities outside of my primary area of interest and networking with scientist outside of my institution were crucial in my journey. Following graduation in May 2012, I moved to Columbus, Ohio to participate in the Discovery Postbaccalaureate Research Program, a 1-year research program that provided me with the skill set necessary to succeed in graduate school. These types of programs aid individuals who for one reason or another are not able to gain enough research experience though the completion of their undergraduate degree to be competitive for graduate school. If as a student at a Minority Serving Institution you find limitations, do not let them interfere with your success. Take initiative by applying to summer research programs, reaching out to faculty at a research-intensive institution, or considering Postbaccalaureate research programs.

Dr. Kerry-Ann Mitchell (MD, PhD), Assistant Professor, Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; The Ohio State University

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: Benedict College: Biology (BS)

Current Research: As a Plastic and Reconstructive surgeon with fellowship training in Neuroplastic Surgery, I am passionate about optimizing cranial reconstruction outcomes for patients suffering from various neurosurgical disorders. While there are well-developed multidisciplinary care teams dedicated to children undergoing craniofacial surgeries, this type of standardized collaboration is lacking in adult settings (Mitchell, Shay, Huang, et al., 2020). Undoubtedly, by working in these systematic care teams, we can improve patient outcomes. One tangible example of this is the ability to embed various neuromodulatory devices within cranial implants, as we have shown with a wireless intracranial pressure monitor (Mitchell, Anderson, et al., 2020) and hydrocephalus shunts (Mitchell, Shay, Huggins, et al., 2020). My current research interests reflect my dual training as a physician and a neuroscientist, where my dissertation work focused on developing and characterizing one of the first described animal models of infection-induced epilepsy (Stewart et al., 2010a, 2010b). The focus of my laboratory is to develop translational models to optimize cranial reconstruction surgeries, and perform clinical studies to improve surgical and aesthetic outcomes of adults who undergo surgery on their scalp and/or skull The focus of my laboratory is to perform clinical studies to further foster the development of multidisciplinary teams and inform payers and health-care systems, as well as translational models to optimize cranial reconstruction surgeries, in an effort to improve surgical and aesthetic outcomes of adults who undergo surgery on their scalp and/or skull (Mitchell, Anderson, et al., 2020; Mitchell, Shay, Belzberg, et al., 2020; Shay et al., 2020).

Reflection: I obtained my Bachelor of Science Degree in Biology at Benedict College in Columbia, SC. As a small institution, one of the strengths of the institution is the sense of family and community that is continuously fostered. As a premedical student, I had a very close relationship with various mentors within the department, not least of whom was my assigned advisor, Dr. Larry Lowe. During my freshman year I had the opportunity to work in his laboratory and gain exposure to biomedical research. His laboratory focused on studying the effect of microgravity on skeletal muscle tissue. Other faculty members within the department also included me in a number of small studies. Although these did not result in peer reviewed publications, they culminated in a number of oral and poster presentations at local and national undergraduate research conferences. My mentors encouraged me to apply for grants and external research experiences in order to get exposure to opportunities that may not be present at a small liberal arts college. During the summer holidays, they supported my participation in mentored research programs at various institutions affiliated with medical schools. This was in an effort to network with medical school faculty, given that my own institution did not have an affiliated medical or graduate school. For example, the summer of my freshman year I participated in a research program coordinated by Hampton University (also an HBCU) and sponsored by NASA Langley. The following summer was spent in a Pharmacology and Toxicology laboratory at the University of Iowa. The summer of my senior year I participated in a health policy research program at Harvard Medical School. These experiences were quite varied, but the common thread was that my mentors at Benedict College encouraged me to explore different biomedical research opportunities, with each experience opening a door to the next. It was through this exploration that I cemented my interest in research, and went on to obtain my PhD in Neuroscience at the University of Utah, as well as a Medical Degree from Stanford University. Completing fellowship in Neuroplastic Surgery at Johns Hopkins University was the pinnacle of my training, which I truly believe was only possibly through the foundation built at Benedict College.

Dr. Vernon A. Ruffin (PhD), Assistant Professor, Department of Natural Sciences; Virginia Union University

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: Virginia Union University: Biology (BS)

Current Research: My laboratory focuses on examining the regulation of intracellular pH in the mammalian brain by members of the Solute Carrier (SLC) protein superfamily (SLC4 and SLC9). These proteins are the major acid/base transporters within the brain and recently have been implicated in the regulation/coordination of neuronal excitability in hippocampal neurons. Dysregulation or absence of SLC9s or SLC4s leads to cell dysfunction and eventual death. We hypothesize that there is a relationship between the expression of SLC4 and SLC9 acid/base transporters and the neuronal protein channels and protein pumps underlying excitability. Although neuronal excitability is dependent on coordinated activity of voltage-gated sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+) protein channels, the Ca2+ ATPase and the Na/K-ATPase protein pumps, we hypothesize that pH is the main determinant of neuronal excitability because of its influence on the charged residues within the structure of all proteins. Although minor fluctuations in pH from respiration and metabolism can be used by cells as a signaling mechanism to initiate cellular responses, major fluctuations in pH result in structural changes within proteins that ultimately result in compromised protein function. This research utilizes immunocytochemistry and the western blot technique to examine the expression of the SLC4 and SLC9 acid/base transporters with specific proteins underlying neuronal excitability (Nav1.1, Kv1.1, KATP, Cav2.1, Na/K-ATPase, and Ca2+ ATPase) in primary cultured mouse hippocampal neurons in response to chronic hypercapnia (10% CO2) and chronic hypoxia (1% O2). Hypoxia and hypercapnia represent metabolic and respiratory changes in pH that can be physiologic triggers to initiate changes in the protein expression in neurons.

Reflection: Although my academic studies at different institutions (Albert Einstein Medical University and University of California San Diego as a graduate student and Yale Medical University and Case Western Reserve University as a postdoctoral fellow) have been instrumental in helping to expose me to cutting edge research, equipment and institutional resources, at these institutions and in the field of neuroscience in general, I was a minority. It was when I returned to my undergraduate institution (Virginia Union University) as an assistant professor that I recognized the inequity in both access to resources and exposure to information and opportunity which impacts overall student interest and academic preparedness independent of the rigor of the academic program. The majority of the students did not know about the opportunities in research for minorities, most never had a male teacher, and none knew a black doctor in neuroscience. To overcome these disparities, I utilized the combined efforts of two separate National Science Foundation grants (NSF #1623357 and NSF #1901344), to successfully infuse a neurophysiology Course Undergraduate Research Experience (CURE) in the introductory biology curriculum using basic biomedical components of my postdoctoral research project. This research project was used to target four major areas (a) introducing the CURE to the BIO111/112 (the introductory Biology course for freshman) and the BIO 411/412 (the Research Techniques class for seniors), (b) developing an on-campus summer undergraduate research program, (c) creating a STEM Research Journal Club, and (d) training students to become peer teachers.

Through these efforts, students in BIO 111/112 and BIO 411/412 have learned how to perform spectrophotometry, gel electrophoresis, blot transfer, and immunodetection. In addition, the on-campus summer undergraduate research program has trained students how to perform brain microdissection, brain sectioning, immunohistochemistry, immunocytochemistry, and western blot. Students continued to perform independent research during the academic school year and as a result the first biomedical research laboratory studying neurophysiology was created at Virginia Union University—the Ruffin NeuroLab. The basic science research conducted in the Ruffin NeuroLab focuses on research examining the regulation of intracellular pH in the mammalian brain by members of the SLC protein super-family (SLC4 and SLC9). These proteins are the major acid/base transporters within the brain and recently have been implicated in the regulation/coordination of neuronal excitability in hippocampal neurons. Dysregulation or absence of SLC9s or SLC4s leads to cell dysfunction and eventual death. Several of these students have presented original research at the Annual Biomedical Research Conference for Minority Students (ABRCMS). There have been >60 Virginia Union University STEM Research Journal Club (VSRJC) presentations. The VSRJC provides a format for research faculty in the department to present their research interests/findings, the recruitment of students interested in research, and the hosting of guest collaborators as speakers for ongoing research. External guests have presented from the University of Virginia, Drexel University, George Washington University School of Medicine, and Virginia Commonwealth University. In fact, it has become a departmental requirement this year that students attend VSRJC. As one who has benefitted from diversity, inclusion, and equity within higher education, I feel very strongly that these are necessary for the boundless development of the modern student. As a professor, I impress upon my students that I expect the best from them and their success is defined by their effort. I am excited and available to teach any student who wants to learn.

Dr. Hugo A Tejeda, Stadtman Principal Investigator, Unit on Neuromodulation and Synaptic Integration, Chief; National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program

Minority Serving Institution Affiliation: University of Texas at El Paso: Psychology & Biology (BS)

Current Research: Research in my laboratory is aimed at elucidating how the brain utilizes neuromodulation in motivational and emotional neural circuits to process information and orchestrate behavior (Edwards et al., 2017; Tejeda & Bonci, 2019). Another major focus of the laboratory is to identify plastic changes in neuromodulation and synaptic integration in limbic circuits of animal models of psychiatric disorder symptom clusters to elucidate novel therapeutic targets and increase our understanding of conventional therapies (Tejeda et al., 2017). The laboratory employs an interdisciplinary approach including electrophysiological, in vivo imaging, optogenetic, and viral and transgenic techniques to dissect the function of neuromodulators, such as opioid receptors, in regulating synaptic integration in single cells, microcircuits, and distributed limbic networks to control motivated behavior.

Reflection: My undergraduate career at the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) afforded me the opportunity to appreciate the importance of having a university that matches the demographics of the community it serves and of the ability of students/trainees to relate to their professors/mentors. This is possible as El Paso and UTEP both boast a majority of the population comprised of people of Mexican descent and most UTEP students are from the local community of El Paso, Texas and Juarez, Mexico. This was also true of the faculty at UTEP, in which Hispanics are represented at higher rates relative to the majority of American universities. I feel fortunate because I was able to relate to my professors and their own career trajectories since we shared similar stories and upbringings in many ways. For example, when my family did not understand why someone would dedicate so much time and efforts to a career with limited principal investigator positions available and minimal wages during an elongated training period, it was my academic and research mentors that assured me that I was making was the right decision to pursue a career in academic science. They gave me comfort and reinforced that what I had was passion and love for science and that was true gold in any career, something that my family of immigrants had a hard time appreciating at the time. Eventually, my family came to appreciate my career decisions, but it was professors/mentors who could understand and relate to my issues that kept me in the game long enough before my family could provide additional support. Hearing similar stories from professors was the type of thing I needed at that time of internal conflict. I am not sure it would have had the same impact if it came from someone who did not have a similar experience to mine.

Presently, as the chief of the Neuromodulation and Synaptic Integration Unit at the National Institute of Mental Health, I have also made every attempt to make sure that I find common ground with which to relate to every member of the laboratory. Fortunately, this has been easy thus far since the overwhelming majority of the laboratory consists of individuals from Hispanic and other underrepresented groups in science. This has in no way been something that I purposely aimed for. I did not set out to selectively hire people from underrepresented groups. This has been the by-product of people being inclined to seek the mentorship of someone from a similar culture or disadvantaged background. Like me, some of my trainees have shared their own stories of hardship and difficulties navigating an academic and scientific system that greatly benefits those with the knowledge and motivation to obtain available resources and support. Here, I have been able to provide them examples from my own experiences that they can relate to and guide them to the appropriate people or channels to get them on the path to academic and scientific success. Moreover, as a UTEP alumni, I have a direct contact with a university that produces highly qualified and competitive Hispanic students seeking careers in biomedical research and/or medicine. This “pipeline” has been a useful resource that I have shared with various colleagues that have brought in students to the NIH and elsewhere. Collectively, as a former student and research trainee at an MSI, I can attest that this experience put me and kept me in the path to pursuing a career in biomedical research and has been an important resource for how my laboratory is presently managed and trainees are mentored.

2 |. CONCLUSIONS

These reflections are only a few demonstrations of how undergraduate and graduate research training at MSIs had a lasting effect on the persistence in STEM for six neuroscientists. It is projected that by the middle of this century URMs will constitute about half of the U.S. population. Furthermore, it is predicted that in future opportunities in STEM and related fields, including neuroscience, will be in demand and outpace the growth of other positions (Jackson & Rudin, 2019). Thus, it is important to provide quality STEM education, research opportunities, and workforce preparation for URMs, especially at MSIs. Early exposure to research opportunities guided each of us as neuroscientists to persist in STEM, so we are committed to serving as role models, providing mentorship, as well as providing educational and research opportunities to attract a more diverse group of neuroscientists for the future.

Supplementary Material

Decision Letter

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work is supported by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (U54AA019765), the National Institute of Mental Health intramural research program, and a NARSAD Young investigator award from the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation.

Funding information

National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Grant/Award Number: U54AA019765; National Institute of Mental Health; Brain and Behavior Research Foundation; NSF, Grant/Award Number: 1623357 and 1901344

Footnotes

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

DECLARATION OF TRANSPARENCY

The authors, reviewers and editors affirm that in accordance to the policies set by the Journal of Neuroscience Research, this manuscript presents an accurate and transparent account of the study being reported and that all critical details describing the methods and results are present.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/jnr.24796.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional supporting information may be found online in the Supporting Information section.

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