Table 1.

Summary of findings related to nuts and diabetes related prevention and management.

Variables	Finding 1	Level of Evidence 2	Reference
Epidemiological Evidence
Fasting blood glucose	↓	+	[11]
Plasma insulin	↓	+
HOMA-IR	↓	+	[11,12]
HOMA-B	↓	+	[11]
HbA1c	↓	+
OGTT	↓	+
Diabetes incidence	↓/↔	+	[13,14]
Diabetes prevalence	↓/↔	+	[13,15,16,17]
CVD incidence in participants with T2D	↓	+	[18]
Diabetes mortality	↓	++	[19]
Clinical Trial Evidence
Acute Trial Evidence
In participants free of T2D:
Postprandial glycemia	↓	++	[20,21,22,23,24,25,26]
Postprandial insulinemia	↓/↔	+	[21,27,28]
In participants with T2D:
Postprandial glycemia	↓	+	[21,23,29,30]
Postprandial insulinemia	↓/↔	+	[21,29]
Glucose metabolic clearance rate	↑	+	[29]
Longer-term Trial Evidence
In participants free of T2D at baseline:
Diabetes incidence	↓/↔	+	[31,32,33]
In participants with T2D at baseline:
Fasting glucose	↓	+	[30,34,35,36,37,38,39]
Fasting insulin	↔	+
HbA1c	↓	+
HOMA-IR	↔	+
In participants with/without T2D at baseline:
Fasting glucose	↔	+	[40]
Fasting insulin	↓	+
HbA1c	↔	+
HOMA-IR	↓	+

Abbreviations: CVD, cardiovascular disease; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HOMA, homoeostasis model assessment; IR, insulin resistance; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; T2D, type 2 diabetes mellitus. ¹ Findings are based on the authors’ review, and assessment of the noted literature, and hence could present some subjectivity. In general: ↓, majority of evidence indicated a decrease; ↑, majority of evidence indicated an increase; ↔, majority of evidence indicated no change observed; ↓/↔, majority of evidence was split between showing a decrease or no effect on the outcome. Where “majority of evidence” refers to the entirety of the evidence, if a relevant systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted these findings were used as the basis of this determination. ² Level of Evidence is based on the authors’ review and assessment and, hence, could present with some subjectivity. In general: +, limited and/or inconsistent evidence from few studies in the denoted type of study design; ++, consistent evidence in several studies in the denoted type of study design.