Abstract
Background
Little data exists on the effect of maternal depression on child injury outcomes and mediators of this relationship.
Objective
Examine the relationship between mothers' depressive symptoms and medically attended injuries in their children and the potential mediating role of child behavior.
Design/Methods
A cohort of mother-child dyads from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth followed from 1992 to1994. The primary exposure variable was maternal depressive symptoms as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies – Depression Scale in 1992. Child behavior was assessed by the Behavior Problems Index externalizing subscale. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between depressive symptoms, child behavior, and injury reported in the year prior in 1994.
Results
94 medically attended injuries were reported in the 1106 children (8.5%); two-thirds sustained in the home environment. Maternal depressive symptoms significantly increased the risk of child injury; with injury risk increasing 4 percent for every 1-point increase in depressive symptoms (adjusted OR of 1.04, 95% CI 1.01, 1.08, p=0.02). Increasing maternal depressive symptoms also increased the risk of externalizing behavior problems (adjusted OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.03, 1.09), but externalizing behavior problems did not significantly mediate the relationship between maternal symptoms and child injury.
Conclusions
Increasing depressive symptoms in mothers was associated with an increased risk for child injury. Child behavior did not significantly mediate the association between maternal depressive symptoms and child injury in this cohort. Greater recognition, referral, and treatment of depressive symptoms in mothers may have effects on child behavior and injury risk.
Keywords: maternal depression, depressive symptoms, residential, behavior, injuries
Children under the age of 6 years have the highest rates of residential injury.1, 2 Mothers with depressive symptoms consistent with clinical depression have been shown to be less likely to have functioning smoke detectors in their homes, to report use of child occupant restraint and electrical socket covers, and the back-to-sleep position for their infants compared with non-depressed mothers.3, 4 In another study, depressive symptoms in mothers of children 2 to 4 months of age were not associated with ED visits for injury 24 months later; in addition, the persistence of depressive symptoms in the mothers in this study was not associated with visits for well-child checks, acute care, or ED visits for care or injury in their children.5 Therefore, it remains unclear whether maternal depression is a risk factor for injury in their children.
Maternal depression has been associated with derangements in child temperament and behavior.6-11 Child behavior, in turn, has been associated with an increased risk for injury.12-14 Although maternal depression has been associated with childhood injury, no studies have examined whether maternal depression may influence childhood injury through its impact on child behavior. Given the recent evidence linking maternal depressive symptoms to poor residential safety, parenting, and perturbations in child behavior, the early recognition and treatment of maternal depression may have important ramifications for the mother and her children.
The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and injury outcomes in their children in a prospective cohort. We hypothesized that depressive symptoms in mothers of young children would be associated with increased injury risk. We further hypothesized that mothers' depressive symptoms would be associated with externalizing behaviors in their children, and that child behavior would partially mediate the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and childhood injury.
Methods
Variables and dataset
A cohort of mother-child dyads was developed from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY). The NLSY enrolled a cohort of teenage and young, adult women aged 14 to 22 years in 1979 with over-sampling of black, Hispanic, and low-income white women.15 The children of these women have been independently followed since 1986 with biennial assessment. As U.S. children less than 6 years have the highest rates of emergency visits for residential injury1, we developed a cohort of women who had children from birth through 5 years of age by randomly selecting one child less than 6 years from each maternal record in 1992 and who were followed through 1994.
We used the outcome of an injury requiring medical attention in the prior 12-months, reported in the 1994 wave of the NLSY, as the primary outcome variable for this analysis. In order to reduce the possibility that a prior injury in a child may have contributed to depressive symptoms in the mother, we excluded from the cohort any child who, in 1992, had a medically attended injury in the prior year or any injury ever requiring a prior hospitalization.
Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in 1992.16, 17 The 20-item CES-D, ranks responses on a 3-point Likert scale resulting in scores ranging between 0 and 60 and rates the frequency with which respondents have felt depressed mood, feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, guilt and worthlessness, loss of energy, and problems with sleep or appetite over a 1-week period. Higher scores reflect higher levels of depressive symptoms. The Cronbach's alpha for the mother's CES-D items in this cohort was good (α=0.71) and comparable to that in other studies of maternal depressive effects on infants.18 Only 7-items of the full 20-item scale of the CES-D was administered again in 1994. However, using the full 20-item CES-D scale in 1992 we found that the 7-item score was highly correlated with the full, 20-item score (Pearson correlation=0.87). In order to examine the effect of more severe levels of symptoms, we examined the association of injury outcomes with CES-D scores consistent with clinical depression (CES-D≥16).19, 20 Persistence of depressive symptoms over time may have a greater effect than intermittent ones4; therefore, we also examined the relationship of depressive symptoms and reported child injury in mothers who scored in the highest quartile using the 7-item CES-D in both 1992 and 1994.
To validate the top quartile approach to symptom severity, we compared women who scored in the top quartile of the 7-item CES-D scale in 1992 to those scoring ≥ 16 on the 20-item version. Only 2 (1%) women in this top quartile of the 7-item scale (CES-D>7) in 1992 had 20-item scores less than 16, both of these scores were 14. The lowest 3 quartiles of the short form correctly classified 99.6% of those not depressed on the more widely recognized long form of the CES-D (20-item CES-D <16). Using the abbreviated, 7-item top quartile (mean 11.4, range 8-21) of the CES-D, 44% of those classified as clinically depressed (20-item score ≥16) were captured in the top quartile of the 7-item short form. Therefore, the top-quartile of the 7-item CES-D in this cohort was a more specific subset of women with depressive symptoms consistent with clinical depression.
Maternal depression has been associated with a number of child behavior risks including attachment disorders in infants and toddlers and externalizing behavior disorders in older children.21, 22 The Behavior Problems Index (BPI), a 28-item survey included in the NLSY, measures the frequency, range, and type of childhood behavior problems in the 3 months prior but only for children age four years and over. Items were derived largely from the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).23 The externalizing subscale (BPIext) is an18-item derived measure which reflects a child's tendency to externalize behaviors.15 The behaviors encompassed by the BPIext subscales (‘impulsive, acts without thinking’, ‘restless overly active, cannot sit still’, etc.) describe an active and intuitively at risk child.15 The Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the Behavior Problems Index variables in the cohort for these analyses was good (BPIext subscales α=0.87). Higher scores represent a greater level of behavior problems. BPIext scores in 1994 were stratified for these analyses into quartiles from the lowest to highest reported degrees of externalizing behavior: lowest (83-91, 27%), second (92-100, 27%), third (101-111, 23%), and highest (112-163, 23%) quartile.
Other covariates considered for the models of maternal depressive symptoms on childhood injury were the location of injury, gender, race, number of siblings in the household, the child's birth order, maternal education, total household income, poverty status, and medical insurance status. Covariates were included in the models based on univariate and bivariate analyses and prior research. Variables with p-values <0.20 in bivariate analyses or those with prior research to support associations with childhood injury were examined for inclusion.24 As it has been reported that boys and girls have different socialization as regards home safety25, 26 and that maternal depressive symptoms make act differentially on psychologic development of boys or girls, we tested the interaction of maternal depressive symptoms on gender and behavior in the models.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive analyses and modeling of injury outcomes were undertaken using SAS® software.27 Only maternal-child dyads with complete data for the desired descriptive and multi-variable analyses were included (n=1106). Inclusion of the child behavior variable (BPIext) in the models reduced the 1994 sample by 324 records as the BPI is restricted to children ≥ 4 years. Chi-square tests were used to examine proportions of injured children by categorical covariates and two tailed t-tests were used for continuous covariates. Logistic regression was used to examine the association of maternal depressive symptoms with child injury controlling for covariates.
An approach outlined by Judd and Kenny was used to determine whether externalizing child behaviors mediated the effects of maternal depressive symptoms on child injury.28 First, we examined the associations between maternal depressive symptoms (CES-D score) and the presumed mediator externalizing child behavior. Second, we examined the association between maternal depressive symptoms and injury. Third, we assessed how the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and injury changed after adjusting for child behavior. The statistical analysis developed by Huang, et.al. for logistic models with binary outcomes (e.g. injured or not) was used to quantify the mediating effect of child behavior on the relationship between exposure to maternal depressive symptoms and injury outcomes in the children.29 The changes in the unstandardized coefficients for maternal depressive symptoms with the mediator in and out of the models indicated the extent to which child externalizing behavior mediated the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and injury.
Results
A total of 1106 mother-child dyads had complete data on the CES-D, injury outcomes, and the socio-demographic covariates. Half of the children in this cohort were males and almost eighty percent were from families with two or more children (see Table 1). A total of 94 children (8.5 %) in the cohort experienced a medically attended injury as reported by mothers in 1994. Almost two-thirds (n=66) of the injuries occurred in the home environment.
Table 1. Maternal and Child Characteristics, NLSY Cohort (N=1106), 1992-94.
| Characteristic | N | (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Injured in 1994 | ||
| Yes | 94 | 8.5 |
| No | 1012 | 91.5 |
| Place of Injury | ||
| Home | 62 | 66.0 |
| Other | 32 | 34.0 |
| Gender | ||
| M | 553 | 50.0 |
| F | 553 | 50.0 |
| Race | ||
| White, non-hispanic | 598 | 54.1 |
| Black, non-hispanic | 308 | 27.8 |
| Hispanic | 162 | 14.6 |
| Other | 38 | 3.4 |
| Number of Siblings | ||
| 0 | 233 | 21.1 |
| 1 | 731 | 66.1 |
| ≥2 | 142 | 12.8 |
| Birth Order of Child | ||
| First | 333 | 30.1 |
| Second | 419 | 37.9 |
| Third or higher | 354 | 32.0 |
| Total Household Income | ||
| <$15,000 | 131 | 11.6 |
| $15,000-29,999 | 263 | 23.8 |
| $30,000-49,999 | 392 | 35.4 |
| ≥$50,000 | 320 | 28.9 |
| Below Poverty level | ||
| Yes | 188 | 18.8 |
| No | 811 | 81.2 |
| Insurance Status (1990) | ||
| Private | 781 | 70.6 |
| Medicaid | 223 | 20.2 |
| Other / Uninsured | 102 | 9.2 |
| Education | ||
| <High school | 203 | 18.4 |
| High school | 443 | 40.0 |
| >High school | 460 | 41.6 |
Potential covariates for models of childhood injury available within this cohort are displayed in Table 2. There was no difference in the proportion of injured and non-injured children by age (p=0.94) or gender (p=0.28), family income (p=0.25), poverty status (p=0.50), insurance coverage (p=0.83), maternal education (p=0.98), birth order (p=0.60), or number of siblings in the home (p=0.10). However, the proportion of injured children did vary significantly according to race (p=0.03).
Table 2. Risk Factors for Children Reporting Injury in 1994.
| Injured | P-value | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| N | % | ||
| Maternal Depressive Symptoms | |||
| CES-D ≥16 (categorical) | 51 | 9.9 | |
| CES-D <16 | 43 | 7.2 | 0.11 |
| Child Gender | |||
| Male | 52 | 9.4 | 0.28 |
| Female | 42 | 7.6 | |
| Child Race | |||
| White, non-hispanic | 64 | 10.7 | |
| White, Hispanic | 6 | 3.7 | |
| African–American | 22 | 7.1 | 0.02 |
| Other | 2 | 5.3 | |
| Number of Siblings | |||
| 0 | 11 | 4.7 | |
| 1 | 71 | 9.7 | 0.06 |
| ≥2 | 12 | 8.4 | |
| Total Household Income | |||
| <$15,000 | 12 | 9.2 | |
| $15,000-29,999 | 25 | 9.5 | 0.53 |
| $30,000-49,999 | 36 | 9.2 | |
| ≥$50,000 | 21 | 6.6 | |
| Maternal Education | |||
| <High school | 18 | 8.9 | |
| High school | 36 | 8.1 | 0.93 |
| >High school | 40 | 8.7 | |
| Insurance | |||
| Private | 68 | 8.7 | |
| Medicaid | 19 | 8.5 | 0.82 |
| Other / uninsured | 7 | 6.9 | |
The mean score of the 20-item CES-D in 1992 was 16.9 (s.d. 6.2). In bivariate analyses, there was a significant difference in mean CES-D scores between mothers of injured and non-injured children (18.2 ± 7.3 vs. 16.6 ± 5.7, p=0.045). About 47 percent of mothers in the cohort had CES-D scores ≥16 in 1992. In bivariate analyses, the proportion of injured children was not significantly different in children of mothers with high depressive symptoms (CES-D≥16) compared to children of mothers with lower scores (9.9% vs. 7.2%, p=0.11, Table 2). In multivariate analyses, children of mothers with depressive symptoms in 1992 were at an increased risk of injury in 1994, adjusting for covariates (Table 3, adjusted Odds Ratio (ORadj) 1.04, 95% Confidence limits (95%CI) 1.01, 1.08). Those with symptoms consistent with clinical depression (CES-D ≥16) were at greater risk, ORadj 1.38 (95%CI 0.89, 2.15), although this was not statistically significant. Furthermore, children of mothers with high and persistent depressive symptoms (highest quartile of 7-item CES-D in both 1992 and 1994) had greater than a two-fold increase in their risk of reported injury compared to children of mothers whose symptoms were not high in either year, ORadj 2.84, (95% CI 1.49, 5.41).
Table 3. Logistic Regression Model of Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predicting Injury Outcomes 1994 (excluding Externalizing Child Behavior, BPIext).
| Variable | Beta | SE | OR | 95% CI | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Depressive Symptoms (continuous CES-D score) | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.04 | 1.01, 1.08 | 0.03 | |
| Child Gender | ||||||
| male | 0.13 | 0.11 | 1.29 | 0.84, 2.00 | 0.25 | |
| female (reference) | ||||||
| Family Income | ||||||
| <$15,000 | 0.20 | 0.27 | 1.88 | 0.80, 4.40 | 0.47 | |
| $15,000-29,999 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 1.89 | 0.98, 3.66 | 0.30 | |
| $30,000-49,999 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 1.59 | 0.90, 2.84 | 0.86 | |
| ≥$50,000 (reference) | ||||||
| Family Size | ||||||
| ≥ 2 siblings | 0.81 | 0.46 | 2.24 | 0.92, 5.47 | 0.08 | |
| 1 sibling | 0.85 | 0.34 | 2.36 | 1.20, 4.61 | 0.01 | |
| No siblings (reference) | ||||||
| Maternal Education | ||||||
| <High school | -0.04 | 0.20 | 0.83 | 0.42, 1.62 | 0.84 | |
| High school | -0.10 | 0.16 | 0.78 | 0.48, 1.28 | 0.50 | |
| >High school (reference) | ||||||
| Child Race | ||||||
| White, non-Hispanic | 1.30 | 0.45 | 3.67 | 1.53, 8.80 | 0.004 | |
| Black | 0.59 | 0.48 | 1.80 | 0.71, 4.61 | 0.22 | |
| Other | 0.41 | 0.84 | 1.50 | 0.29, 8.87 | 0.63 | |
| White, Hispanic (reference) | ||||||
| Child Age | ||||||
| Years (each year) | -0.02 | 0.06 | 0.98 | 0.86, 1.12 | 0.74 | |
In logistic regression modeling we found a significant interaction between depression and gender (p=0.01). Therefore, we examined the effect of depressive symptoms on injury outcomes in boys- and girls-only cohorts (see Table 4). The risk of injury in boys of mothers with depressive symptoms was higher than that for the full cohort, ORadj 1.08 (95% CI 1.04, 1.13). In contrast, there was not a significant association of maternal depressive symptoms and injury in girls, ORadj 0.98 (95% CI 0.93, 1.04).
Table 4. Adjusted Logistic Models of Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predicting Injury Outcomes including Externalizing Child Behavior (BPIext) for the Combined Cohort and by Gender.
| Dataset | Beta | SE | OR adj* | 95%CI | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Combined (N=782) | 0.04 | 0.02 | 1.04 | 1.00, 1.09 | 0.049 |
| Males Only (N=396) | 0.09 | 0.03 | 1.10 | 1.04, 1.16 | 0.002 |
| Females Only (N=386) | - 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.97 | 0.90, 1.04 | 0.37 |
adjusted for demographic and SES covariates from table 2 and BPIext.
If maternal depression and supervisory behavior are indeed linked to a young child's risk of injury, one might expect a lower or non-significant risk outside the home where exposure to parenting and supervision might be less likely (e.g. a public playground) compared to inside. There was a similar estimate of effect to the overall cohort for maternal depressive symptoms on residential injuries (N=62), ORadj 1.05 (95% CI 1.01, 1.10); however, there was not a significant effect in environments outside of the home (N=32), ORadj 1.03 (95%CI 0.97, 1.09) where exposure to maternal supervision is less likely.
The mean scores of the externalizing subscales of the BPI for the cohort greater than 4 years in 1994 (N=782) was 103.0 (s.d. 15.6, range 86 to 178). Children with scores in the highest quartile of the BPIext had significantly higher mean scores (107, s.d. 17.1 vs. 102, s.d. 14.6, p=0.01) and proportions of injured (14.7% vs. 6.2%, p=0.0002) compared with children in the lower quartiles.
The risk of a highest quartile BPIext score increased by 6 percent for each increase in maternal CES-D symptom score (Table 5). The risk was increased only for boys (ORadj 1.08, 95%CI 1.04, 1.13). Children of mothers with high depressive symptoms (CES-D≥16) were also at increased risk of top-quartile externalizing behaviors (ORadj 1.71, 95% CI 1.20, 2.42). Top-quartile externalizing behaviors were, in turn, a risk factor for injury compared to children in lower quartiles (ORadj 2.26, 95% CI 1.30, 3.96). However, children's externalizing behaviors did not appear to significantly mediate the effect of maternal depressive symptoms on childhood injury with only 4 percent (0.04, 95%CI -0.02, 0.09) of the effect operating through the BPIext. Externalizing behaviors (BPIext) were not a significant mediator in boys or girls when stratified by gender.
Table 5. Adjusted Logistic Models of Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predicting Externalizing Behaviors (BPIext) for Combined Cohort and by Gender.
| Dataset | Beta | SE | OR adj* | 95%CI | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Combined (N=782) | 0.06 | 0.01 | 1.06 | 1.03, 1.09 | 0.0001 |
| Males Only (N=396) | 0.08 | 0.02 | 1.08 | 1.04, 1.13 | 0.0001 |
| Females Only (N=386) | 0.03 | 0.02 | 1.03 | 0.99, 1.08 | 0.13 |
adjusted for demographic and SES covariates from table 2.
Discussion
Depressive symptoms in a cohort of mothers of young children in 1992 were significantly associated with an increased risk of subsequent medically attended injury. In this cohort the risk of reported injury increased by 4 percent for each 1-point increase in maternal depressive symptoms on the CES-D. Furthermore, high and persistent maternal depressive symptoms in this cohort of children less than 6 years of age were associated with an even greater increase in the risk of injury. Mechanisms that may explain the effect of increasing maternal depressive symptoms on childhood injury include changes in maternal supervisory behavior 30, ability to maintain the physical environment (increased clutter or other hazards)31-33, or in perceptions of child behavior and injury risk.14
Although we did not find a significant mediating effect of child behavior on the relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and injury, depressive symptoms in this cohort did increase the risk of externalizing behaviors. This is consistent with several other reports. 10, 34 It is likely that externalizing child behavior does have a role in increasing a child's injury risk 35, 36, however the BPIext may not be the ideal measure in young children under 6 years to explain the pathway from maternal depressive symptoms to childhood injury. In a recent study of the effects of maternal depressive symptoms on child behavior using the NLSY, it was found that maternal depressive symptoms had direct effects on child behavior in an older, 6-9 year-old cohort mediated through parenting behavior in white and Latino cohorts.37
Although we found a significant interaction between depressive symptoms and child gender, we were limited in our power to explore the mediation effects of child behavior. Studies have shown that parents will socialize and supervise their children as regards injury risk behaviors differentially by gender and this may partly explain the findings in this cohort.25, 26 Children, by 6 years of age, also display gender biases in perceptions of injury vulnerability which may lead to more or less injury risk behaviors.25 Furthermore, although we controlled for socio-economic covariates, other unmeasured variables such as more specific measures of maternal supervisory beliefs and behavior and macro-level variables such as neighborhood social capital not present in the NLSY may have important effects on the relationship of maternal depressive symptoms and childhood injury.38-41 Finally, we examined a young cohort of children from birth through 5 years and it is possible that mediation effects may be most pronounced in older cohorts.
We found that maternal depressive symptoms are associated with child behavior and injury in a young cohort of children in the NLSY. Thus, a reduction in symptoms or treatment of women with depressive symptoms might reduce the risk of injury in their children. In at least one controlled trial, treatment of maternal depression was associated with an 11 percent decrease in the rates of psychiatric and behavioral diagnoses in children of mothers whose depression remitted.42
These results may not be generalizable to the larger US population as the sample population for these analyses was a subset of the larger NLSY cohort and weighted estimates were not developed. Our analyses were limited to depressive symptoms in 1992 and measures of externalizing behaviors and injury in 1994. To reduce the likelihood of reverse causation, i.e. - that prior injuries may have influenced maternal depressive symptoms we restricted analyses to children with no reported injuries in the 1992 survey. The NLSY oversampled from certain minority and low socioeconomic groups and almost half (47%) of mothers in this cohort of children reported depressive symptoms above the threshold for clinical depression (CES-D ≥16) consistent with several prior reports.5, 19, 20, 43 As the recall period for a medically-attended injury in the NLSY was 12-months, we may have underestimated the effect of depressive symptoms on injury through decreasing recall of child injury after 3 months.44 A recent report has shown that maternal depression does not alter the recall of child health services usage.45 The association of maternal depressive symptoms and medically attended injuries may be explained by depressed mother's inappropriate use of health services. While some studies may support this hypothesis46, 47, a study by Watson and Kemper found no increase of scheduled or unscheduled health services usage by children of mothers with substance abuse, depression, or low social support.48
Conclusions
Increasing depressive symptoms in mothers of young children in 1992 were significantly associated with the risk of an injury in 1994. Although depressive symptoms in mothers increased the risk of externalizing behaviors in boys, the effect of depressive symptoms of mothers on their children's risk of injury did not appear to be significantly mediated by child behavior in this cohort. Greater attention to the recognition, referral, and treatment of maternal depression may result in reductions in both child behavioral problems and injury.
Implications for Prevention
The recognition of depression in mothers of young children may have important ramifications for her child's development and injury risk. Primary care clinicians and pediatricians need to be able to screen for, recognize, and treat or refer for treatment mothers with depressive symptoms in order to reduce the risk of behavioral problems and injury in their children.
Key Points
Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with injury outcomes in their children
For each 1-point increase in maternal depressive symptoms as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies - Depression scale (CES-D), there was a 4-percent increase in injury risk and an 6-percent increase in the risk of externalizing behavior problems in their children
The recognition and treatment of depressive symptoms in mothers of young children may afford opportunities for the amelioration of behavior problems and medically-attended injuries in their children
Acknowledgments
Bin Huang PhD, Research Assistant Prof, Center for Epidemiology and Biostatistics, CCHMC for assistance with the mediation analysis using logistic models.
Funding support: K. Phelan was supported by a career development award from the National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) -1K23HD045770-01A2. R. Kahn was supported by NICHD 1K23 HD40362.
Footnotes
Presented at the Pediatric Academic Society Meetings in San Francisco, CA in May, 2006. Initially submitted November, 2006.
Competing Interests: None of the authors have a competing interest to declare.
References
- 1.Phelan KJ, Khoury JC, Kalkwarf HJ, Lanphear BP. Residential Injuries in US Children and Adolescents. Public Health Rep. 2005;120(1):63–70. doi: 10.1177/003335490512000111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Nagaraja J, Menkedick J, Phelan KJ, Ashley P, Zhang X, Lanphear BP. Deaths from residential injuries in US children and adolescents, 1985-1997. Pediatrics. 2005;116(2):454–461. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-1415. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.McLennan JD, Kotelchuck M. Parental prevention practices for young children in the context of maternal depression. Pediatrics. 2000 May;105(5):1090–1095. doi: 10.1542/peds.105.5.1090. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Chung EK, McCollum KF, Elo IT, Lee HJ, Culhane JF. Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Infant Health Practices Among Low-Income Women. Pediatrics. 2004;113:e523–3529. doi: 10.1542/peds.113.6.e523. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Minkovitz CS, Strobino D, Scharfstein D, et al. Maternal depressive symptoms and children's receipt of health care in the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics. 2005 Feb;115(2):306–314. doi: 10.1542/peds.2004-0341. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Field T. Maternal depression effects on infants and early interventions. Prev Med. 1998 Mar-Apr;27(2):200–203. doi: 10.1006/pmed.1998.0293. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Field T. Emotional care of the at-risk infant: early interventions for infants of depressed mothers. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1305–1310. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Hart S, Jones NA, Field T. Atypical Expressions of Jealousy in Infants of Intrusive- and Withdrawn-Depressed Mothers. Child Pyschiatry and Human Development. 2003;33(3):193–207. doi: 10.1023/a:1021452529762. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.NICHD. Chronicity of Maternal Depressive Symptoms, Maternal Sensitivity, and Child Functioning at 36 months. NICHD Early Childhood Research Network. Develop Psych. 1999;35(5):1297–1310. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.35.5.1297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Civic D, Holt VL. Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Behavior Problems in a Nationally Representative Normal Birthweight Sample. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2000;4(4):215–221. doi: 10.1023/a:1026667720478. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Kim-Cohen J, Moffitt TE, Taylor A, Pawlby SJ, Caspi A. Maternal Depression and Children's Antisocial Behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:173–181. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.62.2.173. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Schwebel DC, Speltz ML, Jones K, Bardina P. Unintentional injury in preschool boys with and without early onset of disruptive behavior. J Pediatr Psychol. 2002 Dec;27(8):727–737. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/27.8.727. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Schwebel DC, Brezausek CM, Ramey SL, Ramey CT. Interactions between child behavior patterns and parenting: implications for children's unintentional injury risk. J Pediatr Psychol. 2004 Mar;29(2):93–104. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsh013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Morrongiello BA, Dawber T. Toddlers' and Mothers' Behaviors in an Injury-Risk Situation: Implications For Sex Differences in Childhood Injuries. J Appl Develop Psych. 1998;19(4):625–639. [Google Scholar]
- 15.NLSY79 Child & Young Adult Data Users Guide-A guide to the 1986-2000 Child Data and 1994-2000 Young Adult Data. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University; 2002. [Google Scholar]
- 16.Weissman MM, Sholomskas D, Pottenger M, Prusoff BA, Locke BZ. Assessing depressive symptoms in five psychiatric populations: validation study. Am J Epidemiol. 1977;106:203–214. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112455. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.NLS Handbook, 2000. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor; 2000. [Google Scholar]
- 18.Diego MA, Field T, Hernandez-Reif M, Cullen C, Schanberg S, Kuhn C. Prepartum, Postpartum, and Chronic Depression Effects on Newborns. Psychiatry. 2004 Spring;67(1):63–80. doi: 10.1521/psyc.67.1.63.31251. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Zich JM, Attkisson CC, Greenfield TK. Screening for Depression in Primary Care Clinics: the CES-D and the BDI. Int J Psychiatry in Medicine. 1990;20(3):259–277. doi: 10.2190/LYKR-7VHP-YJEM-MKM2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Wilcox H, Field T, Prodromidis M, Scafidi F. Correlations Between the BDI and CES-D in a Sample of Adolescent Mothers. Adolescence. 1998;33(131):565–574. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Lyons-Ruth K, Easterbrooks M, Cibelli C. Infant Attachment Strategies, Infant Mental Lag, and Maternal Depressive Symptoms: Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Problemsw at Age 7. Developmental Psychology. 1997;33(4):681–692. doi: 10.1037//0012-1649.33.4.681. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Luoma I, Tamminen T, Kaukonen P, et al. Longitudinal Study of Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Well-Being. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(12):1367–1374. doi: 10.1097/00004583-200112000-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Achenbach T, Edelbrock C. Behavioral problems and competencies reported by parents of normal and disturbed children aged four through sixteeen. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1981;46:1–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Hosmer DW, Lemeshow S. Applied Logistic Regression. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1989. [Google Scholar]
- 25.Morrongiello BA, Midgett C, Stanton K. Gender Biases in Children's Appraisals of Injury Risk and Other Children's Risk-Taking Behaviors. J Exper Child Psych. 2000;77:317–336. doi: 10.1006/jecp.2000.2595. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Morrongiello BA, Dawber T. Mothers' Responses to Sons and Daughters Engaging Injury-Risk Behaviors on a Playground: Implciations for Sex Differences in Injury Rates. J Exper Child Psych. 2000;76:89–103. doi: 10.1006/jecp.2000.2572. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.SAS. Version 6.12. Cary, NC: SAS Institute; 1996. computer program. [Google Scholar]
- 28.Judd CM, Kenny DA. Process Analysis - Estimating Mediation in Treatment Evaluations. Evaluation Review. 1981 October;5(5):602–619. [Google Scholar]
- 29.Huang B, Sivaganesan S, Succop P, Goodman E. Statistical assessment of mediational effects for logistic mediational models. Statistics in Medicine. 2004;23:2713–2728. doi: 10.1002/sim.1847. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Morrongiello BA, Corbett M, McCourt M, Johnston N. Understanding unintentional injury risk in young children II. The contribution of caregiver supervision, child attributes, and parent attributes. J Pediatr Psychol. 2006 Jul;31(6):540–551. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsj073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Mott J. Personal and family predictors of children's medically attended injuries that occurred in the home. Inj Prev. 1999;5:189–193. doi: 10.1136/ip.5.3.189. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Lyons RA, Newcombe RG, Jones SJ, Patterson J, Palmer SR, Jones P. Injuries in homes with certain built forms. Am J Prev Med. 2006 Jun;30(6):513–520. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2006.02.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Newman SJ, Schnare AB. Subsidizing Shelter - The Relationship between Welfare and Housing Assistance. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute; 1988. pp. 88–1. [Google Scholar]
- 34.Kahn RS, Brandt D, Whitaker RC. Combined Effect of Mother's and Fathers' Mental Health Symptoms on Children's Behavioral and Emotional Well-being. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:721–729. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.158.8.721. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Schwebel DC. The role of impulsivity in children's estimation of physical ability: implications for children's unintentional injury risk. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2004 Oct;74(4):584–588. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.74.4.584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Pastor PN, Reuben CA. Identified Attention -Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Medically Attended, Nonfatal Injuries: US School-Age Children, 1997-2002. Ambul Pediatr. 2006;6:38–44. doi: 10.1016/j.ambp.2005.07.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.Pachter LM, Auinger P, Palmer R, Weitzman M. Do parenting and the home environment, maternal depression, neighborhood, and chronic poverty affect child behavioral problems differently in different racial-ethnic groups? Pediatrics. 2006 Apr;117(4):1329–1338. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-1784. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Morrongiello BA. Caregiver supervision and child-injury risk: I. Issues in defining and measuring supervision; II. Findings and directions for future research. J Pediatr Psychol. 2005 Oct-Nov;30(7):536–552. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsi041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 39.Morrongiello BA, Corbett M. The Parent Supervision Attributes Profile Questionnaire: a measure of supervision relevant to children's risk of unintentional injury. Inj Prev. 2006 Feb;12(1):19–23. doi: 10.1136/ip.2005.008862. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.Kitzman H, Olds D, Henderson C, et al. Effect of Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses on Pregnancy Outcomes, Childhood Injuries, and Repeated Childbearing - A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA. 1997;278:644–652. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Kotch JB, Browne DC, Ringwalt CL, et al. Stress, social support, and substantiated maltreatment in the second and third years of life. Child Abuse Negl. 1997 Nov;21(11):1025–1037. doi: 10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00063-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.Weissman MM, Pilowsky DJ, Wickramaratne PJ, et al. Remissions in maternal depression and child psychopathology: a STAR*D-child report. JAMA. 2006 Mar 22;295(12):1389–1398. doi: 10.1001/jama.295.12.1389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.Paulson JF, Dauber S, Leiferman JA. Individual and Combined Effects of Postpartum Depression in Mothers and Fathers on Parenting Behavior. Pediatrics. 2006;118(2):659–668. doi: 10.1542/peds.2005-2948. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.Cummings P, Rivara FP, Thompson RS, Reid RJ. Ability of parents to recall the injuries of their young children. Inj Prev. 2005;11(1):43–47. doi: 10.1136/ip.2004.006833. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 45.D'Souza-Vazirani D, Minkovitz CS, Strobino D. Validity of Maternal Report of Acute Health Care Use for Children Younger than 3 Years. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159:167–172. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.159.2.167. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.Mandl KD, Tronick EZ, Brennan TA, Alpert HR, Homer CJ. Infant health care use and maternal depression. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999 Aug;153(8):808–813. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.153.8.808. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Sills MR, Shetterly S, Xu S, Magid D, Kempe A. Association Between Parental Depression and Children's Health Care Use. Pediatrics. 2007;119(4):e829–e836. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2399. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.Watson JM, Kemper KJ. Maternal factors and child's health care use. Soc Sci Med. 1995 Mar;40(5):623–628. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(94)e0112-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]