Skip to main content
NCBI home page
The Gerontologist logoLink to The Gerontologist
. 2022 Sep 5;63(2):261–273. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnac136

Sexual Motives, Stress, and Depressive Symptoms Among Midlife Different-Sex and Same-Sex Couples

Hye Won Chai 1,✉, Sara E Mernitz 2, Debra J Umberson 3,4
Editor: Suzanne Meeks
PMCID: PMC9960013  PMID: 36063367

Abstract

Background and Objectives

Within relationships, sexual motives and stress are independent determinants of psychological health, with notable gendered patterns. However, previous research largely focuses on young adults and different-sex couples. Both sexual motives and levels of stress may be uniquely important to psychological health in midlife, and in potentially different ways for same-sex and different-sex couples. This study examined how the associations between sexual motives, stress, and depressive symptoms differ for midlife men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages.

Research Design and Methods

Using dyadic data from same-sex and different-sex midlife married couples (N = 830 individuals; 415 couples), we examined the associations of intrinsic (e.g., sex for enjoyment and pleasure) and extrinsic (e.g., sex to please one’s spouse) motives for having sex with depressive symptoms and tested whether these associations differed by levels of stress for same-sex and different-sex spouses.

Results

Intrinsic sexual motives were associated with fewer depressive symptoms only for same-sex married couples under high stress. Extrinsic sexual motives were related to greater depressive symptoms for women in low-stress conditions and men in high-stress conditions, and this did not differ for same-sex compared to different-sex marriages.

Discussion and Implications

Results show that the interplay between sexual motives and stress varies for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages. These findings underscore the importance of considering both gender and sexuality in studying sexual motives in midlife and suggest sexual motives as a useful treatment focus for protecting the psychological health of midlife married couples.

Keywords: Distress, Gender, Psychological health, Same-sex marriage, Sexual motivation

Midlife, or the ages between the mid-30s and 60s (Lachman et al., 2014), is a unique period in the life course characterized by the emergence of age-related health concerns and physical changes that influence sexual experiences (Heiman et al., 2011). Although sexual activities decline in frequency for married couples in midlife, sex remains important for spouses’ psychological health (Lodge & Umberson, 2012) with different implications for men and women (Lee et al., 2016). However, studies on sexual activity in midlife primarily focus on sexual frequency in relation to psychological health (Heiman et al., 2011) and much less on personal motives for engaging in sexual activities.

Sexual motives refer to the reasons why individuals have sex and these motives can come from within (i.e., intrinsic) or from external (i.e., extrinsic) forces. For example, intrinsic motives for sex include having sex for personal pleasure and extrinsic motives for sex include having sex due to pressure from a partner (Brunell & Webster, 2013). These motives affect psychological health by shaping the emotional experience of sexual activities (Impett et al., 2005) and these processes may differ for married men and women due to society’s scripts surrounding sexuality (Lodge & Umberson, 2012). Marriage is a gendered institution (Ferree, 2010) and gendered scripts in marriage often characterize husbands as having higher levels of sexual desire than their wives. This suggests that extrinsic motives to have sex due to pressure from a spouse may contribute to worse psychological health for married men than for women because it contradicts these scripts. Moreover, a gender-as-relational perspective (Thomeer et al., 2020) posits that expectations for performance of gender within relationships further depend on the gender of one’s partner. For example, the psychological implications of extrinsic sexual motives may differ for men in same-sex and different-sex marriages. However, most prior research on gender, intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives, and psychological health has focused primarily on gender differences in young adult different-sex dating couples, which limits our understanding of how gender operates in the context of same-sex and different-sex marriages in midlife.

Stress has long been associated with sexual dynamics (Bodenmann et al., 2010) and with psychological health (Hammen, 2015), which suggests that stress may shape the associations between sexual motives and psychological health. Midlife is often characterized as a particularly stressful period of the life course with role transitions, increased family responsibilities, and the emergence of health problems (Lachman et al., 2014). Given gender differences in vulnerability to stress (Hatzenbuehler et al., 2010) and the psychological implications of sexual motives (Stephenson et al., 2011), the moderating role of stress in the associations between sexual motives and psychological health may also differ for men and women and whether they are in same-sex or different-sex marriages (Thomeer et al., 2020).

In this study, we examine the link between sexual motives and depressive symptoms among men and women aged 35–65 in same-sex and different-sex marriages. We consider both intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives and use depressive symptoms as an indicator of psychological health. We also examine the moderating role of stress. In line with a gender-as-relational perspective (Thomeer et al., 2020), we test whether the associations between sexual motives, stress, and depressive symptoms differ for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages (i.e., women married to women, women married to men, men married to women, men married to men).

Sexual Motives and Depressive Symptoms

Self-Determination Theory suggests that individuals’ motives for engaging in behaviors affect their personal well-being (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000). This theory emphasizes the psychological benefits of behaviors that are chosen and endorsed by the individual rather than those coerced by external forces. Prior research applying Self-Determination Theory to sexual motives distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motives for engaging in sexual activities (Brunell & Webster, 2013; Jenkins, 2004). Intrinsic sexual motives are more self-determined in nature and are typically measured with items such as “Because I enjoy being sexual.” Extrinsic sexual motives refer to engaging in sexual activities due to external expectations or pressures, and include items such as “Because I feel pressured by my partner to have sex” (Brunell & Webster, 2013; Jenkins, 2004). Studies on sexual motives and psychological health find that intrinsic sexual motives are typically associated with better psychological outcomes including lower levels of depressive symptoms (Brunell & Webster, 2013; Jenkins, 2004), whereas extrinsic sexual motives are often related to worse psychological outcomes (Gravel et al., 2019).

Prior studies on intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives primarily focus on young men and women in different-sex dating relationships even though sexual motives are likely important to midlife married couples. Men and women experience age-related physical changes during midlife (e.g., changes in ability to sustain an erection for men or vaginal dryness for women) and married couples in this period experience their sexual activities differently because of these physical changes (Lodge & Umberson, 2012). Sexual motives may have significant psychological implications for midlife married couples by shaping the qualitative experience of sexual activities. Moreover, the association of extrinsic sexual motives with depressive symptoms may differ for men and women because of the cultural scripts which emphasize men as sexually assertive and active and women as submissive and passive (Impett et al., 2014; Impett & Peplau, 2003). In midlife when changes in health and sexual functioning begin to challenge men’s sense of themselves as sexually successful and in control (Lodge & Umberson, 2012), extrinsic sexual motives may be more detrimental for men than for women. Extrinsic sexual motives may be less consequential for women because women are expected to adjust their sexual needs for the sake of their spouse or for the relationship (Gabb, 2019). In similar vein, intrinsic sexual motives may be more protective against depressive symptoms for men than for women given that men tend to seek pleasure through sex more so than women (Impett et al., 2014).

The psychological implications of sexual motives may also differ for same-sex compared to different-sex marriages (Thomeer et al., 2020). For example, the effects of extrinsic sexual motives may be less consequential for men married to men than for men married to women, as scripts of sexual difference are less emphasized in same-sex relationships compared to different-sex relationships (Gabb, 2019). Among women, the impact of extrinsic sexual motives may be less likely to differ for those in same-sex compared to different-sex marriages, as women tend to emphasize closeness and relationship maintenance regardless of whether they are married to a man or a woman (Meston & Stanton, 2017). The association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms is likely to be stronger for men in same-sex marriages than man in different-sex marriages, as men in same-sex relationships tend to emphasize physical rewards of sexual activities (Impett et al., 2014).

The Moderating Role of Stress

Considering the increased levels of stress in midlife (Lachman et al., 2014) and the strong link between general life stress—that is, strains or difficulties individuals experience in diverse aspects of life—and depressive symptoms (Hammen, 2015), stress may influence the associations between sexual motives and depressive symptoms in midlife married couples. For example, the protective effect of intrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms may be mitigated under higher levels of stress, given that negative experiences tend to diminish the benefits of positive experiences (Finan et al., 2010). Having higher levels of stress may amplify the negative effects of extrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms, due to the additive effect of stress and extrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms (Hammen, 2004).

The degree to which stress influences the associations between sexual motives and depressive symptoms may also differ depending on one’s gender and the gender composition of a married couple (i.e., women married to women, women married to men, men married to women, men married to men). Given that women are more psychologically reactive to the effects of stress (Girgus & Yang, 2015; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2010), change in the associations between sexual motives and depressive symptoms by level of stress is likely to be greater for women than for men. For example, while women may be less influenced by extrinsic sexual motives compared to men under the conditions of low stress, the psychological impact of extrinsic sexual motives may increase for women more so than for men under the conditions of high stress. The protective effect of intrinsic motives on depressive symptoms may be reduced under higher levels of stress more so for women than for men. Among women, these moderating effects of stress could be stronger for women married to women than for women married to men (Krueger et al., 2018) because women in same-sex marriages may be exposed to additional stressors due to their sexual minority status (e.g., discrimination; Fredriksen-Goldsen et al., 2013, 2017) and have limited support and resources available to cope with stressors (e.g., family support; Meyer & Frost, 2013). Similarly, among men, the role of stress may be more salient for men married to men than for men married to women.

The Present Study

Using dyadic data collected from midlife same-sex and different-sex married couples, we examine the associations of intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives with depressive symptoms and whether these associations differ by levels of stress for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages. As a supplementary analysis, we also tested the partner effects of sexual motives on respondents’ own depressive symptoms. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1-A. Intrinsic sexual motives will be associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms.

Hypothesis 1-B. Extrinsic sexual motives will be associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms.

Hypothesis 2-A. Under higher levels of stress, the association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be weaker, and such patterns will be more pronounced for women (compared to men) and those in same-sex marriages (compared to different-sex marriages).

Hypothesis 2-B. Under higher levels of stress, the association between extrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be stronger, and such patterns will be more pronounced for women (compared to men) and those in same-sex marriages (compared to different-sex marriages).

Hypothesis 3-A. Under lower levels of stress, the associations between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be stronger for men in same-sex marriages.

Hypothesis 3-B. Under lower levels of stress, the associations between extrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be stronger for men in different-sex marriages.

Method

Data and Sample

We used dyadic survey data from the Health and Relationships Project, which was designed to study how midlife couples in different-sex and same-sex marriages in the United States influence each other’s health and health behaviors. Each spouse completed their 45-min online survey independent from each other and received $50 per person compensation. Participants were between ages 35 and 65, legally married, and living together for at least 3 years at the time of the data collection (2014–2015). Couples were required to live together for at least 3 years to examine relationship and health dynamics for established couples and to avoid newlywed effects.

Participant recruitment was designed in a systematic way to create comparable groups of same-sex and different-sex marriages. Massachusetts was selected as the study site because it was the first U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage in 2004. Same-sex couples who married between 2004 and 2012 and met age requirements were identified using the Massachusetts Registry of Vital Records; about 70% of same-sex couples were recruited this way. Approximately 40% of different-sex couples were recruited using publicly available demographic household data in Massachusetts. The remaining 30% of same-sex couples and 60% of different-sex couples were recruited from referrals from participating couples. About 50% of couples married in Massachusetts, but were living in other states such as New York (10.48%), Ohio (7.23%), and Texas (3.86%). The demographic characteristics (e.g., age, income, and percent of couples with children under age 18) of the sample are comparable to nationally representative data for midlife same-sex and different-sex couples at the time of data collection (e.g., Gates, 2015).

The analytic sample for this study included 830 individuals from 415 couples (123 men married to men, 168 women married to women, and 124 different-sex couples). Among men in same-sex marriages, 98.37% identified as gay and 1.63% as bisexual. For women in same-sex marriages, 74.40% identified as lesbian, 8.33% as bisexual, 4.46% as queer, and 9.82% as gay. For individuals in different-sex marriages, 99.19% of men and 92.74% of women identified as straight and 0.81% of men and 4.84% of women reported as being bisexual. Four couples (one men married to men couple and three women married to women couples) were excluded from the analyses due to missing data on study variables.

On average, the respondents were 48 years old (SD = 8.34), had been living together for about 15 years (SD = 8.07). The majority had at least a college degree (80.24%) and were non-Hispanic White (86.27%). The non-White sample (13.73%) included Black (3.37%), Hispanic (4.34%), Asian (2.77%), Native American (0.12%), mixed race (1.93%), and other (1.20%). Comparisons across composition of the couple (Table 1) showed that same-sex couples (M = 49.83, SD = 8.23 for men married to men; M = 49.21, SD = 8.33 for women married to women) were older than different-sex couples (M = 46.92, SD = 8.21 for men married to women; M = 45.42, SD = 7.74 for women married to men). Women married to women lived together the shortest duration (M = 13.54, SD = 7.48) compared to the other three groups (M = 16.25; SD = 7.76 for men married to men; M = 16.43; SD = 8.76 for men married to women and women married to men). Same-sex couples (80.89% of men married to men; 86.31% of women married to women) had larger proportions of individuals with college degree or higher compared to different-sex couples (68.55% of men married to women; 74.19% of women married to men).

Table 1.

Sample Descriptives by Gender Composition of the Couple (N = 830 Individuals From 415 Couples)

Variable Total sample (N = 830) Men married to men (n = 246) Men married to women (n = 124) Women married to men (n = 124) Women married to women (n = 336) F (p value)
M (SD) or % M (SD) or % M (SD) or % M (SD) or % M (SD) or %
Depressive symptoms (range: 11–38) 17.09 (5.32) 16.75 (5.33) 16.87 (5.27) 17.97 (5.45) 17.09 (5.27) 1.54 (.20)
Extrinsic sexual motives (range: 1–4) 1.97 (0.80) 1.99 (0.77)c,d 1.93 (0.69)c 2.41 (0.88)a,b,d 1.81 (0.77)a,c 18.17 (p < .001)
Intrinsic sexual motives (range: 1–4) 3.10 (1.04) 3.13 (0.97) 3.15 (0.97) 3.10 (0.93) 3.06 (1.14) 0.39 (.76)
Level of stress (range: 1–4.5) 2.16 (0.61) 2.03 (0.58)b,c 2.21 (0.64)a 2.34 (0.65)a,d 2.15 (0.58)c 7.67 (p < .001)
Age (range: 35–65) 48.48 (8.34) 49.83 (8.23)b,c 46.92 (8.21)a,d 45.42 (7.74)a,d 49.21 (8.33)b,c 10.36 (p < .001)
Years lived together (range: 3.5–45) 15.20 (8.07) 16.25 (7.76)d 16.43 (8.76)d 16.43 (8.76)d 13.54 (7.48)a,b,c 8.24 (p < .001)
Non-Hispanic White 86.27% 86.59% 83.06% 81.45% 88.99% 1.88 (.13)
Child in household 40.96% 12.20%b,c,d 70.97a,d 71.77%a,d 39.58%a,b,c 75.86 (p < .001)
College degree or higher 80.24% 80.89%b 68.55a,d 74.19%d 86.31%b,c 7.30 (p < .001)
Open in a new tab

Notes: Significant differences from pairwise comparisons following analysis of variance with Bonferroni correction (p < .05).

aSignificantly different from men married to men.

bSignificantly different from men married to women.

cSignificantly different from women married to men.

dSignificantly different from women married to women.

Measures

Depressive symptoms

Depressive symptoms were measured using an 11-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression scale (Radloff, 1977). Respondents indicated how often they felt or behaved in the following ways during the past week (e.g., felt lonely, enjoyed life). Responses to each item ranged from 1 = rarely or none of the time to 4 = most of the time. Positive items were reverse-coded so that higher values indicate greater depressive symptoms. All 11 items were summed to calculate a summary score, which ranged from 11 to 38 (α = 0.85).

Sexual motives

Sexual motives were measured with five items adapted from previous studies (e.g., Cooper et al., 2008). Respondents indicated how often they had sex in the past 12 months for the following reasons: for enjoyment and pleasure, to please their spouse, for emotional closeness, felt pressured by spouse, and for the sake of the relationship. Responses ranged from 1 = never to 4 = often. These five items were divided into two subscales based on previous studies on intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives (e.g., Jenkins, 2004), which were then additionally examined using factor analysis with varimax rotation (Mooi et al., 2018; results shown in Supplementary Table 1). Intrinsic sexual motives included two items on having sex for enjoyment and pleasure and for emotional closeness. Extrinsic sexual motives included three items on having sex to please one’s spouse, because they felt pressured by spouse, and for the sake of the relationship. Summary scores for the two subscales were created by calculating the mean of each sexual motive subscale; higher scores indicated higher levels of intrinsic and extrinsic motives (r for intrinsic sexual motives = 0.72 [Rammstedt & Beierlein, 2014]; α for extrinsic sexual motives = 0.69).

Levels of stress

Levels of general life stress were measured by asking the respondents to rate current stress levels in different life domains (House, 2018). These included: finances, work or employment situation, relationship with spouse, other family relationships, relationships with friends, health, spouse’s health, household work, and overall current life circumstances. Responses to these items ranged from 1 = not at all to 5 = extremely. We created a summary score by calculating the mean of nine items so that higher values indicate more stress (α = 0.78).

Covariates

We controlled for sociodemographic characteristics including respondents’ age in years, education (0 = some years of college or less; 1 = college degree or higher), race (0 = non-Hispanic White; 1 = non-White [which include Black, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, mixed race, and other]), having child in household (0 = no; 1 = yes), and years lived together. For the models that examined the associations between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms, we controlled for extrinsic sexual motives. For the models on extrinsic sexual motives, we controlled for intrinsic sexual motives.

Plan of Analysis

We used mixed-effects multilevel modeling to examine differences by gender and gender composition of the couple in the associations between sexual motives, levels of stress, and depressive symptoms. Respondents were nested within couples with one variance and one covariance per couple. To account for nonindependence within the dyad, we modeled the covariance structure for partners as exchangeable. This approach allows to analyze dyadic samples that include both indistinguishable (i.e., same-sex) and distinguishable (i.e., different-sex) dyads (Kenny et al., 2006; Kroeger & Powers, 2019). We used the factorial method (West et al., 2008), an extension of the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model, to estimate the effects of gender and gender composition of the couple in dyadic data. This method allows us to extend the tests of gender effects beyond one measure to three, which include analyzing the effects of respondent gender (women vs men), partner gender (married to women vs married to men), and composition of the couple (same-sex couple vs different-sex couple).

For analysis models, we estimated a series of regression models. Model 1 tested the main effects of sexual motives on individuals’ depressive symptoms. In Model 2, we added an interaction between sexual motives and stress to examine whether the associations between sexual motives and depressive symptoms differ by levels of stress. Model 3 included an interaction of sexual motives, stress, and respondent gender (0 = men; 1 = women) to examine whether moderation by stress differ for men and women. Model 4 tested an interaction effect of sexual motives, stress, and partner gender (0 = men; 1 = women) to examine whether moderation by stress differ by partner gender (i.e., married to men or married to women). In the final model (Model 5), we included a four-way interaction of sexual motives, stress, respondent gender, and partner gender to examine whether moderation by stress differ across men married to men, men married to women, women married to men, and women married to women. These analyses were performed separately for intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives using Stata 16.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 presents descriptive data for study variables. To examine the differences in study variables across men married to men, men married to women, women married to men, and women married to women, we tested group differences using analysis of variance post hoc pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction. Women married to men (M = 2.41, SD = 0.88) had higher levels of extrinsic sexual motives compared to the other three groups (M = 1.99, SD = 0.77 for men married to men; M = 1.93, SD = 0.69 for men married to women; M = 1.81, SD = 0.77 for women married to women). For levels of stress, men married to men (M = 2.03, SD = 0.58) had lower levels of stress than men married to women (M = 2.21, SD = 0.64) and women married to men (M = 2.34, SD = 0.65). Among women, those married to men reported higher levels of stress compared to those married to women (M = 2.15, SD = 0.58). There were no significant group differences for depressive symptoms (Mtotal sample = 17.09, SDtotal sample = 5.32) and intrinsic sexual motives (Mtotal sample = 3.10, SDtotal sample = 1.04).

Sexual Motives and Depressive Symptoms

Model 1 in Tables 2 and 3 presents results from multilevel analyses that examined the associations of intrinsic (Table 2) and extrinsic (Table 3) sexual motives with depressive symptoms. Full results with covariates are available in Supplementary Tables 2 and 3. Consistent with Hypotheses 1-A and 1-B, results showed that higher levels of intrinsic sexual motives were associated with fewer depressive symptoms (β = −0.55, 95% CI = [−0.86, −0.24]; Table 2, Model 1) and higher levels of extrinsic sexual motives were associated with greater depressive symptoms (β = 0.54, 95% CI = [0.14, 0.94]; Table 3, Model 1).

Table 2.

Estimates From Multilevel Regression Models Testing the Association Between Intrinsic Sexual Motives, Stress, and Depressive Symptoms

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI
Intrinsic sexual motives −0.55** [−0.86, −0.24] −0.51** [−0.82, −0.19] −0.57* [−1.04, −0.09] −0.25 [−0.73, 0.24] −0.65* [−1.21, −0.09]
Level of stress 4.95*** [4.46, 5.44] 4.90*** [4.41, 5.40] 5.24*** [4.50, 5.98] 5.30*** [4.56, 6.04] 5.69*** [4.77, 6.61]
Actor is women 0.08 [−0.55, 0.72] 0.08 [−0.55, 0.71] 0.11 [−0.54, 0.75] 0.01 [−0.63, 0.65] −0.48 [−1.51, 0.55]
Partner is women −0.05 [−0.70, 0.60] −0.04 [−0.68, 0.61] −0.09 [−0.75, 0.56] −0.01 [−0.67, 0.65] −0.47 [−1.48, 0.54]
Intrinsic sexual motives × Stress −0.36 [−0.80, 0.08]
Actor women × Intrinsic sexual motives × Stress 0.09 [−0.82, 1.01]
Partner women × Intrinsic sexual motives × Stress 0.03 [−0.86, 0.93]
Actor women × Partner women × Intrinsic sexual motives × Stress −3.14** [−5.14, −1.14]
Constant 18.01*** [17.23, 18.79] 17.94*** [17.16, 18.73] 17.97*** [17.19, 18.76] 17.94*** [17.16, 18.73] 18.19*** [17.38, 19.00]
Log likelihood −2,365.37 −2,364.10 −2,363.11 −2,362.56 −2,350.92
Open in a new tab

Notes: b = unstandardized beta coefficient; CI = confidence interval. All models adjusted for age in years, race, education, years lived together, child in household, extrinsic sexual motives. Actor and partner gender were coded as 0 = men and 1 = women. All continuous variables were centered at their sample mean. Constituent interactions terms of the three-way and four-way interaction effects tested in the models are omitted from the table. In this model, actor effect refers to the association between respondent gender and depressive symptoms. Partner effect refers to the association between partner gender and respondent’s depressive symptoms (West et al., 2008). Intrinsic sexual motives are measures of respondent’s motives. We also performed additional analyses that included bisexuality as a covariate, and results remained the same.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Table 3.

Estimates From Multilevel Regression Models Testing the Association Between Extrinsic Sexual Motives, Stress, and Depressive Symptoms

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI b 95% CI
Extrinsic sexual motives 0.54** [0.14, 0.94] 0.57** [0.17, 0.97] 0.94** [0.35, 1.53] 0.80** [0.26, 1.35] 1.14** [0.45, 1.83]
Level of stress 4.95*** [4.46, 5.44] 4.97*** [4.48, 5.47] 5.20*** [4.47, 5.92] 5.31*** [4.56, 6.06] 5.64*** [4.72, 6.57]
Actor is women 0.08 [−0.55, 0.72] 0.09 [−0.55, 0.72] 0.15 [−0.48, 0.78] −0.04 [−0.68, 0.61] −0.66 [−1.74, 0.41]
Partner is women −0.05 [−0.70, 0.60] −0.06 [−0.71, 0.58] −0.18 [−0.84, 0.47] −0.02 [−0.67, 0.63] −0.83 [−1.82, 0.16]
Extrinsic sexual motives × Stress −0.33 [−0.87, 0.20]
Actor women × Extrinsic sexual motives × Stress −1.14* [−2.25, −0.03]
Partner women × Extrinsic sexual motives × Stress −0.29 [−1.40, 0.82]
Actor women × Partner women × Extrinsic sexual motives × Stress 0.13 [−2.26, 2.52]
Constant 18.01*** [17.23, 18.79] 18.04*** [17.25, 18.82] 18.08*** [17.30, 18.86] 18.00*** [17.22, 18.78] 18.27*** [17.46, 19.09]
Log likelihood −2,365.37 −2,364.63 −2,360.33 −2,362.58 −2,356.65
Open in a new tab

Notes: b = unstandardized beta coefficient; CI = confidence interval. All models adjusted for age in years, race, education, years lived together, child in household, intrinsic sexual motives. Actor and partner gender were coded as 0 = men and 1 = women. All continuous variables were centered at their sample mean. Constituent interactions terms of the three-way and four-way interaction effects tested in the models are omitted from the table. In this model, actor effect refers to the association between respondent gender and depressive symptoms. Partner effect refers to the association between partner gender and respondent’s depressive symptoms (West et al., 2008). Extrinsic sexual motives are measures of respondent’s motives. We also performed additional analyses that included bisexuality as a covariate, and results remained the same.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The Moderating Role of Stress and Gender

Models 2–5 in Tables 2 and 3 present results from multilevel analyses that examined whether the associations of intrinsic (Table 2) and extrinsic (Table 3) sexual motives with depressive symptoms differ by levels of stress for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages. Results from constituent interaction terms and covariates are available in Supplementary Tables 2 and 3. Inconsistent with Hypotheses 2-A and 2-B that the association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be weaker and the association between extrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms will be stronger in high-stress conditions, results revealed no significant interaction effect between intrinsic sexual motives and stress (Table 2, Model 2) and between extrinsic sexual motives and stress (Table 3, Model 2) on depressive symptoms.

When testing differences in the moderating effect of stress for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages, results showed no significant differences by respondent gender or partner gender for intrinsic sexual motives (Table 2, Models 3 and 4). Thus, inconsistent with Hypothesis 2-A, we found that the effect of intrinsic motives on depressive symptoms under higher levels of stress was not stronger for women than for men. However, there was a significant interaction effect between extrinsic sexual motives, stress, and respondent gender (β = −1.14, 95% CI = [−2.25, −0.03]; Table 3, Model 3), which indicated that the degree to which stress moderated the association between extrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms differed for men and women.

To further explore this interaction effect, we calculated marginal effects of extrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms for men and women in lower and higher levels of stress (Figure 1). Lower and higher levels of extrinsic sexual motives and stress were drawn at 1 SD below and above the sample mean. Figure 1 shows that, for men, higher levels of extrinsic sexual motives were associated with greater depressive symptoms only under higher-stress conditions (β = 1.18, 95% CI = [0.41, 1.96]). This finding was inconsistent with Hypothesis 2-B that extrinsic sexual motives would be associated with greater depressive symptoms for women than for men under higher levels of stress. For women, extrinsic sexual motives were associated with greater depressive symptoms only under lower-stress conditions (β = 0.79, 95% CI = [0.08, 1.49]), which was inconsistent with Hypothesis 3-B that extrinsic sexual motives would be associated with greater depressive symptoms for men than for women under lower levels of stress.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Open in a new tab

The associations between extrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms for men and women. Note: *p < .05, **p < .01.

Although there was not a significant interaction between intrinsic sexual motives, stress, and respondent gender, there was a significant interaction effect between intrinsic sexual motives, stress, respondent gender, and partner gender (β = −3.14, 95% CI = [−5.14, −1.14]; Table 2, Model 5). This indicated that the degree to which stress moderated the association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms differed by the gender composition of the couple.

We estimated marginal effects of intrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms for men married to men, men married to women, women married to men, and women married to women (Figure 2). Lower and higher levels of intrinsic sexual motives and stress were drawn at 1 SD below and above the sample mean. Panel B of Figure 2 shows that having higher levels of intrinsic sexual motives was associated with fewer depressive symptoms only for individuals with higher levels of stress in same-sex marriages (β = −1.44, 95% CI = [−2.24, −0.64] for men married to men; β = −1.10, 95% CI = [−1.63, −0.58] for women married to women) and not for those in different-sex marriages. This finding was inconsistent with Hypothesis 2-A that the association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms would be weaker under higher-stress conditions for those in same-sex marriages compared to those in different-sex marriages. The associations between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms were not significant for all four groups in lower levels of stress, as shown in Panel A of Figure 2. This result was inconsistent with Hypothesis 3-A that the association between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms would be stronger for men in same-sex marriages under lower-stress conditions.

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Open in a new tab

The associations between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms among those with lower levels of stress (Panel A) and higher levels of stress (Panel B). Note: ***p < .001.

Supplementary Analyses: Partners’ Sexual Motives and Respondents’ Own Depressive Symptoms

Because spouses’ influence each other’s health (Kelley et al., 1983), we explored the associations between partners’ sexual motives and respondents’ own depressive symptoms (i.e., partner effects of sexual motives). We found that partners’ higher levels of intrinsic sexual motives were associated with respondents’ lower levels of depressive symptoms only among women married to women at higher levels of stress (β = −0.68, 95% CI = [−1.25, −0.12]). The association between partners’ extrinsic sexual motives and respondents’ depressive symptoms was not significant regardless of levels of stress, gender, or gender composition of the couple.

Discussion

Midlife is a particularly important period of the life course characterized by a buildup of stressors and changes in health that affect sexual experiences (Lachman et al., 2014; Lodge & Umberson, 2012). Nonetheless, sexual activity remains as an integral part of marriage in midlife (Lee et al., 2016), with varying psychological implications by gender and sexuality (Lodge & Umberson, 2012; Paine et al., 2019). However, despite the importance of sexual activities in midlife, prior research on sexual motives has focused primarily on young adult different-sex dating couples (e.g., Brunell & Webster, 2013; Gravel et al., 2019). The present study shifts this perspective to focus on both same-sex and different-sex midlife married couples. Guided by Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and the gender-as-relational perspective (Thomeer et al., 2020), we examined the associations of midlife married couples’ intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives with depressive symptoms. We also explored the moderating effect of stress and whether the associations between sexual motives, stress, and depressive symptoms varied for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages (e.g., men married to men, men married to women, women married to men, women married to women).

Our findings suggest that intrinsic sexual motives are associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms and extrinsic sexual motives are associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms (consistent with Hypotheses 1-A and 1-B). According to Self-Determination Theory, intrinsic motives benefit psychological health by fulfilling individuals’ basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Knee et al., 2013). This suggests that engaging in sexual activities with intrinsic motives may be protective against depressive symptoms by allowing individuals to have satisfying sexual experiences that encourage self-endorsed values, promote confidence, and nurture a sense of belonging and intimacy. Conversely, engaging in sexual activities with extrinsic motives from external pressure may deter individuals from fulfilling these needs and lower their sense of personal control (Gravel et al., 2019), which can result in greater depressive symptoms.

Our results also suggest that the associations between sexual motives and depressive symptoms differ by levels of stress for men and women in same-sex and different-sex marriages. Under lower levels of stress, extrinsic sexual motives were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms only for women (inconsistent with Hypothesis 3-B). This could be due to a saturation effect, in which individuals’ susceptibility to the negative impact of acute stressors is reduced under higher levels of chronic stress (Cairney et al., 2003). It may be that women in highly stressful situations are not influenced by acute stressors such as engaging in sexual activities from external pressure because they are inured to chronic stress. Conversely, for women who experience less stress, the impact of extrinsic sexual motives on depressive symptoms could be more potent. It is possible that a saturation effect was limited to women due to the higher levels of chronic stress women experience compared to men (Matud, 2004).

Under higher levels of stress, on the other hand, extrinsic sexual motives were associated with greater depressive symptoms only for men (inconsistent with Hypothesis 2-B). For men in both same-sex and different-sex marriages, extrinsic sexual motives may be related to greater depressive symptoms due to society’s gendered sexual scripts wherein men are generally expected to be more assertive and dominant in sexual activities (Impett & Peplau, 2003). Engaging in sexual activities for extrinsic, passive reasons such as being pressured by one’s spouse contradicts such expectations, which may contribute to men’s depressive symptoms. Such adverse psychological effects of extrinsic sexual motives may be significant for men under higher levels of stress because men tend to engage in sexual activities to provide relief from stress more so than women do (Meston & Buss, 2007). Engaging in sex with extrinsic motives may prevent men from alleviating stress through sexual activities, which could exert a greater psychological toll in highly stressful situations.

Our results also suggest that, under higher levels of stress, the protective effect of intrinsic sexual motives against depressive symptoms occurs only for men and women in same-sex marriages (inconsistent with Hypotheses 2-A and 3-A). Intrinsic sexual motives make sexual experiences more pleasurable and fulfilling (Jenkins, 2004), and such positive experiences are more beneficial when people are highly distressed because positive experiences provide a break from stressful circumstances (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). Given that individuals in same-sex marriages generally face greater individual- and couple-level stressors associated with their minority status compared to those in different-sex marriages (e.g., stigma and discrimination; Frost et al., 2017; Meyer & Frost, 2013), the psychological benefits of intrinsic sexual motives may be amplified for same-sex married couples under higher-stress conditions (Riskind et al., 2013).

Further, men and women in same-sex marriages rely on their spouse when faced with life stressors more so than their straight counterparts do (Rostosky et al., 2007; Saunders & Carr, 2022). Because intrinsic sexual motives promote intimacy and belonging within close relationships (La Guardia & Patrick, 2008), building a strong bond with one’s partner through intrinsically motivated sexual activities may be particularly important for both men and women in same-sex marriages for reducing depressive symptoms under high-stress conditions. Our supplementary analyses indicate that for women married to women under higher levels of stress, their spouses’ intrinsic motives also matter for their own depressive symptoms. There were no significant partner effects for women in different-sex marriages and for men in same-sex and different-sex marriages. This finding may occur because women are generally more attentive and responsive to their spouse than are men (Thomeer et al., 2013) and women in same-sex relationships tend to rely more on their partners compared to women in different-sex relationships (Rostosky et al., 2007).

For individuals in different-sex marriages, there were no significant associations between intrinsic sexual motives and depressive symptoms, regardless of stress. This finding could be attributed to age-related changes in men’s sexual functioning that appear in midlife, which may challenge midlife married couples’ gendered scripts about men’s sexual performance (e.g., men as desiring sexual intercourse) and lead women to blame themselves for their husband’s lack of interest in sex (e.g., related to views about women’s aging bodies and attractiveness; Lodge & Umberson, 2012). Such emotional discomfort around changes in sexual experiences in midlife may negate the psychological benefits of intrinsic sexual motives for individuals in different-sex marriages.

There are several limitations to note. First, we could not distinguish between acute and chronic stressors, which have distinct effects on depressive symptoms (Hammen et al., 2009). Second, this study focused on general life stressors commonly experienced in adulthood and not minority stressors that individuals in same-sex marriages are likely to experience (e.g., prejudice, stigma, discrimination). Future studies on sexual motives and psychological health in midlife should also examine the role of minority stress for individuals in same-sex marriages. Third, the measure of sexual motives was limited to a five-item questionnaire, which does not cover the full range of intrinsic and extrinsic sexual motives (e.g., Brunell & Webster, 2013; Jenkins, 2004). Fourth, causality cannot be inferred from our results given the cross-sectional nature of our data. Longitudinal data are needed to test the causal relationships between sexual motives and depressive symptoms. Finally, our sample was relatively homogeneous, comprised of highly educated, majority White, midlife adults in long-term marriages. Individuals in same-sex marriages had higher levels of education than those in different-sex marriages (see Table 1), which may explain lower levels of stress found among same-sex compared to different-sex couples. Given the sociodemographic differences in sexual experiences, depressive symptoms, and stress (Impett et al., 2014; Kim, 2014; Turner, 2013), results could differ by sociodemographic backgrounds. Also, there is a possibility of a selection effect due to the study’s focus on married couples. Results may differ for those in nonmarital romantic relationships, including nonmonogamous or polyamorous relationships. In addition, our sample includes cisgender respondents who mostly identified as gay, lesbian, and straight. Psychological health implications of sexual motives may differ for gender minorities (e.g., gender nonbinary and nonconforming individuals) and other sexual minorities (e.g., bisexual individuals). Future studies can expand upon the findings of this study by using a more inclusive sample of sexual and gender minorities from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.

In conclusion, this study contributes to the growing literature on sexual motives and psychological health by focusing on midlife couples in same-sex and different-sex marriages and exploring the role of stress as an important factor that influences these associations. Our findings highlight the importance of sexual motives for midlife married couples and demonstrate clear gender and sexuality variations in ways that sexual motives and stress are associated with depressive symptoms. The protective effect of intrinsic sexual motives suggests that exploring sexual experiences that are inherently enjoyable could be a possible point of intervention that enhances psychological health of same-sex married couples who generally experience higher levels of stress compared to different-sex married couples. The inclusion of same-sex couples in research on sexual motives allows us to better understand the gendered sexual experiences in marital relationships and further highlights the importance of considering both gender and sexuality in the studies on sexual motives in midlife, which could be used to inform strategies that aim to enhance midlife married couples’ sexual experiences and psychological health.

Supplementary Material

gnac136_suppl_Supplementary_Material
Click here for additional data file. (33.1KB, docx)

Acknowledgments

The Health and Relationships Project data are publicly available for download via ICPSR website (Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research; https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/pages/). Further details of the present study may be available upon request to the corresponding author. This research was not preregistered.

Contributor Information

Hye Won Chai, Population Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.

Sara E Mernitz, Population Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.

Debra J Umberson, Population Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA; Department of Sociology, College of Liberal Arts, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, USA.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Institute on Aging (R01AG076057 to D. J. Umberson; P30AG066614 to the Center on Aging and Population Sciences at The University of Texas at Austin); and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849 to the Population Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin).

Conflict of Interest

None declared.

References

  1. Bodenmann, G., Atkins, D. C., Schär, M., & Poffet, V. (2010). The association between daily stress and sexual activity. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(3), 271–279. doi: 10.1037/a0019365 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Brunell, A. B., & Webster, G. D. (2013). Self-determination and sexual experience in dating relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(7), 970–987. doi: 10.1177/0146167213485442 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Cairney, J., Boyle, M., Offord, D. R., & Racine, Y. (2003). Stress, social support and depression in single and married mothers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38(8), 442–449. doi: 10.1007/s00127-003-0661-0 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Cooper, M. L., Talley, A. E., Sheldon, M. S., Levitt, A., & Barber, L. L. (2008). A dyadic perspective on approach and avoidance motives for sexual behavior. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation (pp. 615–631). Psychology Press. [Google Scholar]
  5. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum. [Google Scholar]
  6. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  7. Ferree, M. M. (2010). Filling the glass: Gender perspectives on families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 420–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00711.x [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  8. Finan, P. H., Okun, M. A., Kruszewski, D., Davis, M. C., Zautra, A. J., & Tennen, H. (2010). Interplay of concurrent positive and negative interpersonal events in the prediction of daily negative affect and fatigue for rheumatoid arthritis patients. Health Psychology, 29(4), 429–437. doi: 10.1037/a0020230 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Stress, positive emotion, and coping. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(4), 115–118. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00073 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Bryan, A. E. B., Jen, S., Goldsen, J., Kim, H.-J., & Muraco, A. (2017). The unfolding of LGBT lives: Key events associated with health and well-being in later life. The Gerontologist, 57(Suppl_1), S15–S29. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnw185 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Emlet, C. A., Kim, H.-J., Muraco, A., Erosheva, E. A., Goldsen, J., & Hoy-Ellis, C. P. (2013). The physical and mental health of lesbian, gay male, and bisexual (LGB) older adults: The role of key health indicators and risk and protective factors. The Gerontologist, 53(4), 664–675. doi: 10.1093/geront/gns123 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Frost, D. M., LeBlanc, A. J., de Vries, B., Alston-Stepnitz, E., Stephenson, R., & Woodyatt, C. (2017). Couple-level minority stress: An examination of same-sex couples’ unique experiences. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 58(4), 455–472. doi: 10.1177/0022146517736754 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Gabb, J. (2019). The relationship work of sexual intimacy in long-term heterosexual and LGBTQ partnerships. Current Sociology, 70(1), 24–41. doi: 10.1177/0011392119826619 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  14. Gates, G. J. (2015). Demographics of Married and Unmarried Same-sex Couples: Analyses of the 2013 American Community Survey. UCLA: The Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3td6n3q0 [Google Scholar]
  15. Girgus, J. S., & Yang, K. (2015). Gender and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 4, 53–60. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.019 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  16. Gravel, E. E., Reissing, E. D., & Pelletier, L. G. (2019). Global, relational, and sexual motivation: A test of hierarchical versus heterarchical effects on well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(7), 2269–2289. doi: 10.1007/s10902-018-0047-3 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  17. Hammen, C. (2004). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 293–319. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143938 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Hammen, C., Kim, E. Y., Eberhart, N. K., & Brennan, P. A. (2009). Chronic and acute stress and the prediction of major depression in women. Depression and Anxiety, 26(8), 718–723. doi: 10.1002/da.20571 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Hammen, C. L. (2015). Stress and depression: Old questions, new approaches. Current Opinion in Psychology, 4, 80–85. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.024 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Hilt, L. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). Gender, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression. In J. C. Chrisler & D. R. McCreary (Eds.), Handbook of gender research in psychology, vol 2: Gender research in social and applied psychology (pp. 133–151). Springer Science + Business Media. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1467-5_7 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. Heiman, J. R., Long, J. S., Smith, S. N., Fisher, W. A., Sand, M. S., & Rosen, R. C. (2011). Sexual satisfaction and relationship happiness in midlife and older couples in five countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(4), 741–753. doi: 10.1007/s10508-010-9703-3 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. House, J. S. (2018). Americans’ Changing Lives: Waves I, II, III, IV, and V, 1986, 1989, 1994, 2002, and 2011. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], doi: 10.3886/ICPSR04690.v9 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  23. Impett, E. A., Muise, A., & Peragine, D. (2014). Sexuality in the context of relationships. In D. L. Tolman, L. M. Diamond, J. A. Bauermeister, W. H. George, J. G. Pfaus, & L. M. Ward (Eds.), APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, vol. 1: Person-based approaches (pp. 269–315). American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/14193-010 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  24. Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2003). Sexual compliance: Gender, motivational, and relationship perspectives. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(1), 87–100. doi: 10.1080/00224490309552169 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Impett, E. A., Peplau, L. A., & Gable, S. L. (2005). Approach and avoidance sexual motives: Implications for personal and interpersonal well-being. Personal Relationships, 12(4), 465–482. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-6811.2005.00126.x [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. Jenkins, S. S. (2004). Gender and self -determination in sexual motivation. In ProQuest dissertations and theses. University of Rochester. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/gender-self-determination-sexual-motivation/docview/305153918/se-2?accountid=7118 [Google Scholar]
  27. Kelley, H. H., Berscheid, E., Christensen, A., Harvey, J. H., Huston, T. L., Levinger, G., & Peterson, D. R. (1983). Analysing close relationships. In Kelley H. H., Berscheid E., Christensen A., Harvey J. H., Huston T. L., Levinger G., & Peterson D. R. (Eds.), Close relationships (pp. 20–67). Freeman. [Google Scholar]
  28. Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Cook, W. L. (2006). Dyadic data analysis. Guilford Press. [Google Scholar]
  29. Kim, M. (2014). Racial/ethnic disparities in depression and its theoretical perspectives. The Psychiatric Quarterly, 85(1), 1–8. doi: 10.1007/s11126-013-9265-3 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Knee, C. R., Hadden, B. W., Porter, B., & Rodriguez, L. M. (2013). Self-determination theory and romantic relationship processes. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17(4), 307–324. doi: 10.1177/1088868313498000 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Kroeger, R. A., & Powers, D. A. (2019). Examining same-sex couples using dyadic data methods. In Schoen R. (Ed.), Analytical family demography (pp. 157–186). Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-93227-9_7 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  32. Krueger, E. A., Meyer, I. H., & Upchurch, D. M. (2018). Sexual orientation group differences in perceived stress and depressive symptoms among young adults in the United States. LGBT Health, 5(4), 242–249. doi: 10.1089/lgbt.2017.0228 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. La Guardia, J. G., & Patrick, H. (2008). Self-determination theory as a fundamental theory of close relationships. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 201–209. doi: 10.1037/a0012760 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Lachman, M. E., Teshale, S., & Agrigoroaei, S. (2014). Midlife as a pivotal period in the life course: Balancing growth and decline at the crossroads of youth and old age. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39(1), 20–31. doi: 10.1177/0165025414533223 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Lee, D. M., Vanhoutte, B., Nazroo, J., & Pendleton, N. (2016). Sexual health and positive subjective well-being in partnered older men and women. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 71(4), 698–710. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbw018 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Lodge, A. C., & Umberson, D. (2012). All shook up: Sexuality of mid- to later life married couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(3), 428–443. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00969.x [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7), 1401–1415. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.010 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  38. Meston, C. M., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Why humans have sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36(4), 477–507. doi: 10.1007/s10508-007-9175-2 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Meston, C. M., & Stanton, A. M. (2017). Recent findings on women’s motives for engaging in sexual activity. Current Sexual Health Reports, 9(3), 128–135. doi: 10.1007/s11930-017-0114-5 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  40. Meyer, I. H., & Frost, D. M. (2013). Minority stress and the health of sexual minorities. In C. J. Patterson & A. R. D’Augelli (Eds.), Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation (pp. 252–266). Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
  41. Mooi, E., Sarstedt, M., & Mooi-Reci, I. (2018). Principal component and factor analysis. In Mooi E., Sarstedt M., & Mooi-Reci I. (Eds.), Market research: The process, data, and methods using stata (pp. 265–311). Springer Singapore. doi: 10.1007/978-981-10-5218-7_8 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  42. Paine, E. A., Umberson, D., & Reczek, C. (2019). Sex in midlife: Women’s sexual experiences in lesbian and straight marriages. Journal of Marriage and Family, 81(1), 7–23. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12508 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi: 10.1177/014662167700100306 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  44. Rammstedt, B., & Beierlein, C. (2014). Can’t we make it any shorter? The limits of personality assessment and ways to overcome them. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(4), 212–220. doi: 10.1027/1614-0001/a000141 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  45. Riskind, J. H., Kleiman, E. M., & Schafer, K. E. (2013). “Undoing” effects of positive affect: Does it buffer the effects of negative affect in predicting changes in depression? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32(4), 363–380. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2013.32.4.363 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  46. Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D. B., Gray, B. E., & Hatton, R. L. (2007). Minority stress experiences in committed same-sex couple relationships. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38(4), 392–400. doi: 10.1037/0735-7028.38.4.392 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  47. Saunders, R. K., & Carr, D. C. (2022). Social support and depressive symptoms among men and women with same-sex experiences in later life. The Gerontologist, 62(6), 876–888. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnab192 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Stephenson, K. R., Ahrold, T. K., & Meston, C. M. (2011). The association between sexual motives and sexual satisfaction: Gender differences and categorical comparisons. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(3), 607–618. doi: 10.1007/s10508-010-9674-4 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Thomeer, M. B., Umberson, D., & Pudrovska, T. (2013). Marital processes around depression: A gendered and relational perspective. Society and Mental Health, 3(3), 151–169. doi: 10.1177/2156869313487224 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Thomeer, M. B., Umberson, D., & Reczek, C. (2020). The gender-as-relational approach for theorizing about romantic relationships of sexual and gender minority mid- to later-life adults. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 12(2), 220–237. doi: 10.1111/jftr.12368 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Turner, R. J. (2013). Understanding health disparities: The relevance of the stress process model. Society and Mental Health, 3(3), 170–186. doi: 10.1177/2156869313488121 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  52. West, T. V., Popp, D., & Kenny, D. A. (2008). A guide for the estimation of gender and sexual orientation effects in dyadic data: An actor–partner interdependence model approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(3), 321–336. doi: 10.1177/0146167207311199 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

gnac136_suppl_Supplementary_Material
Click here for additional data file. (33.1KB, docx)

Articles from The Gerontologist are provided here courtesy of Oxford University Press

RESOURCES