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. 2023 Mar 4;13:100615. doi: 10.1016/j.clet.2023.100615

Design and fabrication of a biodegradable face shield by using cleaner technologies for the protection of direct splash and airborne pathogens during the COVID-19 pandemic

Adib Bin Rashid a,∗, Nazmir-Nur Showva b
PMCID: PMC9984231  PMID: 36911790

Abstract

Due to global supply chain disruptions and high demand for personal protective equipment (PPE), the rapidly expanding COVID-19 crisis left millions of front-line fighters unprotected. The disposal of PPE in the environment caused significant environmental pollution. Hence, indigenous initiatives have been taken to fabricate antiviral and biodegradable face shields with the help of neoteric and cleaner technologies. This paper describes a novel endeavor to design, manufacture, and performance analysis of a face shield made by plastic injection molding and LASER Cutting. Because of the requirement of permanent wear, the face shield's ergonomic design is considered low weight and easy head fixation, alongside high production ability. Here, face shield frames are made with lightweight, biodegradable plastic called Poly Lactic Acid (PLA), whereas an optical grade PLA sheet is used as the visor for better clarity. Visors PLA Sheet is coated with Nano-Silver disinfectant spray to incorporate antiviral properties to the Faceshield. Partially circumferential adjustable elastic straps are used for comfortable head fixation. To evaluate the product, clinical fit tests along with statistical survey were conducted, and the feedback from the end-users on comfort (41% Excellent, 30% Good, 26% Average and 3% Poor), clear view (33% Excellent, 38% Good, 24% Average, and 5% Poor), design features (43% Excellent, 35% Good, and 22% Average), simplicity of installation and disassembly (29% Excellent, 33% Good, and 38% Average), and ease of wearing/removing (45% Excellent, 40% Good, and 15%Average) are encouraging.

Keywords: COVID-19, Personal protective equipment (PPE), Face shield, Plastic injection molding, Biodegradable, Cleaner technology

Graphical abstract

Image 1

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1. Introduction

Coronavirus Disease 2019(COVID-19) is a life-threatening disease caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), or a novel coronavirus that has been declared as an epidemic (Garcia Godoy et al., 2020). It is a highly transmissible disease that occurs through droplets from individual to individual when a diseased person coughs or sneezes, or touches one's mouth, nose, or eyes after contact with contaminated surfaces (Riou and Althaus, 2020). Masks, respirators, face shields, or goggles have shown their ability to protect from respiratory infections as they hinder the facial zone, related to mucous membranes such as eyes, nose, lips, etc (Li et al., 2021). Specifically, face shields have been revealed a range of interests: they avoid inoculation of droplets through the conjunctiva, prevent accidental touching of the eyes or face with infected hands, and secure facial masks, the efficacy of which decreases after moistening (Lemarteleur et al., 2021).

To determine the efficiency of face shields in avoiding the spread of respiratory virus-related diseases, Lindsley et al. utilized a cough aerosol simulator and a breathing simulator and reported that face shields could reduce 96% inhalation and 97% surface contamination instantly after a cough at a distance of 46 cm (Lindsley et al., 2014). Ronen et al. also investigated the efficacy of the protective equipment utilizing a cough simulator and an Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS) and found that droplets of 0.3 to few microns, a shield was found to perform ten times better hindering than the medical mask (Ronen et al., 2020). Utilizing a dummy head to study conjunctival infection during a femoral osteotomy performance, Mansour et al. found a 30% occurrence of contagion when an assemblage of a surgical mask and eye shield was used (Mansour et al., 2009). Shoham et al. tested various disposable eyewear items and discovered that the Face Shield with an N95 mask produced the best results (Shoham et al., 2019). Thus, there is a significant indication of face shields' efficacy against aerosolized contamination for Health Care Employees.

In the face of a fast-escalating COVID-19 epidemic, severe scarcities have emerged in personal protective equipment (PPE) as the production (Larrañeta et al., 2020), supply (Shokrani et al., 2020), and trading (Shammi et al., 2020) of protection attire are all facing disruptions. The condition is much worse in low-income countries like Bangladesh because of poor socioeconomic conditions, pitiable medical facilities and infrastructure, inadequate government capacity, and technological insufficiency (Banik et al., 2020).

An interdisciplinary group comprising clinicians, academics, engineers, and technicians created thousands of inexpensive face shields through rapid prototyping and Laser Cutting Technology to meet the high demand for eye-protecting products (Chaturvedi et al., 2020). Hence, many researchers have designed and fabricated 3D printed Face shields to meet the emergency demand (Armijo et al., 2021). Kalyaev et al. used a laser cutter to cut the PET sheet of 0.5 mm thickness of the front visor's layout pattern with the forehead strip (Kalyaev et al., 2020). They used an elastic band to fix the visor with the head.

Many authors argue that the Fused Deposition Method (FDM) is a sluggish procedure and not sufficient for the bulk manufacture of face shields because the time of printing varies significantly between different models of face shields (Lemarteleur et al., 2021). Likewise, the weight of the face shield, fit, comfortable wearing, space for additional PPE, and protection capability varied between designs (Wesemann et al., 2020). Hence, some researchers recommend manufacturing face shields by Injection Molding Process, which can transform raw thermoplastic material into premeditated parts of a specific form (Kunkel et al., 2020). It is a standard and quick procedure for the mass manufacture of similar products to be the opposite of the intended form by melting and injecting plastic at high pressure into a built mold (Byrne et al., 2020). Injection molding is prominently chosen in the manufacturing industry as it can create complex-shaped plastic products and have well-dimensional precision with short cycle times (Singh and Verma, 2017).

The disposal of PPE (Facemask, earplugs, gloves, goggles helmets, full-body suits, etc.) creates significant environmental pollution (Pandit et al., 2021). Bio-based nanostructures with antiviral agents are gaining importance for developing advanced facial masks (Babaahmadi et al., 2021). Shanmugam et al. examined the potential natural polymer-based nanofibres along with their filtration and antimicrobial capabilities for developing biodegradable facemask that will promote a cleaner production (Shanmugam et al., 2021). Deng et al.report a facile and potentially scalable method to fabricate biodegradable, breathable, and biocidal cellulose nonwovens (BCNWs) to address both environmental and hygienic problems of commercially available face masks (Deng et al., 2022). Zywicka et al. developed novel, sustainable filters based on bacterial cellulose (BC) functionalized with low-pressure argon plasma (LPP-Ar) which has >99% bacterial and viral filtration efficiency (Żywicka et al., 2022). Manakhov et al. prepared a wide range of nanofibrous biodegradable Self-Sanitizing Filters containing Ag (up to 0.6 at.%) and Cu (up to 20.4 at.%) for the protection against SARS-CoV-2 in Public Areas (Manakhov et al., 2022).

But there is no significant work on biodegradable and antiviral Face shields. Hence, this article discusses the indigenous development and evaluation of a biodegradable and antiviral face shield, from prototyping to clinical testing and consumer acceptance in design and regulation. This research also analyzes the feasibility of a practical modeling approach using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) coupled with low-cost digitizing equipment to generate ergonomically designed, bidegradble and antiviral face shields through various neoteric technologies.

2. Materials & methods

2.1. Design consideration

Frames, visors, and suspension systems are the main operational constituents of a face shield. The frame's size should be universal to comfortably fit almost all the user's head. Visors should again have adequate width to cover the ear, reducing a splash going around the verge of the face shield and reaching the eyes. Besides, visors should have sufficient length for proper chin and throat protection. So, the mainframe structure and the visor are ergonomically designed by anthropometric measurements of the human heads.

As shown in Fig. 1 , anthropometric measurements of the human head deal with the measurement of Circumference (horizontal perimeter of the head), Head Breadth (The maximum bilateral distance between the right and left sides of the head.), and length (Middle of the forehead to chin), Ear to Ear Distance, and Height of the nose. The study is done on fifty people of different ages, and the value of the measurements is also shown in Table 1 (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Anthropometric measurements of Human Head.

Table 1.

Anthropometric measurements of Human Head.

Measurements Maximum Minimum Mean
A- Head Breadth (Front head) 167.12 141.94 155.39
B- Ear to Ear Distance 180.56 155.78 175.23
C- Circumference (Horizontal perimeter of the head) 541.02 582.3 570.54
D- Length (Middle of the forehead to chin) 168.35 142.89 157.25
E− Height of the Nose 33.24 29.39 32.13
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Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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(a) Head band (b) visor.

2.2. Product design

For the fulfillment of fast and mass fabrication, easy sterilization, and end-user relaxation, numerous open-source face shield designs were analyzed along with the anthropometric measurement of the human head. The face shield is engineered to minimize particles' ability to be exposed to a person's face. It is one-size-fits-all and should be sanitized for reuse. Each face shield will be distributed as a separate component for rapid assemblage in the field.

The inner band fits on the user's temple, and the outer band contains the plastic visor. The head's mean width found from the anthropometric measurement is 155.39 mm, so the inner band's radius is chosen as 155 mm. The outer band is set as 175 mm to cover at least the ear's point, as it is found a mean ear-to-ear distance is 175.23 mm. This configuration makes it easy to achieve a 35 mm offset between the visor and the user's face.

A protracted offset is needed when doctors need to wear a hood over their PPE bodysuit and eye protection goggles and surgical masks inside the face shield. The required offset to match the goggles and medical-grade mask enhances user satisfaction and offers the ability to produce ventilation to avoid fogging inside the hood.

The U-shaped structure affords stability to the visor's lower portion. For the comfortable head fixation of the face shield, partially circumferential adjustable elastic straps are used, fastened to the protrusions at the edge of the frame. Besides, the forehead foam cushion provides a secure fit on the head.

The visor's length is 180 mm, and the maximum value of D (Middle of the forehead to chin) is 168.35. Approximately 20 mm extension is kept for better protection over the throat. And the width of the visor is 280 mm, as same as the outer band perimeter.

2.3. Material selection

The suitability of constituents for the face shield frame, visors, and elastic headband was thoroughly reviewed in (Roberge, 2016). For the fabrication of the visor use of polycarbonate, propionate, acetate, polyvinyl chloride, and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) was vindicated by clearness (acetate), economics (PETG), and reputation (polycarbonate) points of view (Kalyaev et al., 2020). Different materials used to fabricate the face shield's various components are shown in Table 2 .

Table 2.

The material used in the Face shield.

Component Material Thickness
Frame Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) –
Visor film Optical grade PLLA 0.175 mm thick
Foam headband Soft grade Polyurethane 25 mm thick
Elastic headband Medical grade weaved elastic (Nylon) 2 mm thick
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As this paper aims to fabricate biodegradable Face shields, biodegradable PLA (Taib et al., 2022) has been selected to make the Headband. Also, 0.175 mm thick PLLA poly (L-lactic acid) transparent film was chosen for the fabrication of the plastic visor because of its lenient and flexible form and clear vision. Here, 2 mm thick and 10 mm wide nylon elastic bands were attached to the frame to afford additional relaxation.

PLA is the most popular commercially used bio-based plastic due to its better product functionalities among polymers with comparable characteristics (Balla et al., 2021). Its inherent biodegradability made it possible to offer multiple end-of-life options, such as anaerobic digestion and industrial composting. These properties are very helpful in preventing organic waste from ending up in landfills or incineration. PLA is a versatile material and could replace traditional plastic such as polystyrene and polypropylene. Mechanical properties of PLA-based polymer are shown in Table 3 .

Table 3.

Mechanical properties of PLA-based polymer (Taib et al., 2022).

Property PLA PLLA
Density, ρ (g/cm3) 1.21–1.25 1.24–1.30
Tensile strength, σ (MPa) 21–60 15.5–150
Elastic modulus, E (GPa) 0.35–0.5 2.7–4.14
Ultimate strain, ε (%) 2.5–6 3.0–10.0
Glass transition temperature, Tg (°C) 45–60 55–65
Melting temperature, Tm (°C) 150–162 170–200
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2.4. Manufacturing of head band

Fabrication of the face shield's headband combines processes shown in the flow diagram (Fig. 3 ).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Process flow diagram of the headband.

2.4.1. Mold design and fabrication

Advanced computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing techniques were used successfully during the product design process. Hence, the CAD model of the face shield's mainframe (mold cavity) was designed using Solid Works (Version: 2020). An image of the product model is shown in Fig. 4 (a). Then the part is simulated using ‘SolidWorks Plastic,' and the results are shown in Fig. 5 . Necessary correction of the runner's size, sprue, and gate was adopted from the simulation result. Also, several cooling channels and the essential air vent are implemented.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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3D Design of the mold (a) Pattern of Headband (b) Fixed half of the mold; (c) Moving half of the mold.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Mold Flow Analyses (a) Fill Time (b) Pressure at the end of fill (c) Temperature at the end of the fill.

Then core and cavity of the mold are designed from the primary part geometry. The mold has two halves, in which the Moving half should have a guide pin and cavity plate, and the Fixed half should have a guideway/bush, cavity plate, and injection port, as shown in Fig. 4 (b) and 4(c). After the mold's successful design, G-Code is generated using ‘Master Cam’ Software for the machining on a CNC milling machine (Adib and M A, 2020). The machining is then done using a 2 mm diameter end mill cutter with a spindle speed of 2000 rpm and feed rate of 40. The mold and the final mold's machining process are shown in Fig. 6, Fig. 7 , respectively.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Fabrication procedure.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Mold (a) fixed half of the mold (b) moving half of the mold.

2.4.2. Injection molding of head band

The specification of the machine used in this project is shown on Table 4 . The injection molding method starts by feeding a polymer through a hopper into the barrel, which is then heated to the required temperature to flow. Then, the molten plastic is inserted into the mold under high pressure. The injection pressure is applied to both plates of the injection molding machine (moving and fixed platens). The substance is then set to cool, which assists it in solidification. After the product has taken shape, the two plates will move apart to separate the mold opening tool. Eventually, the molded product is expelled or segregated from the mold.

Table 4.

Specification of injection molding machine.

Model YS-2280K
Screw diameter 45 mm
Screw L/D ratio 22.2
Injection pressure 196 Mpa
Screw rotation speed 5-200 r.p.m
Clamping force 2280 KN
Opening stroke 480 mm
Mold thickness 200–565 mm
Space between tie-bars (H*V) 520*500 mm
Ejector force 60 KN
Ejector stroke 150 mm
Ejector quantity 5 pcs
Motor power 22 KW
Heater capacity 12.6 KW
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2.5. Cutting of visor

There is undoubtedly much more efficiency in die cutters or stamping presses powered by pneumatic, hydraulic, electromagnetic, or mechanical actuators operating in-line and cutting thousands of pieces per working hour. However, the design and production of dice, sharpening, hardening, and continuous maintenance are required to maintain performance.

In terms of time, the current tailback stage is the manufacturing and repairing robust cutting dies that are usually exposed to thermally persuaded tool wear (Mostaghimi et al., 2020). This route poses significant difficulties under stringent lockdown conditions and will, at the very least, slow the production build-up. Besides, for stamping presses, the scrap fraction is so high that it is not appropriate in restricted availability.

On the other hand, laser cutting has the advantage of already being available in the laboratory and the essential skills to constitute and operate it. Automated directives for production can be organized and implemented within an hour without the reproduction of dice.

2.6. Cutting of foam

10 mm wide and 10 mm thick foam is cut with regular scissors. Glue the foam into the headband to guarantee the foam stays in place. The use of foam is not recommended since it cannot be sterilized or removed from the headband. Thus, the face shield would have to be disposed of after a single application.

2.7. Cutting of elastic band

A hot knife is used to cut and protect the cut edge from unraveling simultaneously for cutting elastic bands. To achieve the resulting efficiency of up to one cut every 5 s, a cheap household 200W soldering iron with an initially dense but manually sharpened stinger was applied. Also, regular scissors may be used to cut the elastic band.

2.8. Disinfection and assembly

Both pieces are thoroughly disinfected before installation according to the CDC's recommendations with standard disinfection solutions such as isopropyl alcohol or sodium hypochlorite, and later conduct proper hand hygiene before assembly. The visor material (optical grade PLA) is coated with Nanosilver disinfectant, and the disinfection performance is tested later.

The foam pad was added with super glue or hot glue to the inner band of the headband (unknown manufacturers). Afterward, the transparent visor was connected by attaching one of the visors' external hollows to the headband. The screen was drawn across the head band to match the headband attachments to each screen hole. Face shields were washed with sanitizing wipes before they were distributed and placed in the germicidal cabinet for less than 254 nm UV light for 5 min.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Quality & functionality assessments

The assembled face shield was visually inspected for each component's defects, cracks, and crevices to assess the quality. Then donned and doffed the face shield according to CDC guidelines by the fabrication staff and found it comfortable. Manufacturing personnel was fitted with new face shields to determine functionality, and the following experiments were performed.

  • (a)

    Splash resistance test: A sprinkle of water was sprayed at the middle of the visor for the splash resistance test, and the visor passed the test as the subject did not encounter any droplets on his or her face or body.

  • (b)

    Wear ability test: with the face mask on, participants were asked to look left, right, up, and down. It passed the test if none of the movements were obstructed and the face shield did not fall off.

  • (c)

    Fogging test: The face shield was worn under extreme physical tension with and without a face mask for 30 min and was not found to experience unnecessary fogging (see Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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(a) Assembled face shield. (b) face shield attached to a mannequin head.

3.2. Antibacterial test of the visor

The antibacterial activity of the Nano Silver coated visor was investigated using the agar disk diffusion method (Martí et al., 2018; Shao et al., 2015). One loop full of mixed anaerobic bacteria was taken at a concentration of approximately 1.5 x 108 colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) in standard saline solution, and the growth of the bacteria was stimulated by incubating at 37 °C for 24 h. Bacterial lawns were cultured aerobically at 37 °C for 24 h with sterile disks (Ag-Coated PLA) placed on top. The antibacterial disks displayed an inhibition zone (or halo), as shown in Fig. 9 . To achieve reproducible findings, the antibacterial tests were conducted three times on two separate days.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Antibacterial Test of the visor material.

3.3. User feedback

The face shields were distributed to healthcare professionals of different genders and ages to conduct an initial survey to evaluate the face shield's performance. Feedback was taken from 100 healthcare professionals, and the percentages are shown in Fig. 10 .

Fig. 10.

Fig. 10

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Percentages of participants.

The product evaluation survey is shown in Fig. 11 , which shows that the end-users received the protective face shield well. Feedback from the end-users on easy wear and removal, clear view, comfort, and product design features were very positive. The chart shows that most of the people were comfortable (41% Excellent, 30% Good, and 26% Average) to wear the faceshield when only 3% were uncomfortable. Around 95% people were satisfied with the visual clarity of the faceshield. About 43% (excellent) have expressed their highest level of satisfaction with ergonomic features of the frame. The simplicity of installation and disassembly (29% Excellent, 33% Good, and 38%Average), ease of wearing/removing (45% Excellent, 40% Good, and 15%Average), and reuse protocols, demonstrating the ability of the face shield to use as a part of PPE.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 11

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Product evaluation survey.

The final questions assessed how well the face shield worked with spectacle/goggles and also earned positive feedback. More than 78% opined that the performance of face shield is above average when they are used with spectacles/goggles. This suggests that future iterations of the face shields, especially in operating surgeons, would be required to eliminate fogging and improve comfort. One of the significant issues with face shields and PPE hoods is visor fogging, which impairs end-users' ability during operations and surgery. Because of the lack of proper ventilation, end-user uneasiness is also a severe issue.

4. Conclusion

Starting from prototyping to large-scale development is a process that usually takes several months but needs to be done in a pandemic situation in a matter of weeks. The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant challenge to society in terms of developing technical solutions for the rapid mass production of low-cost personal protective equipment to protect medical personnel and the public. If the limitations on trade and transportation are limited to material sources and the workforce is quarantined, these technological solutions must be based on designs proposing the most accessible instruments functioned by a minimum number of workers. CAM technology is ideal for the quick mass processing of components produced on-site by a community of volunteers and end-users through easily accessible university laboratories and manufacturing facilities. This analysis offers a valuable study of the product design case for further research in the conception, prototyping, and manufacturing of basic medical devices, such as face shields for combating coronavirus-like viral pandemics using advanced engineering, simulation, and AM applications. This research used CAM technology to design and produce a competitively lighter, more ergonomic, and easy-to-use medical face shield.

As the disposal of Face shields to the environment creates significant environmental pollution, this work also focuses on the fabrication of biodegradable and antiviral face Shields. Biodegradable PLA is selected for the main headband, and Nano Ag-Coated optical grade PLA is selected for the visor. Antibacterial test of the visor confirms the antimicrobial ability of the faceshield as the antibacterial disks displayed an inhibition zone during the experiment.

To evaluate the product, clinical fit tests along with statistical survey were conducted, and the feedback from the end-users on comfort (41% Excellent, 30% Good, 26% Average and 3% Poor), clear view (33% Excellent, 38% Good, 24% Average, and 5% Poor), design features (43% Excellent, 35% Good, and 22% Average), simplicity of installation and disassembly (29% Excellent, 33% Good, and 38% Average), ease of wearing/removing (45% Excellent, 40% Good, and 15%Average), and reusability are encouraging. Hence, the face shield could be further implemented for bulk production and distribution to the front liners of any pandemic like Covid-19.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank ‘TECHNO-MAKE’ for their incredible support in fabricating the headband's mold.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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