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. 2023 Feb 10;9(2):e13591. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13591

Interactive effect of land use systems on depth-wise soil properties and micronutrients minerals in North-Western, India

Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal a,∗, Vivek Sharma a, Arvind Kumar Shukla b, Janpriya Kaur a, Rajeev Kumar Gupta a,∗∗, Vibha Verma a, Manmeet Kaur a, Vijay Kant Singh a, Prabhjot Singh a
PMCID: PMC9970903  PMID: 36865444

Abstract

Micronutrients play a vital role in improving growth and performance of different crops. Management of soil micronutrients for better crop production needs sound understanding of their status and causes of variability. Therefore, in order to evaluate the changes in soil properties and micronutrient contents of soils, an experiment was conducted with soil samples from six soil depths i.e. 0-10, 10–20, 20–40,40-60, 60–80 and 80–100 cm of four prominent land-use systems viz. forest, horticulture, crop land and barren land. Amongst these, the maximum contents of OC (0.36%), clay (19.4%), DTPA-Zn (1.14 mg kg−1), Fe (11.78 mg kg−1), Mn (5.37 mg kg−1), Cu (0.85 mg kg−1) and Ni (1.44 mg kg_1) were observed in soils of forest land use system followed by horticulture, crop land and barren land, respectively. Also, soils of forest landpossessed 29.5, 21.3, 58.4, 51.8 and 44.0% higher DTPA-Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni as compared to crop land use system. Interactive influence of land use systems and soil depths on distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients was found to be positive with maximum content at 0–10 cm depth of forest land use and lowest at 80–100 cm of barren land use system, respectively. Correlation analysis explicit positive and significant relationship of OC with DTPA Zn (r = 0.81), Fe (r = 0.79), Mn (r = 0.77), Cu (r = 0.84) andNi (r = 0.80), whereas the correlation results among DTPA micronutrients indicated the highest positivecorrelation of Ni with Cu (r = 0.95) and Mn (r = 0.93) followed by Fe with Zn (r = 0.93). Therefore, inclusion of forest and horticulture land use in crop lands or shift of land use from forest based to crop land resulted in renewal of degraded soil which could be beneficial for enhancing agricultural sustainability.

Keywords: Land use systems, Soil depths, Soil properties, DTPA extractable micronutrients

1. Introduction

Green revolution has resulted into self-sufficiency of nations in food production to fulfil the demands of ever-increasing population. This has resulted in reduction of micronutrient content in soils with their exclusion from definite nutrient resources in soil [1]. The status of Indian soils is found to be poor in terms of micronutrients availability to crops. Therefore, deteriorating soil fertility and crop productivity relative to decrease in availability of micronutrients poses threat to food security [2]. Now a days, the deficiencies of micronutrients have become a major nutritional constraint for food grain production with around 2 billion people being affected on global scale [3]. The micronutrient content in soils is altered by the difference in land use patterns and depth of soil [4,5]. The preferred depth of sampling for the determination of soil nutrient content was surface soil layer (0–15 cm) as most of the plant growth and tillage practices add nutrients to this depth in soil [6].

Micronutrients including zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni) play a vital role in growth and production of crops through their involvement in synthesis of chlorophyll, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates metabolism and tolerance to stress etc. [7]. Deficiency of micronutrients in soils created hindrance in outcome of crops represented in terms of negative impact on grain production and thus the food chain [8]. Factors responsible for micronutrient deficiency in soils comprise of poor organic carbon (OC), low clay content, intensive cropping, application of micronutrient free chemical fertilizers and exclusion of organic manures from cropping systems [9]. Variability in deficiency level of micronutrients have been reported in many crops as outcome of transformation in land use patterns, cropping systems and human actions [10,11]. Explicitly, the increased level of micronutrient deficiencies has executed constraint in productivity of crops and endangered the sustainability of crop land use system [12]. In Punjab, deficiency of micronutrients has emerged as outcome of intensive agriculture (rice-wheat cropping) system, excessive use of macronutrient fertilizers along-with low or no addition of organic manures and crop residues in soils [13]. The soil samples being taken from crop land systems of Punjab indicated the deficiency of 12.0(Zn and Fe), 15.0 (Mn) and 2.0 (Cu)%,respectively [14].

Micronutrient cycling and their distribution in soils has known to be varied with shift in land-use from forest to cultivated systems [15]. The status of available micronutrients in soils depends on soil properties such as pH, EC, OC, clay and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content, land use patterns and soil depths [16,17]. Among all these factors, the soil pH and OC are dominant factors, with negative effect of pH and positive effect of OC on availability of micronutrients in soils [18,19].

Land use change with expansion of cultivated land to meet the food demands of growing human population is topic of key concern on global scale [20]. The four pre-dominant land use systems viz. forest, horticulture, crop land and barren land in North-western India showed impact on quality and productivity of soils [2]. Shift in land use from forest to cultivated (rice-wheat cropping system) alters the soil physico-chemical properties as well as plant nutrient content. Also, the addition of residues and intensity of manure application also resulted in variation in availability of micro-nutrients in soils [[21], [22], [23], [24]]. Similarly, depth-wise distribution of micronutrients indicated their maximum availability in surface soil followed by decline with increasing soil depth thereby leading to poor fertility of soils [2,25].

The need to meet up with the food demand of ever increasing population has brought about the necessity to harness the fertility of the available soils. Thus, understanding the distribution of micronutrients in profile of diverse land use systems is essential to achieve sustainable development goal. Till date there is dearth of information relative distribution of micronutrients in soil profile of four different land-use systems of North-Western, India. The context of challenges involved in understanding the role of change in land-use patterns and soil depths on dynamics of micronutrient cations needs diligent attention [26,27]. It was hypothesized in the present study that different soil properties would be affected by variable land use systems. Therefore, keeping in view all these factors, the study was conducted with following objectives (1) To assess the depth wise distribution of soil properties like pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (OC), clay, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and DTPA extractable Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni at different depths of four prominent land use systems and (2) To determine the correlation of DTPA extractable micronutrients with soil properties and among themselves under four prominent land use systems for adoption of suitable land use system and soil amendments in order to improve the fertility for restoration of soil health and enhanced crop yield.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study site characterization and climate

The study was performed on the soil samples collected from 5 different locations lying under different agro-climatic zones of Punjab, India, situated at 29°55ʼto 32°30ʼ latitude and 73°55ʼ to 76°50ʼ longitude at an elevation of 180–290 m. The climatic conditions of study area varied from semi-arid to sub-humid with average annual minimum and maximum temperature of 7 °C and 41 °C and rainfall of 750 mm respectively. The soils were classified in orders of Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols and Aridisols on the basis of horizons and physico-chemical characteristics of the soils [28]. The soil of study area was light textured varying from sandy loam to loamy sand as per USDA system of classification [29,30].

2.2. Collection and processing of soil samples

For determination of soil properties and available micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni) content, the soil samples were collected from four predominant land use systems viz. forest, horticulture, crop land and barren land at six soil depths i.e. 0–10,10–20, 20–40, 40–60,60–80 and 80–100 cm, respectively. The land use systems considered during this study consist of forest land use system consisting of bamboo, shisham and eucalyptus plantations of age greater than10 years. The horticulture soils were under mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees of more than 10 years age. The crop land fields were under rice-wheat, maize-wheat and cotton-wheat systems for more than 10 years. The barren land use system included the uncultivated lands. The samples from forest and horticulture land use were collected below tree canopy at distance of 15 cm from the trunk of the trees [30]. In cropland system, the sampling was done from sites without any crop cover. Soil samples wereair-dried and ground to pass through a sieve with mesh size of 2-mm and stored in polythene bags for analysis of soil chemical properties i.e. pH, EC, OC, clay and CaCO3content and DTPA extractable micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni).

2.3. Analysis of soil properties

The processed soil samples were analyzed for soil pH and EC in 1:2 soil:water suspension and measured with glass electrode pH meter and conductivity meter (salt bridge), respectively [31]. The organic carbon (OC) in soils was analyzed as per Walkley and Black's rapid titration method, using a diphenyl amine as indicator [32]. The analysis of particle size distribution of soils was done by international pipette method [33]. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content was determined by method described by Puri [34]. The determination of micronutrients was done through the extraction of soil by using an extractant. Since Fe and Zn deficiencies are most prevalent on calcareous soils, the extractant was designed specifically to avoid excessive dissolution of CaCO3 with the release of occluded micronutrients, which are normally not available for absorption by roots. This objective was achieved in part by buffering the extractant in a slightly alkaline pH range, and in part by including soluble Ca2+. Triethanolamine (TEA) was selected as a buffer because of its pKa = 7.8 and because it burns cleanly during flame atomization in atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Further, the extraction of micronutrient cations from soils depends upon the binding strength of DTPA for the various metal ions as well as the binding strength of the soil for these ions. Thus, the determination of DTPA (Diethylene triamine penta acetic acid) extractable micronutrient cations viz. Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni was donewith the help of an extractant in ratio (1:2) using DTPA as extractant (0.005 M DTPA + 0.001 M CaCl2 + 0.1 M TEA buffer adjusted to pH = 7.3) with methodgiven by Lindsay and Norvell [35], followed by quantification of their concentrations using AAS(atomic absorption spectrophotometer) (Varian AAS FS 240 model Varian, Inc., USA).

2.4. Statistical analysis

The physicochemical properties of soil were analyzed statistically in factorial randomized block design using two-way analysis of variance. The significant difference in soil properties among different soil samples was compared using checked using LSD (least significant difference) at p ≤ 0.05. The correlations of DTPA extractable soil micronutrients with soil physicochemical properties and among themselves were determined with SPSS-ver. 23 (IBM Corp. 2015).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Soil physicochemical properties

3.1.1. Soil pH

The physico-chemical properties of soil act as dominant factors that affects the status of micronutrients in soil. Soil pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity that alters the availability of nutrients vital for growth of crops. Soil pH controls the solubility, mobility, and bioavailability of trace elements, which determine their translocation in plants. This is largely dependent on the partition of the elements between solid and liquid soil phases through precipitation-dissolution reactions as a result of pH-dependent charges in mineral and organic soil fractions. The results in the present study indicated that pH was alkaline in nature under the considered land use systems with significant difference in pH of soils of forest land use as compared to all other land use systems (Table 1). Decline in soil pH of forest land use system was 1.5, 2.2 and 4.3%as compared to horticulture, barren and crop land use systems, respectively. The trend of soil pH under the land use systems was in order of crop land > barren > horticulture > forest. Irrespective of different land use systems the pH increased with soil depth. Among different soil depths, the soil pH showed maximum increase by 3.4% at 80–100 cm as compared to 0–10 cm soil depth (Table 1). The interactive effect indicated that soil pH showed increasing trend down the profile of all land use systems with maximum value at 80–100 cm depth in crop land use and minimum at 0–10 cm depth of forest land use system (Fig. 1). The distribution of pH in soil profile was almost similar for all land use systems at 0–10 cm depth and that varied thereafter with maximum value of soil pH in crop land use followed by barren, horticulture and minimum in forest land userespectively.

Table 1.

Depth-wise variation of soil properties in soils of four prominent land use systems.

Land use systems pH EC (dS m−1) OC % Clay (%) CaCO3 (%)
Forest 7.59 ± 0.041 0.18 ± 0.031 0.36 ± 0.030 19.4 ± 0.033 4.6 ± 0.041
Horticulture 7.70 ± 0.032 0.19 ± 0.033 0.33 ± 0.045 18.5 ± 0.046 4.7 ± 0.027
Crop land 7.77 ± 0.040 0.24 ± 0.028 0.31 ± 0.051 18.1 ± 0.027 4.8 ± 0.021
Barren 7.92 ± 0.026 0.20 ± 0.045 0.27 ± 0.026 17.4 ± 0.022 4.5 ± 0.020
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.04 0.04 0.05 NS NS
Soil Depth (cm)
0–10 7.69 ± 0.022 0.19 ± 0.014 0.48 ± 0.034 19.6 ± 0.018 4.9 ± 0.031
10–20 7.74 ± 0.037 0.18 ± 0.020 0.36 ± 0.037 20.0 ± 0.024 4.7 ± 0.028
20–40 7.87 ± 0.032 0.16 ± 0.035 0.28 ± 0.023 20.1 ± 0.034 4.5 ± 0.047
40–60 7.91 ± 0.047 0.20 ± 0.038 0.22 ± 0.021 22.0 ± 0.039 4.8 ± 0.056
60–80 7.93 ± 0.029 0.21 ± 0.043 0.20 ± 0.020 20.1 ± 0.042 4.6 ± 0.047
80–100 7.95 ± 0.021 0.22 ± 0.039 0.17 ± 0.037 20.7 ± 0.036 4.3 ± 0.036
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.05 0.05 0.04 NS NS
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Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Interactive effect of different land use systems and soil depths on chemical properties of soils.

Lower pH under tree based (forest) land use system compared to other land uses might be ascribed to the addition of organic matter in considerable quantity which on decomposition releases the organic acids thus resulting in decline of soil pH [18]. Lowering of soil pH might also correspond to the exhaustion of basic cations (Ca, Na and K) in soils through their removal by leaching and accumulation by plants [19,36]. Another study also reported that soil pH is controlled by the leaching of basic cations such as Ca, Mg, K, and Na far beyond their release from weathered minerals [37]. Similar trend of soil pH was observed by some researchers [2,18]. Increase in soil pH down the profile of all land use patterns correspond to lesser release of organic acids with respect to poor content of organic matter and also the leaching and accumulation of basic cations in sub surface layers of soil profile [38]. Variation in soil pH of profiles of other land use systems might attribute to continuous removal of ions through cultivation practices, excessive precipitation, leaching losses and application of inorganic fertilizers to crops [39].

3.1.2. Soil electrical conductivity (EC)

The EC is a measure of salt content and indicator of nutrient replenishment in soil. The value of EC under different land use systems varied from 0.18 to 0.24 dS m−1. The EC in forest, horticulture and barren land was statistically at par, however in crop land it was significantly higher than other land use systems with increase being 33.3% higher than forest land use system (Table 1). The soil EC under different land use systems followed the order of crop land (0.24 dS m−1)> barren land (0.20 dS m−1)> horticulture (0.19 dS m−1)> forest land (0.18 dS m−1). Among profile the EC decreased with increase in soil depth up to 40 cm and thereafter it showed increase from 40 to 100 cm soil depth (Table 1). The interactive effect of land use systems and soil depth on EC did not show any regular trend in their distribution but with higher EC in crop land over other land use systems with decline till 40 cm depth followed by increase thereafter from 40 to 100 cm depth respectively (Fig. 1).

Higher EC under the crop land system may be due to continuous accretion of salts in soils as the outcome of application of mineral fertilizers and inflow through irrigation water [40]. Among the soil profile the higher value of EC in sub surface soil layers indicated the accumulation of salts being leacheddown from surface soil layers [41]. The higher EC in lower layers of crop land soils is also associated with increased leaching of salts as result of aggravated soil erosion caused by continuous farming and removal of crop residues [42]. Our outcomes are in line with findings of [2].

3.1.3. Soil organic carbon (OC)

The OC of soil is controlling factor of soil quality in terms of content of available micronutrients in soils. The OC content of soil among different land use systems showed significant variation with highest level of OC (0.36%) in forest land use and lowest (0.27%) in barren land use. The OC content in forest land use increased by 8.0, 14.1 and 24.4% compared to horticulture, barren and crop land use systems respectively. The order of soil OC under different land use systems was forest > horticulture > barren > crop land use. The enrichment of OC in forest and horticulture over the cultivated land was by 32.2 and 21.6%, respectively (Table 2). Regardless of effect of land use systems on OC the distribution among profile indicated decline with increase in soil depth. In the surface layer i.e. 0-10 cm depth the OC was 0.48% and that decreased to 0.17% at 100 cm depth. A significant decrease in OC by 2.8, 2.3, 1.7, 1.4, 1.2 folds was observed at 80–100 cm depth compared to 0–10, 10–20, 20–40, 40–60 and 60–80 cm depths respectively. The interactive effect of both the factors i. e land use and depths on content of OC indicated the greater content on surface layer of forest land and lower at subsurface layer of crop land use system respectively (Fig. 1).

Table 2.

Depth wise distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients in soils of four prominent land use systems.

DTPA extractable micronutrients (mg kg−1)
Land use systems Zn Fe Mn Cu Ni
Forest 1.14 ± 0.44 11.78 ± 1.51 5.37 ± 0.80 0.85 ± 0.41 1.44 ± 0.32
Horticulture 0.94 ± 0.32 11.00 ± 0.95 4.35 ± 1.01 0.61 ± 0.21 1.12 ± 0.28
Crop land 0.88 ± 0.31 9.73 ± 2.42 3.39 ± 1.42 0.56 ± 0.12 1.00 ± 0.25
Barren 0.81 ± 0.20 8.93 ± 2.18 2.87 ± 1.91 0.51 ± 0.18 0.96 ± 0.18
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.27 0.23 0.24 0.04 0.03
Soil Depth (cm)
0–10 2.19 ± 0.52 18.25 ± 2.73 6.20 ± 2.43 1.10 ± 0.60 1.69 ± 0.27
10–20 1.26 ± 0.38 13.55 ± 3.61 5.25 ± 1.52 0.83 ± 0.51 1.43 ± 0.39
20–40 0.75 ± 0.21 10.14 ± 3.49 4.14 ± 2.36 0.64 ± 0.48 1.18 ± 0.33
40–60 0.58 ± 0.35 7.84 ± 1.62 3.39 ± 0.93 0.50 ± 0.37 0.97 ± 0.28
60–80 0.49 ± 0.16 6.75 ± 1.91 2.74 ± 1.28 0.40 ± 0.26 0.81 ± 0.34
80–100 0.38 ± 0.23 5.64 ± 2.45 2.26 ± 1.34 0.32 ± 0.30 0.70 ± 0.15
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.34 0.29 0.29 0.05 0.04
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Organic carbon content build-up under any land use type is the balance between C inputs (litter fall deposits, crop residues, root exudates, root biomass and manure) and C losses (respiration by soil organisms), determined by the residue turnover, their quality and decomposition rate [18]. In the present study, the soils of forest land use system had higher content of OC that might correspond to enrichment of organic matter in soils through its addition in form of leaf litter, root biomass, root exudates and lower rate of decomposition. In contrast, under cultivated and bare land decline in OC might correspond to their reduced inputs in soil i.e. less vegetation, breakdown of soil aggregates, intensive cultivation leading to rapid microbial attack and thus the increased rate of decomposition of organic matter in soils [43,44]. Lowest value of OC was found in barren land use system and that might be due to the lesser accumulation of OM in soils through increased soil disturbances along-with poor vegetative cover and no crop growth [45,46]. Our results indicating higher OC in forest land use is in line with outcomes of other researchers [2,47]. Decline in OC down the profile is relative to lesser addition and deposition of organic residues and litter along-with increased rate of their decomposition in sub surface layers of soil [24,48]. Additionally, different tillage practices destroy soil aggregation and exposes OM to the factors that encourage faster decomposition rate of carbon inputs and decreases overall OC content in soil [49].

3.1.4. Soil clay content

The particle size distribution i.e. clay content varied non significantly with change in land use pattern and increase in soil depth (Table 1). The content of clay ranged from 17.4 to 19.4% under variable land use patterns. The order of distribution of clay content in soil profile of four prominent land use systems was forest land > horticulture > crop land > barren land. Among soil profile the clay content at different depths varied from 19.6 to 22.0% with comparatively higher clay content at 10–20,20-40 and 40–60 cm soil depths respectively (Table 1). The interactive impacts of land uses and soil depths on clay content was found to be non-significant but with highest clay content observed at 80–100 cm depth of forest land and the lowest at same depth in barren land use system (Fig. 1). Our findings are in agreement with outcomes of some researchers [2,42].

The higher clay content under forest land use system might be ascribed to greater addition of organic matter in form of leaf litter and root exudates that enhanced the stability of soil aggregates thereby resulting in higher clay content [5,47,[50]]. The higher clay content in sub surface soil layers (20–40 and 40–60 cm) of all land use systems might be contributed to reduction in size of soil particles as the outcome of compaction effects of overlying soil layers, in situ formation and residual accumulation of clays produced on dissolution of soluble coarser grain size minerals [51]. Among soil profiles, the higher clay content in sub surface soil layers might be attributed to its translocation from surface to subsurface soil layers [52].

3.1.5. Soil calcium carbonate content (CaCO3)

The CaCO3 content under four prominent land use systems and soil depths was recorded to be non-significant (Table 1). The effect of variable land use systems under consideration on content of CaCO3was recorded to be maximum (4.8%) in soils of crop land use and minimum (4.5%) in barren land use system. The trend of distribution of soil CaCO3 was observed in order as: crop land > horticulture > forest > barren land use. The enrichment of CaCO3 in soils of cultivated and horticulture land use system was by 6.6 and 4.6%over barren land use, respectively (Table 1). However, among soil profile the CaCO3 distribution showed irregular trend with decline from 0 to 40 cm depth and thereafter it registered an increase at depth of 40–60 cm followed by again decrease from 60 to 100 cm depth, respectively (Table 1). The results regarding the interactive effect of land use systems and soil depths indicated the greater accumulation of CaCO3at surface layers of forest land use and lower at sub surface layers of crop land use system (Fig. 1).

The greater accumulation of CaCO3under crop land system might be due to the addition of salts in the soils through application of mineral fertilizers and inflow of irrigation water [40]. The increase in CaCO3 in deeper layers of soil profile is indicative of leaching of salts from the upper layers and their deposition in sub surface soil layers [41]. Similar results related to higher content of CaCO3in cultivated soils were reported by some workers [2,47].

3.2. Distribution of DTPA-extractable micronutrients in soil profile

Micronutrients including Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni are the vital plant nutrients for improving soil fertility and crop yield. The effect of variation in land-use systems on DTPA extractable micronutrients concentration was found to be significant (Table 2). Under all land use systems, the significant increase was observed in content of all DTPA-extractable micronutrients with relative trend of distribution following the order of forest > horticulture > crop land > barren land use (Table 2). The content of micronutrients under all land use systems ranged from 1.14 to 0.81 mg kg−1 (Zn), 11.78–8.93 mg kg−1(Fe), 5.37–2.87 mg kg−1 (Mn), 0.85–0.51 mg kg−1 (Cu) and 1.44–0.96 mg kg−1 (Ni) respectively. The content of Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni in soil of forest land use system was observed to be increased by 17.5, 6.6, 18.9, 28.2 and 22.2%in comparison to horticulture, 22.8, 17.5, 36.9, 34.7 and 30.6% higher than crop land and 28.9, 24.2, 46.6, 40.0 and 33.3% higher, respectively in comparison to barren land use system. However, the impact of increasing soil depth on DTPA-extractable micronutrients content was found to be negative with decrease in its content down the soil profile (Table 2).

Variation in micronutrients content with depth ranged from 2.19 to 0.38 mg kg−1 (Zn), 18.25–5.64 mg kg−1 (Fe), 6.20–2.26 mg kg−1 (Mn), 1.10–0.32 mg kg−1 (Cu) and 1.69–0.70 mg kg−1 (Ni). The decline in content of Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni at 80–100 cm depth was by 82.6, 69.1, 63.5, 70.9 and 58.5% compared to their contents on surface soil layer i.e. 0-10 cm (Table 2). The effect of interaction of land use and soil depth on DTPA-extractable micronutrients was found to be significant with highest content on surface layer of the forest land while the lowest in sub surface layers of barren land use system (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Interactive effect of different land use systems and soil depths on distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients (mg kg−1) in soils.

Impact of all land uses on micronutrients content revealed significantly greater levels in forest land use in comparison to all other land uses and that might be due to the increased intensity of OM in forest soils developed through higher litter fall and root biomass that elevated the aeration status of soils, prevent oxidation and precipitation of micro-nutrients in bound forms along with supplementation of chelating agents that enhanced solubility and availability of micronutrients in soils [53,54]. Our results are in line with outcomes of some workers [47,53,55]. In another study, reportedthe increased content of micronutrients under tree-based systems (forest and orchards) which could also be attributed to exogenous C input in form of litter, root biomass, root exudates and above-ground biomass that decreased soil pH and redox potential of the soil thereby facilitating the increased availability of micronutrients in soils [19,38,47,56]. Our results are in line with findings of some researchers [23,57,58].

Lower content of DTPA-extractable micronutrients under crop land use system might correspond to the increased rates of agricultural and tillage practices resulting in faster rate of OM decomposition, loss of soil nutrients and also the increased nutritional demands with lesser use efficiencies by plants [59]. Decline in micronutrients with shift in land use from forest to crop land might also be attributed to the reduced addition of OC in soils and the continuous removal of nutrients throughaccumulation by crops in cultivated soils [60,61]. The lower content of DTPA Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni in crop land may also be relative to the continuous nutrient mining through persistent soil disturbances in terms of cultivation practices, removal of biomass and absence of micronutrient replenishments from external sources [62,63]. Among the soil profile, the distribution of DTPA extractable micronutrients showed a declining trend corresponding to greater content and accumulation of basic cations as the outcome of leaching in sub surface layers of soil [52].

3.3. Correlation matrix of soil DTPA extractable micronutrients with soil physio-chemical characteristics and among themselves

The correlation analysis was done to detect the degree of relationships among different soil properties and DTPA extractable micronutrients as shown in Fig. 3. Results indicated that soil pH was significantly but negatively correlated with DTPA Zn (r = −0.51), Fe (r = −0.48), Mn (r = − 0.56), Cu (r = −0.57) and Ni (r = −0.57) respectively (Fig. 3). Similarly, EC also showed negative correlation with these nutrients. However, OC showed positive and significant correlation with all the micronutrient cations (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni), being highest correlation (r = 0.79) with DTPA Fe. (Fig. 3). The negative correlation of pH and EC with micronutrients indicated the precipitation of available micronutrients in insoluble and immobile forms of carbonates and hydroxides thereby making them unavailable for uptake by crops [27,64]. The findings of the present investigation are confirmed by the results [27,65]. Correlation studies also affirmed a strong positive correlation of micronutrients with OC in soil [66]. The analysis also indicated that among soil chemical properties, the OC content showed highest positive correlation coefficient with DTPA extractable Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni (Fig. 3). The positive correlation of OC and clay content with DTPA Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni indicated that with increase in OM in the soil there were reduced rates of oxidation and precipitation of these nutrients into unavailable forms. Similar results were opined by Refs. [2,67]. This positive correlation also corresponds to the enhanced soil microbial and enzymatic activitieswhich resulted in greater availability of nutrients in soils [30]. However, the correlation matrix of DTPA-Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni among themselves showed significant positive correlation with DTPA-Zn, Mn, Cu and Ni (Fig. 4). The highest significant and positive correlation was observed of Ni with Cu (r = 0.95) followed by Mn (r = 0.93) and also of Fe with Zn (r = 0.93) (Fig. 4). Our results are in line with literature findings of Kaur et al. [2].

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Pearson's correlation coefficients of soil chemical properties with DTPA-extractable microelements (p = 0.01).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Pearson's correlation coefficients among different DTPA-extractable microelements(p = 0.01).

4. Policy implications

The need to meet with the food demand of ever increasing population has brought about the necessity to harness the fertility of the available soils. Availability of limited information on the relative distribution of micronutrients in soil profile of different land-use systems and the impact of various depths on soil properties has resulted in the planning of the present study. It was hypothesized that different soil properties would be affected by variable land use systems. From the different experiments under four land use systems, it was concluded that the inclusion of forest and horticulture land use in crop lands or shift of land use from forest to crop land would beneficial for enhancing agricultural sustainability.

5. Conclusions

Land use systems play an important role in distribution of micronutrients in soils. The study concluded that among different land use systems viz. forest, horticulture, crop land and barren land, the forest land use was most eco-friendly and sustainable system followed by horticulture land use system. The cultivated system resulted in decline of OC and DTPA extractable micronutrients in soils. The micronutrients status in soil decreased with the increase in depth in all land use systems. Overall forest land use and 0–10 cm soil showed highest content of DTPA extractable Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni which was significantly higher over others. The correlation analysis revealed that soil pH and EC had negative while OC had positive effect on availability of DTPA extractable micronutrients in soils. As the micronutrients status in soil plays a significant role in crop production, thus findings of the present study may prove beneficial for farmers, researchers and state agricultural authorities for implementing suitable nutrient management strategies in different soils.

Author contribution statement

Conceived and designed the experiments: Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, Vivek Sharma, Vibha Verma, Manmeet Kaur. Performed the experiments: Prabhjot Singh, Manmeet Kaur, Vibha Verma. Analyzed and interpreted the data: Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, Vivek Sharma, Arvind Kumar Shukla, Rajeev Kumar Gupta, Vijay Kant Singh. Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data: Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, Vivek Sharma, Rajeev Kumar Gupta, Janpriya Kaur, Vijay Kant Singh. Wrote the paper: Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, Vivek Sharma, Vibha Verma, Manmeet Kaur, Janpriya. Kaur.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on request.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Contributor Information

Salwinder Singh Dhaliwal, Email: ssdhaliwal@pau.edu.

Rajeev Kumar Gupta, Email: rkg1103@pau.edu.

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