Abstract
Over the past several years, RNAi and its related phenomena have emerged not only as a powerful experimental tool but also as a new mode of gene regulation. Through a combination of genetic and biochemical approaches we have learned much about the mechanisms underlying dsRNA responses. However, many of the most intriguing aspects of dsRNA-induced gene silencing have yet to be illuminated. What has become abundantly clear is that the complex and highly conserved biology underlying RNA interference is critical both for genome maintenance and for the development of complex organisms. However, it seems probable that we have only begun to reveal the diversity of biological roles played by RNAi-related processes.
Full Text
The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (1.4 MB).
Selected References
These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.
- Anandalakshmi R., Pruss G. J., Ge X., Marathe R., Mallory A. C., Smith T. H., Vance V. B. A viral suppressor of gene silencing in plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Oct 27;95(22):13079–13084. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.22.13079. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Angell S. M., Baulcombe D. C. Consistent gene silencing in transgenic plants expressing a replicating potato virus X RNA. EMBO J. 1997 Jun 16;16(12):3675–3684. doi: 10.1093/emboj/16.12.3675. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Aravin A. A., Naumova N. M., Tulin A. V., Vagin V. V., Rozovsky Y. M., Gvozdev V. A. Double-stranded RNA-mediated silencing of genomic tandem repeats and transposable elements in the D. melanogaster germline. Curr Biol. 2001 Jul 10;11(13):1017–1027. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(01)00299-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bass B. L. Double-stranded RNA as a template for gene silencing. Cell. 2000 Apr 28;101(3):235–238. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(02)71133-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bernstein E., Caudy A. A., Hammond S. M., Hannon G. J. Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference. Nature. 2001 Jan 18;409(6818):363–366. doi: 10.1038/35053110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bohmert K., Camus I., Bellini C., Bouchez D., Caboche M., Benning C. AGO1 defines a novel locus of Arabidopsis controlling leaf development. EMBO J. 1998 Jan 2;17(1):170–180. doi: 10.1093/emboj/17.1.170. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cambareri E. B., Jensen B. C., Schabtach E., Selker E. U. Repeat-induced G-C to A-T mutations in Neurospora. Science. 1989 Jun 30;244(4912):1571–1575. doi: 10.1126/science.2544994. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Catalanotto C., Azzalin G., Macino G., Cogoni C. Gene silencing in worms and fungi. Nature. 2000 Mar 16;404(6775):245–245. doi: 10.1038/35005169. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cerutti L., Mian N., Bateman A. Domains in gene silencing and cell differentiation proteins: the novel PAZ domain and redefinition of the Piwi domain. Trends Biochem Sci. 2000 Oct;25(10):481–482. doi: 10.1016/s0968-0004(00)01641-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chandler V. L., Eggleston W. B., Dorweiler J. E. Paramutation in maize. Plant Mol Biol. 2000 Jun;43(2-3):121–145. doi: 10.1023/a:1006499808317. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Coen E. S., Carpenter R. A semi-dominant allele, niv-525, acts in trans to inhibit expression of its wild-type homologue in Antirrhinum majus. EMBO J. 1988 Apr;7(4):877–883. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb02891.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cogoni C., Irelan J. T., Schumacher M., Schmidhauser T. J., Selker E. U., Macino G. Transgene silencing of the al-1 gene in vegetative cells of Neurospora is mediated by a cytoplasmic effector and does not depend on DNA-DNA interactions or DNA methylation. EMBO J. 1996 Jun 17;15(12):3153–3163. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cogoni C., Macino G. Gene silencing in Neurospora crassa requires a protein homologous to RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Nature. 1999 May 13;399(6732):166–169. doi: 10.1038/20215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cogoni C., Macino G. Isolation of quelling-defective (qde) mutants impaired in posttranscriptional transgene-induced gene silencing in Neurospora crassa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Sep 16;94(19):10233–10238. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.19.10233. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cogoni C., Macino G. Posttranscriptional gene silencing in Neurospora by a RecQ DNA helicase. Science. 1999 Dec 17;286(5448):2342–2344. doi: 10.1126/science.286.5448.2342. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Colot V., Maloisel L., Rossignol J. L. Interchromosomal transfer of epigenetic states in Ascobolus: transfer of DNA methylation is mechanistically related to homologous recombination. Cell. 1996 Sep 20;86(6):855–864. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80161-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cox D. N., Chao A., Baker J., Chang L., Qiao D., Lin H. A novel class of evolutionarily conserved genes defined by piwi are essential for stem cell self-renewal. Genes Dev. 1998 Dec 1;12(23):3715–3727. doi: 10.1101/gad.12.23.3715. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dalmay T., Hamilton A., Rudd S., Angell S., Baulcombe D. C. An RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene in Arabidopsis is required for posttranscriptional gene silencing mediated by a transgene but not by a virus. Cell. 2000 May 26;101(5):543–553. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80864-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dalmay T., Horsefield R., Braunstein T. H., Baulcombe D. C. SDE3 encodes an RNA helicase required for post-transcriptional gene silencing in Arabidopsis. EMBO J. 2001 Apr 17;20(8):2069–2078. doi: 10.1093/emboj/20.8.2069. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dernburg A. F., Zalevsky J., Colaiácovo M. P., Villeneuve A. M. Transgene-mediated cosuppression in the C. elegans germ line. Genes Dev. 2000 Jul 1;14(13):1578–1583. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Diéguez M. J., Vaucheret H., Paszkowski J., Mittelsten Scheid O. Cytosine methylation at CG and CNG sites is not a prerequisite for the initiation of transcriptional gene silencing in plants, but it is required for its maintenance. Mol Gen Genet. 1998 Aug;259(2):207–215. doi: 10.1007/s004380050806. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dobosy J. R., Selker E. U. Emerging connections between DNA methylation and histone acetylation. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2001 May;58(5-6):721–727. doi: 10.1007/PL00000895. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Domeier M. E., Morse D. P., Knight S. W., Portereiko M., Bass B. L., Mango S. E. A link between RNA interference and nonsense-mediated decay in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science. 2000 Sep 15;289(5486):1928–1931. doi: 10.1126/science.289.5486.1928. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Elbashir S. M., Lendeckel W., Tuschl T. RNA interference is mediated by 21- and 22-nucleotide RNAs. Genes Dev. 2001 Jan 15;15(2):188–200. doi: 10.1101/gad.862301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Elmayan T., Balzergue S., Béon F., Bourdon V., Daubremet J., Guénet Y., Mourrain P., Palauqui J. C., Vernhettes S., Vialle T. Arabidopsis mutants impaired in cosuppression. Plant Cell. 1998 Oct;10(10):1747–1758. doi: 10.1105/tpc.10.10.1747. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fagard M., Boutet S., Morel J. B., Bellini C., Vaucheret H. AGO1, QDE-2, and RDE-1 are related proteins required for post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants, quelling in fungi, and RNA interference in animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Oct 10;97(21):11650–11654. doi: 10.1073/pnas.200217597. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fagard M., Vaucheret H. Systemic silencing signal(s). Plant Mol Biol. 2000 Jun;43(2-3):285–293. doi: 10.1023/a:1006404016494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Finnegan E. J., Wang M., Waterhouse P. Gene silencing: fleshing out the bones. Curr Biol. 2001 Feb 6;11(3):R99–R102. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(01)00039-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fire A., Albertson D., Harrison S. W., Moerman D. G. Production of antisense RNA leads to effective and specific inhibition of gene expression in C. elegans muscle. Development. 1991 Oct;113(2):503–514. doi: 10.1242/dev.113.2.503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fire A., Xu S., Montgomery M. K., Kostas S. A., Driver S. E., Mello C. C. Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature. 1998 Feb 19;391(6669):806–811. doi: 10.1038/35888. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Furner I. J., Sheikh M. A., Collett C. E. Gene silencing and homology-dependent gene silencing in Arabidopsis: genetic modifiers and DNA methylation. Genetics. 1998 Jun;149(2):651–662. doi: 10.1093/genetics/149.2.651. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gowher H., Leismann O., Jeltsch A. DNA of Drosophila melanogaster contains 5-methylcytosine. EMBO J. 2000 Dec 15;19(24):6918–6923. doi: 10.1093/emboj/19.24.6918. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Goyon C., Faugeron G. Targeted transformation of Ascobolus immersus and de novo methylation of the resulting duplicated DNA sequences. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Jul;9(7):2818–2827. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.7.2818. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Grishok A., Pasquinelli A. E., Conte D., Li N., Parrish S., Ha I., Baillie D. L., Fire A., Ruvkun G., Mello C. C. Genes and mechanisms related to RNA interference regulate expression of the small temporal RNAs that control C. elegans developmental timing. Cell. 2001 Jul 13;106(1):23–34. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00431-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Grishok A., Tabara H., Mello C. C. Genetic requirements for inheritance of RNAi in C. elegans. Science. 2000 Mar 31;287(5462):2494–2497. doi: 10.1126/science.287.5462.2494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Guo S., Kemphues K. J. par-1, a gene required for establishing polarity in C. elegans embryos, encodes a putative Ser/Thr kinase that is asymmetrically distributed. Cell. 1995 May 19;81(4):611–620. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90082-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hamilton A. J., Baulcombe D. C. A species of small antisense RNA in posttranscriptional gene silencing in plants. Science. 1999 Oct 29;286(5441):950–952. doi: 10.1126/science.286.5441.950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hammond S. M., Bernstein E., Beach D., Hannon G. J. An RNA-directed nuclease mediates post-transcriptional gene silencing in Drosophila cells. Nature. 2000 Mar 16;404(6775):293–296. doi: 10.1038/35005107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hammond S. M., Boettcher S., Caudy A. A., Kobayashi R., Hannon G. J. Argonaute2, a link between genetic and biochemical analyses of RNAi. Science. 2001 Aug 10;293(5532):1146–1150. doi: 10.1126/science.1064023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hammond S. M., Caudy A. A., Hannon G. J. Post-transcriptional gene silencing by double-stranded RNA. Nat Rev Genet. 2001 Feb;2(2):110–119. doi: 10.1038/35052556. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hirochika H., Okamoto H., Kakutani T. Silencing of retrotransposons in arabidopsis and reactivation by the ddm1 mutation. Plant Cell. 2000 Mar;12(3):357–369. doi: 10.1105/tpc.12.3.357. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Holtorf H., Schöb H., Kunz C., Waldvogel R., Meins F., Jr Stochastic and nonstochastic post-transcriptional silencing of chitinase and beta-1,3-glucanase genes involves increased RNA turnover-possible role for ribosome-independent RNA degradation. Plant Cell. 1999 Mar;11(3):471–484. doi: 10.1105/tpc.11.3.471. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ingelbrecht I., Van Houdt H., Van Montagu M., Depicker A. Posttranscriptional silencing of reporter transgenes in tobacco correlates with DNA methylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Oct 25;91(22):10502–10506. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.22.10502. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jacobsen S. E., Running M. P., Meyerowitz E. M. Disruption of an RNA helicase/RNAse III gene in Arabidopsis causes unregulated cell division in floral meristems. Development. 1999 Dec;126(23):5231–5243. doi: 10.1242/dev.126.23.5231. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jakowitsch J., Papp I., Moscone E. A., van der Winden J., Matzke M., Matzke A. J. Molecular and cytogenetic characterization of a transgene locus that induces silencing and methylation of homologous promoters in trans. Plant J. 1999 Jan;17(2):131–140. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.1999.00357.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeddeloh J. A., Bender J., Richards E. J. The DNA methylation locus DDM1 is required for maintenance of gene silencing in Arabidopsis. Genes Dev. 1998 Jun 1;12(11):1714–1725. doi: 10.1101/gad.12.11.1714. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeddeloh J. A., Stokes T. L., Richards E. J. Maintenance of genomic methylation requires a SWI2/SNF2-like protein. Nat Genet. 1999 May;22(1):94–97. doi: 10.1038/8803. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jensen S., Gassama M. P., Heidmann T. Taming of transposable elements by homology-dependent gene silencing. Nat Genet. 1999 Feb;21(2):209–212. doi: 10.1038/5997. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jones L., Ratcliff F., Baulcombe D. C. RNA-directed transcriptional gene silencing in plants can be inherited independently of the RNA trigger and requires Met1 for maintenance. Curr Biol. 2001 May 15;11(10):747–757. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(01)00226-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jorgensen R. Altered gene expression in plants due to trans interactions between homologous genes. Trends Biotechnol. 1990 Dec;8(12):340–344. doi: 10.1016/0167-7799(90)90220-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kakutani T., Jeddeloh J. A., Richards E. J. Characterization of an Arabidopsis thaliana DNA hypomethylation mutant. Nucleic Acids Res. 1995 Jan 11;23(1):130–137. doi: 10.1093/nar/23.1.130. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kanno T., Naito S., Shimamoto K. Post-transcriptional gene silencing in cultured rice cells. Plant Cell Physiol. 2000 Mar;41(3):321–326. doi: 10.1093/pcp/41.3.321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kataoka Y., Takeichi M., Uemura T. Developmental roles and molecular characterization of a Drosophila homologue of Arabidopsis Argonaute1, the founder of a novel gene superfamily. Genes Cells. 2001 Apr;6(4):313–325. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2443.2001.00427.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kelly W. G., Fire A. Chromatin silencing and the maintenance of a functional germline in Caenorhabditis elegans. Development. 1998 Jul;125(13):2451–2456. doi: 10.1242/dev.125.13.2451. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ketting R. F., Haverkamp T. H., van Luenen H. G., Plasterk R. H. Mut-7 of C. elegans, required for transposon silencing and RNA interference, is a homolog of Werner syndrome helicase and RNaseD. Cell. 1999 Oct 15;99(2):133–141. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81645-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lee R. C., Feinbaum R. L., Ambros V. The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Cell. 1993 Dec 3;75(5):843–854. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90529-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lucas W. J., Bouché-Pillon S., Jackson D. P., Nguyen L., Baker L., Ding B., Hake S. Selective trafficking of KNOTTED1 homeodomain protein and its mRNA through plasmodesmata. Science. 1995 Dec 22;270(5244):1980–1983. doi: 10.1126/science.270.5244.1980. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lucas W. J. Plasmodesmata: intercellular channels for macromolecular transport in plants. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1995 Oct;7(5):673–680. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(95)80109-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lyko F., Ramsahoye B. H., Jaenisch R. DNA methylation in Drosophila melanogaster. Nature. 2000 Nov 30;408(6812):538–540. doi: 10.1038/35046205. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lynn K., Fernandez A., Aida M., Sedbrook J., Tasaka M., Masson P., Barton M. K. The PINHEAD/ZWILLE gene acts pleiotropically in Arabidopsis development and has overlapping functions with the ARGONAUTE1 gene. Development. 1999 Feb;126(3):469–481. doi: 10.1242/dev.126.3.469. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mallory A. C., Ely L., Smith T. H., Marathe R., Anandalakshmi R., Fagard M., Vaucheret H., Pruss G., Bowman L., Vance V. B. HC-Pro suppression of transgene silencing eliminates the small RNAs but not transgene methylation or the mobile signal. Plant Cell. 2001 Mar;13(3):571–583. doi: 10.1105/tpc.13.3.571. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Maquat L. E., Carmichael G. G. Quality control of mRNA function. Cell. 2001 Jan 26;104(2):173–176. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00202-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mette M. F., Aufsatz W., van der Winden J., Matzke M. A., Matzke A. J. Transcriptional silencing and promoter methylation triggered by double-stranded RNA. EMBO J. 2000 Oct 2;19(19):5194–5201. doi: 10.1093/emboj/19.19.5194. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mette M. F., van der Winden J., Matzke M. A., Matzke A. J. Production of aberrant promoter transcripts contributes to methylation and silencing of unlinked homologous promoters in trans. EMBO J. 1999 Jan 4;18(1):241–248. doi: 10.1093/emboj/18.1.241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Meyer P., Heidmann I., Niedenhof I. Differences in DNA-methylation are associated with a paramutation phenomenon in transgenic petunia. Plant J. 1993 Jul;4(1):89–100. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.1993.04010089.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Meyer P. Transcriptional transgene silencing and chromatin components. Plant Mol Biol. 2000 Jun;43(2-3):221–234. doi: 10.1023/a:1006483428789. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Miura A., Yonebayashi S., Watanabe K., Toyama T., Shimada H., Kakutani T. Mobilization of transposons by a mutation abolishing full DNA methylation in Arabidopsis. Nature. 2001 May 10;411(6834):212–214. doi: 10.1038/35075612. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Morel J. B., Mourrain P., Béclin C., Vaucheret H. DNA methylation and chromatin structure affect transcriptional and post-transcriptional transgene silencing in Arabidopsis. Curr Biol. 2000 Dec 14;10(24):1591–1594. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00862-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mourrain P., Béclin C., Elmayan T., Feuerbach F., Godon C., Morel J. B., Jouette D., Lacombe A. M., Nikic S., Picault N. Arabidopsis SGS2 and SGS3 genes are required for posttranscriptional gene silencing and natural virus resistance. Cell. 2000 May 26;101(5):533–542. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80863-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Moussian B., Schoof H., Haecker A., Jürgens G., Laux T. Role of the ZWILLE gene in the regulation of central shoot meristem cell fate during Arabidopsis embryogenesis. EMBO J. 1998 Mar 16;17(6):1799–1809. doi: 10.1093/emboj/17.6.1799. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Muskens M. W., Vissers A. P., Mol J. N., Kooter J. M. Role of inverted DNA repeats in transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing. Plant Mol Biol. 2000 Jun;43(2-3):243–260. doi: 10.1023/a:1006491613768. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pal-Bhadra M., Bhadra U., Birchler J. A. Cosuppression in Drosophila: gene silencing of Alcohol dehydrogenase by white-Adh transgenes is Polycomb dependent. Cell. 1997 Aug 8;90(3):479–490. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80508-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Palauqui J. C., Elmayan T., Pollien J. M., Vaucheret H. Systemic acquired silencing: transgene-specific post-transcriptional silencing is transmitted by grafting from silenced stocks to non-silenced scions. EMBO J. 1997 Aug 1;16(15):4738–4745. doi: 10.1093/emboj/16.15.4738. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Parrish S., Fleenor J., Xu S., Mello C., Fire A. Functional anatomy of a dsRNA trigger: differential requirement for the two trigger strands in RNA interference. Mol Cell. 2000 Nov;6(5):1077–1087. doi: 10.1016/s1097-2765(00)00106-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Patterson G. I., Thorpe C. J., Chandler V. L. Paramutation, an allelic interaction, is associated with a stable and heritable reduction of transcription of the maize b regulatory gene. Genetics. 1993 Nov;135(3):881–894. doi: 10.1093/genetics/135.3.881. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pirrotta V. Polycombing the genome: PcG, trxG, and chromatin silencing. Cell. 1998 May 1;93(3):333–336. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81162-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pélissier T., Wassenegger M. A DNA target of 30 bp is sufficient for RNA-directed DNA methylation. RNA. 2000 Jan;6(1):55–65. doi: 10.1017/s135583820099201x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Reinhart B. J., Slack F. J., Basson M., Pasquinelli A. E., Bettinger J. C., Rougvie A. E., Horvitz H. R., Ruvkun G. The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature. 2000 Feb 24;403(6772):901–906. doi: 10.1038/35002607. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rhounim L., Rossignol J. L., Faugeron G. Epimutation of repeated genes in Ascobolus immersus. EMBO J. 1992 Dec;11(12):4451–4457. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05546.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rice J. C., Allis C. D. Histone methylation versus histone acetylation: new insights into epigenetic regulation. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2001 Jun;13(3):263–273. doi: 10.1016/s0955-0674(00)00208-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Romano N., Macino G. Quelling: transient inactivation of gene expression in Neurospora crassa by transformation with homologous sequences. Mol Microbiol. 1992 Nov;6(22):3343–3353. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1992.tb02202.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ruiz F., Vayssié L., Klotz C., Sperling L., Madeddu L. Homology-dependent gene silencing in Paramecium. Mol Biol Cell. 1998 Apr;9(4):931–943. doi: 10.1091/mbc.9.4.931. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schmidt A., Palumbo G., Bozzetti M. P., Tritto P., Pimpinelli S., Schäfer U. Genetic and molecular characterization of sting, a gene involved in crystal formation and meiotic drive in the male germ line of Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics. 1999 Feb;151(2):749–760. doi: 10.1093/genetics/151.2.749. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Selker E. U. Epigenetic phenomena in filamentous fungi: useful paradigms or repeat-induced confusion? Trends Genet. 1997 Aug;13(8):296–301. doi: 10.1016/s0168-9525(97)01201-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sijen T., Kooter J. M. Post-transcriptional gene-silencing: RNAs on the attack or on the defense? Bioessays. 2000 Jun;22(6):520–531. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(200006)22:6<520::AID-BIES5>3.0.CO;2-W. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Singer T., Yordan C., Martienssen R. A. Robertson's Mutator transposons in A. thaliana are regulated by the chromatin-remodeling gene Decrease in DNA Methylation (DDM1). Genes Dev. 2001 Mar 1;15(5):591–602. doi: 10.1101/gad.193701. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Smardon A., Spoerke J. M., Stacey S. C., Klein M. E., Mackin N., Maine E. M. EGO-1 is related to RNA-directed RNA polymerase and functions in germ-line development and RNA interference in C. elegans. Curr Biol. 2000 Feb 24;10(4):169–178. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00323-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Stam M., de Bruin R., van Blokland R., van der Hoorn R. A., Mol J. N., Kooter J. M. Distinct features of post-transcriptional gene silencing by antisense transgenes in single copy and inverted T-DNA repeat loci. Plant J. 2000 Jan;21(1):27–42. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.2000.00650.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tabara H., Sarkissian M., Kelly W. G., Fleenor J., Grishok A., Timmons L., Fire A., Mello C. C. The rde-1 gene, RNA interference, and transposon silencing in C. elegans. Cell. 1999 Oct 15;99(2):123–132. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81644-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Timmons L., Fire A. Specific interference by ingested dsRNA. Nature. 1998 Oct 29;395(6705):854–854. doi: 10.1038/27579. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tuschl T., Zamore P. D., Lehmann R., Bartel D. P., Sharp P. A. Targeted mRNA degradation by double-stranded RNA in vitro. Genes Dev. 1999 Dec 15;13(24):3191–3197. doi: 10.1101/gad.13.24.3191. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Vielle-Calzada J. P., Thomas J., Spillane C., Coluccio A., Hoeppner M. A., Grossniklaus U. Maintenance of genomic imprinting at the Arabidopsis medea locus requires zygotic DDM1 activity. Genes Dev. 1999 Nov 15;13(22):2971–2982. doi: 10.1101/gad.13.22.2971. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Voinnet O., Baulcombe D. C. Systemic signalling in gene silencing. Nature. 1997 Oct 9;389(6651):553–553. doi: 10.1038/39215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Voinnet O., Lederer C., Baulcombe D. C. A viral movement protein prevents spread of the gene silencing signal in Nicotiana benthamiana. Cell. 2000 Sep 29;103(1):157–167. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)00095-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wassenegger M., Heimes S., Riedel L., Sänger H. L. RNA-directed de novo methylation of genomic sequences in plants. Cell. 1994 Feb 11;76(3):567–576. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90119-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Waterhouse P. M., Graham M. W., Wang M. B. Virus resistance and gene silencing in plants can be induced by simultaneous expression of sense and antisense RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1998 Nov 10;95(23):13959–13964. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.23.13959. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu-Scharf D., Jeong B., Zhang C., Cerutti H. Transgene and transposon silencing in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by a DEAH-box RNA helicase. Science. 2000 Nov 10;290(5494):1159–1162. doi: 10.1126/science.290.5494.1159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang D., Lu H., Erickson J. W. Evidence that processed small dsRNAs may mediate sequence-specific mRNA degradation during RNAi in Drosophila embryos. Curr Biol. 2000 Oct 5;10(19):1191–1200. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00732-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zamore P. D., Tuschl T., Sharp P. A., Bartel D. P. RNAi: double-stranded RNA directs the ATP-dependent cleavage of mRNA at 21 to 23 nucleotide intervals. Cell. 2000 Mar 31;101(1):25–33. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80620-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- de Carvalho F., Gheysen G., Kushnir S., Van Montagu M., Inzé D., Castresana C. Suppression of beta-1,3-glucanase transgene expression in homozygous plants. EMBO J. 1992 Jul;11(7):2595–2602. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05324.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]