Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2006;8(1):59–65. doi: 10.1007/s11908-006-0036-2

Nipah virus: Impact, origins, and causes of emergence

Jonathan H Epstein 1,✉, Hume E Field, Stephen Luby, Juliet RC Pulliam, Peter Daszak
PMCID: PMC7088631  PMID: 16448602

Abstract

Nipah virus is an emerging zoonotic pathogen that causes severe febrile encephalitis resulting in death in 40% to 75% of human cases. Nipah virus is considered a biosafety level-4 pathogen and is listed as a select agent with high risk for public health and security due to its high mortality rate in people and the lack of effective vaccines or therapies. The natural reservoir for Nipah virus and related members of the genus Henipavirus are fruit bats of the genus Pteropus. Nipah virus emerged in Malaysia in 1998 as a porcine neurologic and respiratory disease that spread to humans who had contact with live, infected pigs. Research reviewed in this paper suggests that anthropogenic factors, including agricultural expansion and intensification, were the underlying causes of its emergence. Nipah virus has caused five subsequent outbreaks between 2001 and 2005 in Bangladesh. Here, it appears to have spilled over directly from bats to humans, and person-to-person transmission is evident suggesting a heightened public health risk.

Keywords: Nipah Virus, Disease Emergence, Hendra Virus, Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Index Farm

References and Recommended Reading

  • 1.Smolinski MS, Hamburg MA, Lederberg J. Microbial Threats to Health: Emergence, Detection, and Response. Washington D.C: The National Academies Press; 2003. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Taylor LH, Latham SM, Woolhouse MEJ. Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2001;356:983–989. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2001.0888. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Morens DM, Folkers GK, Fauci AS. The challenge of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. Nature. 2004;430:242–249. doi: 10.1038/nature02759. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Weiss RA, McMichael AJ. Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nat Med. 2004;10:S70–S76. doi: 10.1038/nm1150. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Morse SS. Examining the origins of emerging viruses. In: Morse SS, editor. Emerging Viruses. New York: Oxford University Press; 1993. pp. 10–28. [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD. Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife. Acta Tropica. 2001;78:103–116. doi: 10.1016/S0001-706X(00)00179-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Daszak P, Cunningham AA, Hyatt AD. Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife—threats to biodiversity and human health. Science. 2000;287:443–449. doi: 10.1126/science.287.5452.443. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Patz JA, Daszak P, Tabor GM, et al. Unhealthy landscapes: policy recommendations on land use change and infectious disease emergence. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112:1092–1098. doi: 10.1289/ehp.6877. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Ksiazek TG, et al. Molecular characterization of Nipah virus, a newly emergent paramyxovirus. Virology. 2000;271:334–349. doi: 10.1006/viro.2000.0340. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Selvey L A, Wells RM, McCormack JG, et al. Infection of humans and horses by a newly described morbillivirus. Med J Aust. 1995;162:642–645. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1995.tb126050.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, et al. Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly paramyxovirus. Science. 2000;288:1432–1435. doi: 10.1126/science.288.5470.1432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Murray K, Selleck P, Hooper P, et al. A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science. 1995;268:94–97. doi: 10.1126/science.7701348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Hsu VP, Hossain MJ, Parashar UD, et al. Nipah virus encephalitis reemergence, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:2082–2087. doi: 10.3201/eid1012.040701. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Chua K, Koh C, Hooi P, et al. Isolation of Nipah virus from Malaysian Island f lying foxes. Microbes Infect. 2002;4:145–151. doi: 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01522-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Halpin K, Young PL, Field HE, Mackenzie JS. Isolation of Hendra virus from pteropid bats: a natural reser voir of Hendra virus. J Gen Virol. 2000;81:1927–1932. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-81-8-1927. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Paton NI, Leo YS, Zaki SR, et al. Outbreak of Nipah-virus infection among abattoir workers in Singapore. Lancet. 1999;354:1253–1256. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(99)04379-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Chong HT, Tan CT, Goh KJ, et al. The risk of human Nipah virus infection directly from bats (Pteropus hypomelanus) is low. Neurol J Southeast Asia. 2003;8:31–34. [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Wong KT, Shieh WJ, Kumar S, et al. Nipah virus infection—patholog y and pathogenesis of an emerging paramyxoviral zoonosis. Am J Pathol. 2002;161:2153–2167. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9440(10)64493-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Goh KJ, Tan CT, Chew NK, et al. Clinical features of nipah virus encephalitis among pig farmers in Malaysia. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1229–1235. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200004273421701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Tan CT, Goh KJ, Wong K T, et al. Relapsed and late-onset Nipah encephalitis. Ann Neurol. 2002;51:703–708. doi: 10.1002/ana.10212. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Harcourt BH, Lowe L, Tamin A, et al. Genetic characterization of Nipah virus, Bangladesh, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1594–1597. doi: 10.3201/eid1110.050513. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, B Nipah virus outbreak from date palm juice. Health Sci Bull. 2005;12:1–5. [Google Scholar]
  • 23.International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, B Person-to-person transmission of Nipah virus during outbreak in Faridpur District, 2004. Health Sci Bull. 2004;2:5–9. [Google Scholar]
  • 24.International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, B Nipah encephalitis outbreak over wide area of western Bangladesh, 2004. Health Sci Bull. 2004;2:7–11. [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Chong HT, Kamarulzaman A, Tan CT, et al. Treatment of acute Nipah encephalitis with ribavirin. Ann Neurolo. 2001;49:810–813. doi: 10.1002/ana.1062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Bossart KN, Wang LF, Flora MN, et al. Membrane fusion tropism and heterotypic functional activities of the Nipah virus and Hendra virus envelope glycoproteins. J Virol. 2002;76:11186–11198. doi: 10.1128/JVI.76.22.11186-11198.2002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Bossart KN, Wang LF, Chua KB, et al. Nipah and Hendra virus fusion, entr y, and its inhibition. J Clin Virol. 2003;28:S40–S40. [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Bonaparte MI, Dimitrov AS, Bossart KN, et al. Ephrin-B2 ligand is a functional receptor for Hendra virus and Nipah virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:10652–10657. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0504887102. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Nor MNM, Gan CH, Ong BL. Nipah virus infection of pigs in peninsular Malaysia. Rev Sci Tech. 2000;19:160–165. doi: 10.20506/rst.19.1.1202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Weingartl H, Czub S, Copps J, et al. Invasion of the central nervous system in a porcine host by Nipah virus. J Virol. 2005;79:7528–7534. doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.12.7528-7534.2005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Middleton DJ, Westbury HA, Morrissy CJ, et al. Experimental Nipah virus infection in pigs and cats. J Comp Pathol. 2002;126:124–136. doi: 10.1053/jcpa.2001.0532. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Field H, Young P, Yob JM, et al. The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microbes Infect. 2001;3:307–314. doi: 10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01384-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Johara M, Field H, Rashdi A, et al. Nipah virus infection in bats (order Chiroptera) in peninsular Malaysia. Emerg Inf Dis. 2001;7:439–441. doi: 10.3201/eid0703.010312. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33a.Sendow I, Field HF, Curran J, et al. Henipavirus in Pteropus vampyrus bats, Indonesia. Emerg Inf Dis. 2006;12:711–712. doi: 10.3201/eid1204.051181. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Olson J, Rupprecht C, Rollin P, et al. Antibodies to Nipahlike virus in bats (Pteropus lylei), Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:987–988. doi: 10.3201/eid0809.010515. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Reynes J, Counor D, Ong S, et al. Nipah virus in Lyle’s flying foxes, Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1042–1047. doi: 10.3201/eid1107.041350. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Corbet G, Hill J. The Mammals of the IndoMalayan Region. Oxford: United Kingdom: Natural History Museum Publications, Oxford University Press; 1992. [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Mickleburg S, Hutson A, Racey P. Old World Fruit Bats: an Action Plan for Their Conservation. Gland, Switzerland: The World Conservation Union; 1992. [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Murray K, Selleck P, Hooper P, et al. A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science. 1995;268:94–94. doi: 10.1126/science.7701348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Gould AR. Comparison of the deduced matrix and fusion protein sequences of equine morbillivirus with cognate genes of the Paramyxoviridae. Virus Res. 1996;43:17–31. doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(96)01308-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Williamson MM, Hooper PT, Selleck PW, et al. Experimental Hendra virus infection in pregnant guinea-pigs and fruit bats (Pteropus poliocephalus) J Comp Pathol. 2000;122:201–207. doi: 10.1053/jcpa.1999.0364. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Mickleburgh SP, Hutson AM, Racey PA. A review of the global conservation status of bats. Oryx. 2002;36:18–34. doi: 10.1017/S0030605302000054. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Daszak P, Plowright RK, Epstein JH, et al.: The emergence of Nipah and Hendra virus: pathogen dynamics across a wildlife-livestock-human continuum. In Disease Ecology: Community Structure and Pathogen Dynamics. Edited by Collinge SK & Ray C. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press; In press.
  • 43.Mohd-Azlan J, Zubaid A, Kunz TH. Distribution, relative abundance, and conservation status of the large flying fox, Pteropus vampyrus, in peninsular Malaysia: a preliminary assessment. Acta Chiropt. 2001;3:149–162. [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Fujita MS, Tuttle MD. Flying foxes (Chiroptera, Pteropodidae) —threatened animals of key ecological and economic importance. Conserv Biol. 1991;5:455–463. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1991.tb00352.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Chua KB, Chua BH, Wang CW. Anthropogenic deforestation, El Nino and the emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia. Malays J Pathol. 2002;24:15–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Pulliam JRC, Health Economics Research Group: Nipah virus dynamics in domestic pig populations. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2005, In press.

Articles from Current Infectious Disease Reports are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES