Challenges in Environmental Health Research and Sustainability in a Less Developed Country: a Case Study From Jordan

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Environmental health research covers many aspects of the complex natural world and how environmental hazards, mainly caused by human activities, can affect population health. Researchers in this field have investigated environmental risks dose or exposure-response relationship, challenged hypotheses and interpreted data and results to solve problems. Researchers investigating environmental issues support the concept of environmental justice (EJ) and understand that they bear more responsibilities because they work to influence the policymakers’ decisions in order to minimise hazardous exposure on populations. The environmental justice term has been widely used to describe unequal exposure of anthropogenic pollution or environmentally hazardous exposure to a group of people based on race, colour, national origin or income. The term has been defined and disseminated in many countries through governmental and non-governmental organisations. In Jordan, the government has carried the responsibilities to reduce the disproportionate exposure to environmental pollution between citizens and to promote the concepts of EJ. This review has highlighted the role of non-governmental organisations and the laws and regulations that prohibit assault to the environment and ensure the compliance of private and public organisations to minimise the effect of the undesirable environmental actions. Moreover, it addressed and discussed different possible sources of pollution and areas of heavy hazards exposure.

Recent Findings

In this review, we highlighted the main causes of lack of research on the EJ in Jordan and the effect of income and ethnicity background.

Summary

We also recommended applying the responsible conduct of research principles and guidelines to commence researches that can affect policymakers in this field in Jordan.

Part I: Introduction

The Importance of Environmental Health Research and the Application of Environmental Justice in Developing Countries

Environmental health research is a crucial realm of public health importance. Research in this field should receive a high-priority attention and more allocated resources as it provides a very helpful tool to advance the health of communities. Research that investigates modifiable environmental risks, as well as, cost-effective methods to minimise risks impact can contribute to identifying opportunities for prevention, and should add impetus to regional and global efforts to encourage sound preventive measure through available policies, strategies, interventions, technologies and knowledge. Moreover, it offers a platform for both governmental and non-governmental research organisations to investigate serious health threats and to promptly intervene. Significant impact of public health research affects policy making and lead to issuance of new legislations to protect people’s health and promote equity in environmental exposure [1]. Examples to demonstrate this concept are summarised in the “advancing environmental justice report” released by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) [2]. The report addressed multiple research and public health initiatives over the last two decades that worked to minimise disparities caused by the environment and promote the application of EJ.

The concept of EJ has described the implications of fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens; it also focused on implementing the environmental laws and regulations, adoption of the environmental policy and planning to guarantee the sustainability of political ecology and justice [3].

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a federal governmental organisation, aims to protect human health and the environment through issuing and enforcing regulations based on laws, and has clearly defined the term of environmental justice as “a fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, colour, national origin, or income, with respect to the development of the environmental laws, regulations and policies” [4].

In Europe, the term EJ began to develop in 1998 during the Fourth Ministerial Conferences in the “Environment for Europe” through a convention that has been signed and adopted by multiple institutions within the content” [5]. The convention included articles and provisions to guarantee the right of present and future generations to live in an environment adequate for their well-being.

In the Arab world, EJ issues have been highlighted by governmental and non-governmental organisations [6]. The awareness of environmental rights and justice in the region has been aligned with the principles expressed at the Rio Earth Summit. In the 1991 Arab League Declaration on Environment and Development, it addressed many points to highlight the importance of access to information and permit more participation in decision-making and issues of environment importance. The use of natural resources and the impacts on the environment have also been addressed in the constitutions of countries like Egypt, Iraq, Oman, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen [7].

Various governmental institutions in Jordan have shared the task of environmental monitoring of quality of water, air and soil in Jordan, thus shared the responsibility of applying the requirements for the EJ. Ministry of Environment (MoEnv), Ministry of Health (MoH), Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) Nuclear Regulatory Commission and Ministry of Municipal Affairs (MMA); each of these institutions has issued articles in their respective laws giving them the responsibility to maintain and monitor particular aspects of environmental importance and environment quality Jordan [8].

Government of Jordan has adopted the Government National Agenda (GNA) as a ten-year Government’s policy (2006–2015) for sustainable development. The GNA sets the environmental sustainability and waste management as a priority and among the national plan. Moreover, Jordan has joined more than 170 countries in 2016 to achieve the sustainable development goals and aim to produce the global goals that meet serious environmental threatens, political and economic challenges [9].

The aim of our review is to highlight the concept of environmental justice in Jordan and to discuss special regulations and responsibilities of governmental and non-governmental institutions (NGO) toward the EJ, to discuss some cases of EJ and reflections on population and to discuss the possible causes of lack of research on this important subject.

Part II: Methods

The authors searched Google Scholar search engine for relevant previous studies published without any time restriction using the following key words “Arab World”, AND “Environmental research”, AND “Ethics”, AND “Jordan”, OR “Environmental Justice”, AND “Environmental pollution”, AND “Jordan”, OR “Environmental pollution” AND “Jordan”. The search turned out 450 studies, of which only 42 were found to be relevant to the aim of this review. In addition, the authors sourced a copy of the Jordan’s State of Environment Second Report (2016) from the Ministry of Environment, Amman, Jordan. Other information was collected from different websites, for example Department of Statistics of Jordan, Jordan Ministry of Environment, Jordan Industrial Estates Company (JIEC), Energy and Minerals Regulatory Commission (EMRC), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and EPA.

Part III: Governmental, Non-governmental Organisations and Regulations That Govern Environmental Monitoring in Jordan

Jordan is facing profound environmental impacts due to rapid population growth and natural resource constraints. In addition, the huge number of Syrian nationals and refugees (more than 1.2 million) caused by the Syrian crises has created more challenging situations from environmental impacts [10].

The governmental institutions that aim to contribute to develop and implement policies and mechanisms to strengthen the environmental protection and contribute to the integration of environmental concepts into national development plans are represented by the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv). The MoEnv is working to implement laws and regulations to protect people’s well-being which is one of the citizens’ rights guaranteed by the Jordanian constitution. The MoEnv along with other governmental organisations and NGOs aim to fulfil these goals through the available tools and mechanisms. MoH, MWI, MMA and Energy and Minerals Regulatory Commission (EMRC) are all other governmental institutions that are sharing responsibilities and have significantly contributed to the process of environment policy execution. Jordan is already committed to the UN Sustainable Development Goals and prioritised it into its national strategy, and includes addressing the environment and climate change (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/memberstates/jordan).

NGOs have a strong impact on community with a clear goal to engage major players of civil society, businesses, and public sector. NGOs can help countries tackle environmental issues more successfully. However, lack of understanding of NGOs participation and role in civil society and public perception are obstacles that limit NGOs from pursuing their missions. The society believes that the government takes responsibility alone for the well-being of people living on their land.

In Jordan, many environmental NGOs (Table 1) are actively involved in activities like conducting research to help policy development, building capacity of local community and raising the awareness of civil society to help people live more sustainable lifestyles and therefore, promoting the concept of EJ. For example, The Edama Energy, Water and Environment Association (EDAMA) has conducted analytical study to assess Jordan’s renewable energy sector status quo. EDAMA analysed the challenges and opportunities of the sector. In addition, it discussed the governmental and private sector roles. The paper addressed a holistic approach to solving issues that cause a threat for the renewable energy sector growth and the stability of the electricity market [11].

Table 1.

Non-governmental organisations and contact details, working to protect environment in Jordan

Organisation	Contact
Al - Ghadeer Environmental Society	+962 797156966
Arab Association for the Protection of Nature	http://www.apnature.org/
Association for Climate Change and Environmental Protection of Jordan	+962 795083216 to +962 6 5885526
East Amman Environmental Protection Society	easep-jo.org
Edama Energy, Water and Environment Association	http://www.edama.jo/
El Mouloul Association for Environmental Development	+962 779918873
Environmental Green Leaves Association	http://www.greenleavessociety.org/
Friends of the Earth Society	http://ecopeaceme.org/
Friends of the Environment of Jordan	http://www.jofoe.org/
Gabte Society	http://ghabati.org/
Ikebana Club	http://www.ikebanajordan.org/
Jordan Bird Watch	www.jordanbirdwatch.com
Jordan Environment Society (JES)	http://jes.org.jo/
Jordan Green Society	+962 795893448
Jordanian Society for Climate Change and Environmental Protection	www.jocceps.com
Jordanian Society for the Protection of Land and Man	http://www.jspeh.org/
National Environment and Wild Life Society	info@news-jo.org / info@aldiyar-bath.com
Ma’an Youth Association for Environmental Protection	+962 772560190
Nemiri Environmental Society	https://alnumeirae.wordpress.com/
Society for Conservation of Energy and Environmental Sustainability	http://www.civilsociety-jo.net/en/organization/513
The Jordanian Society for Desertification Control & Badia Development. (JSDCBD)	http://www.jordandesert.org.jo
The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN)	http://www.rscn.org.jo/

Environmental Legislations, Laws and International Treaties in Jordan

Jordan has developed a legislative frame of laws and regulations that aims to protect the environment. The legislations adopted objectives of international conventions and treaties through implementing set of procedures, protocols and standards to protect the environment and its components from pollution resulted from various industrial, agricultural and service sectors.

The issuance of the current Environmental Protection Law No. 52 of 2006 and other provisions of related regulations and instructions that were issued under the umbrella of this law has contributed in improvement of environment policies, plans, programs and projects, that aim to monitor and supervise private organisations and public bodies, to ensure compliance with these legislative frameworks and to ensure effective coordination of all national efforts aimed at protecting the environment and people from possible pollutions.

Environmental Protection Law No. 52 of 2006

This law gives the competent authority, at national and international levels, for environment protection to the MoEnv, in cooperation and coordination with relevant international bodies [12]. The role of the MoEnv through this law is to protect the environment in a sustainable manner through guaranteeing the involvement of all stakeholders.

The law composed of 27 articles that addressed all aspect of environmental protection and defined fines on each infringement; also, it designated the responsibilities of executions of provisions of this law. In addition, it clarifies monitoring and inspection mechanisms to reduce negative impacts on the environment. Under this law, the competent inspector has the judicial authority to interfere and intervene in any industrial activities and entities (factories, craftsman, institution, etc.), whose activities has effected or has a potential harm effect on the elements of the environment and to ensure the conformity and compliance with the environmental conditions established with a view to assisting development institutions to comply with protection legislations.

International Collaborations and Environmental Protection Treaties

The government of Jordan has ratified most international environmental treaties and conventions. The provisions and articles of these treaties have been translated into legal texts and legislative amendments at the national level to guarantee the harmonisation with those treaties and conventions. Below is a list of the most important treaties and conventions [13]:

1. Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol [14].

2. Convention on Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety [15].

3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat 1971 [16].

4. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Migratory Species Convention or Bonn Convention and Conservation Conventions) On African migratory water birds [17].

5. Jeddah Convention for the Protection of the Red Sea [18].

6. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCU) [19].

7. Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer [20].

8. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [21].

9. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) for the year 2001 [22].

10. Basel Convention against the Transport and Trade in Hazardous Chemicals [23].

11. Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides Traded in international trade [24].

12. Minamata Convention on Mercury for 2013 [25].

13. The Paris Agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2016 [26].

Part IV: Environmental Justice Cases From Jordan

Environmental justice in Jordan is strongly correlated with the protection of the environment in general, and is linked with the application of the legal laws and regulations by authorities. The government is working to minimise the effect of any existing or potential sources of health hazards caused by any source of pollutions, although in this review, we focused on people who are exposed to some sources of environmental hazards in Jordan (Table 2). These people can be categorised into people living in areas of highly industrial activities (industrial estates), polluted Zarqa River catchment area, air pollution in Al-Hashmia city, solid waste landfills and recently built nuclear stations. People living in these areas are mostly subject to injustice situation like water shortage, sandstorms or other pollution sources, but we focused on the major sources of pollution affecting major population areas.

Table 2.

Economic index by level of quality of life and governorate (year 2010) [27]

Governorate	Below middle level	Middle level	Above middle level
Amman	24.6	29.4	46
Balqa	32.7	34.5	32.9
Zarqa	37.4	36.5	26.2
Madaba	28.1	28	43.9
Irbid	31.1	32.8	36
Mafraq	37	33.9	29.1
Jarash	28.2	30.7	41.1
Ajlun	40.7	27.8	31.5
Karak	27.5	22.5	50
Tafiela	41.9	28.3	29.7
Ma’an	33.8	24.8	41.4
Aqaba	31.4	42	26.6

EJ principles aim to guarantee the fair environmental exposure and treatment of all people in Jordan regardless of their race, colour, national origin or income. Personal income is the major reason for most of the environmental injustice cases in Jordan. Citizen’s income is the main factor that could affect the possibilities of Jordanian people to be susceptible to environmental injustice situation in Jordan. The exposure to any environmental pollution or hazard is correlated to each citizen’s income and affordability of better living places (house) in a specific geographical location.

Industrial Estates in Jordan

The Jordan industrial estates (cities) were established to encourage local and international investors to invest in businesses and industrial activities in Jordan. Although promoting the business, increasing investment and minimising industrial pollution were among the main goals of establishing these zones, these cities are considered one of the major sources of air and noise pollution to people living in the surrounding areas.

The government prepared the locations with all the required infrastructures and made all services of advanced facilities including roads, full maintenance, utilities, sewage and disposal treatment plants available to investors, but the geographical location of these cities and the nature of industries and factories in these estates are still considered potential causes of serious pollution exposure and as a consequence a health problem. Therefore, people living in these locations are environmental injustice cases; where they are more susceptible to health problems because of their residency circumstances.

There are 6 existing industrial cities scattered on different geographical locations in Jordan (Fig. 1). These cities vary according to location and distance from main residential cities. Industrial activities within these cities also vary and most of the locations harbour multi-disciplinary industrial factories (medical, food, chemical, etc.) (Table 3).

Fig. 1.

Geographical locations of existing industrial estates in Jordan

Table 3.

Existing industrial estates in Jordan [28]

Industrial estate	Location	Space (ha)	Number of businesses	Number of employees	Population of the city (most affected district)*
Abdullah II Ibn Al-Hussein Industrial Estate (AIE):	Sahab City, 12 km southeast of Amman	253	358	13,042	169,434
Al-Hassan Industrial Estate (HIE)/QIZ:	Irbid Governorate, 72 km north of Amman	117.8	101	16,440	238,502
Al-Hussein Bin Abdullah II Industrial Estate (HUIE)/QIZ:	Al-Karak Governorate, 118 km south of Amman	186.6	14	2532	101,377
Aqaba International Industrial Estate (AIIE)/QIZ:	Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZ)	275	38	NA	188,160
Al Mafraq Industrial Estate (MIE):	60 km northeast of the capital Amman	184.7	NA	NA	196,196
Al Muwaqar Industrial	24 km southeast of AIE	250	NA	NA	84,370

^*:[26]

Zarqa River Catchment (Heavy Metals and Contaminated Crops)

Al Zaraqa River rises from springs near Amman (Ain Ghazal), and flows through three major cities (Zarqa, Amman and Jerash) finally to drain in King Talal Dam in Jerash. The river has been a subject to research to identify its heavy pollution situation and to determine these major pollutants in the area [29–32].

Pollution of the Zarqa River was caused by dumping raw sewage (without treatment), industrial waste (textile factories, batteries and oil from mechanical workshops) and solid waste directly into the river. The river stream is running through three major governorates in Jordan with residence of more than 50% (5,552,000) living around the Zarqa River Basin [26]. This is a very clear situation where people living in these areas are subjects to environmental injustice case and more susceptible to exposure of pollutions caused by this river. Most importantly, the polluted water of this river is being used in agricultural irrigation of crops in farms in the surrounding areas; and hence considered a potential contaminated source for huge amount of agricultural crops that will be sold later to Jordanian citizens all over the country.

Air Pollution in Al-Hashmia City

Al-Hashmia is one of the heaviest cities with pollution in Jordan [33]. Four different sources of pollutions contribute to the overall catastrophic situation in this area; the exposure to the emission of air pollutants caused mainly by the petroleum refinery, Al Hussein Thermal Station, Al Samra wastewater treatment plant and Al Samra Power Plant [13, 33]. MoEnv has initiated a regular air report as a monitoring procedure for the ambient air pollution levels in different locations in Jordan. The report is continuously updated and available at the website of the MoEnv [34].

Total population number living in Al-Hashmia city is about 80,713 [26]. Residents of this city are exposed to more air pollutions than other cities and so are under the term of environmental injustice cases. For example, the yearly mean concentration (2002–2014) of some criteria pollutants like PM₁₀, CO, NO₂, SO₂ and H₂S measured by the MoEnv air monitoring stations showed that Al-Hashmia city exceeded the permitted limits that are listed in Jordanian Standard number (1140/2006) [13].

Landfill Locations (Al Akeeder Case)

Solid wastes collected from 94 municipalities in Jordan are dumped in 15 recorded landfills scattered in different locations (Fig. 2). Most of the landfills locations lack the protection layer to prevent leakage to the ground layers [13].

Fig. 2.

Major landfills with total amount of daily solid waste in Jordan [13]

In the case of Al Akeeder which is considered the largest landfill of a capacity of 1400 ton daily, the resulted air pollution, methane gas generation [35] and other possible pollution sources are concerns that are escalating with the growing number of population living close to this landfill.

Nuclear Radiation

Jordan has started progressive movement toward the development of nuclear power plants. The nuclear plants will be used for the production of electrical energy and thus help in advancing the energy sector with cheap power source. In this endeavour, the government has started with two main facilities of nuclear importance, Jordan University of Science and Technology JUST research reactor and Allan accelerator in Allan/Al-Salt. In JUST, the output thermal power is 5 MW and the main aims are to enhance the scientific research, training on radiological and nuclear technology. The reactor will also be used for the production of radioisotopes to be used in different medical applications [36].

Exposure to radiation has a serious health effect on human and all living organisms. Depending on the level of radiation, it is considered a cause of cancer due to mutation in genes in human cells. Although a recent study measured the ²³⁸U, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K concentrations, in the soil within the diameter of 2 km around the first nuclear reactor in Jordan, and showed levels were close to the worldwide average levels [37], it is well known that exposure to significant amount of radiation may cause symptoms of diseases to appear within hours or days and may lead to death [38].

Part V: Lack of Research on Environmental Injustice

Lack of Access to Data

Researchers in Jordan have conducted environmental research on the effect of different pollutions on different living organisms [39–41]. Research has been specific to geographical locations where a clear breach of the environment was noticed.

Lack of access to critical data by researchers is one of the main reasons that hamper conducting and pursuing researches in subjects related to the EJ. For example, a researcher cannot source data from private companies that have a potential environmental effect and that the research results might negatively affect the company’s reputations. Companies which are considered a serious source of pollutions (e.g. cement factories, bromine factory, phosphate) producing a serious threat and affecting people living in the surrounding area will refuse to provide human samples from employees for lab analysis, critical data and other access to their facilities (personal communication). The continuous governmental monitoring by MoEnv is compulsory on many factories and industries of potential environmental effect. The MoEnv mentioned (MoEnv representative) that they can give access to some critical information about the abovementioned facilities; but researchers should seek permissions before they can address the data in publications.

Lack of Interest by Researchers

Researchers in Jordan are conducting their researches under the umbrella of their academic or research institutions. The main goal for most of the researchers is to improve society and foster the well-being of people, to advance their careers and for promotion purposes. Lack of interest to conduct research in the field of EJ could be due to lack of interest of researchers to run a research in this field with many difficulties such as; challenges to know about and access the important information from the private or governmental representatives.

Another reason that affects the desirability of researchers to pursue EJ researches is the amount of funds that most of the academic institutions provide. Funding research in most of the universities is less than the required amount to cover the cost of major activities needed for a comprehensive research proposal. Researchers prefer to investigate ideas that they can provide enough information about, and provide required materials and instruments to test the research hypothesis.

Lack of Community Awareness

Lack of community awareness about serious environmental threats and the limited role of most environmentally threatened communities, in affecting the governmental and other authorities’ decisions about promoting EJ concepts, negatively impact research conducted in this field. The lack of thorough understanding of anthropogenic environmental issues and threats, availability and easy access to information, presenting information in a simple and clear form and lack of environmentalist and mentors who can make a difference in their communities are all reasons that caused diminished awareness by people about their role and responsibilities to the environment. Communities that are suffering from an environmental pollution should claim the disproportionate impact and request a fair intervention to guarantee the EJ.

EJ, Research and Ethics Are Related

Researchers in the field of environmental pollution and environmental public health are investigating possible cause of serious health problems caused by air, water and soil contamination. Researchers in these fields should be aware of the perplexing ethical issues that they could face during their studies [42]. Applying the responsible conduct of research principles means that when investigating an EJ case, researchers should be aware of methods of how to spot an EJ case, how to approach participants and community of the EJ case and how to run a study considering subjective and objective exposures and considering biomarkers in order to avoid bias. Also researchers should take action and intervene to stop the environmental injustice situation through involving community and raising awareness to affect policymaker and to issue regulations that promote equity within people exposed to specific environmental hazard [43].

Researchers are not policymakers, but if they conduct their research in a responsible method, policymakers can rely on the results and create a clear case to protect affected communities.

Starting from the human ethics application and the IRB committee, investigator should consider addressing all the important components of the consent form and involve all the questions and procedures to guarantee impartiality. The next step of involving people and participants should consider all codes and regulations of protecting human research participants like considering the rules when including vulnerable participants, balancing and minimising risks (beneficence), respect to person and protecting the privacy of participants and confidentiality of data [44].

Running research to investigate an EJ case should always be designed to answer the hypothesis question raised from the beginning and measuring specific indicators that at the end will lead to indicative measurement, for example, measuring prevalence in a cross-sectional study. In addition, it is very important for any researcher in estimating risk to avoid bias and consider all the confounders that might interfere with results and their interpretation. Detecting the causal inference and the cause-effect relationship through a well-designed study, protocol and procedures should be accomplished through sensitive, specific and valid method, using qualified laboratory and instrument with acceptable limit of uncertainty. All in all, these will build the case for a relationship between cause and effect and will significantly answer the challenge to the understanding and documenting of the EJ case.

Researching environmental injustice cases is different from any other research; because it requires a clear and precise hypothesis testing, recording accurate history, no bias in participants’ selection, valid method, biomarkers, avoid confounding factors and results interpretation. Most importantly, the research will require an ethical intervention from the researcher to stop the injustice and promote the equity of exposure in the investigated population [45, 46].This might require approaching affected communities and building their case to push the policymakers (government) for changes in regulations supported by evidence, which will help in developing an effective preventive measure and equity in exposure between all populations [47].

Tackling EJ Situations by Researchers in Jordan

In Jordan, a few studies have been conducted to tackle the EJ and people living in an EJ situation relevant to geographical locations. One example is a thesis for a master degree in science in the Jordan University of Science and Technology in 2004. The study investigated the EJ situation in Jordan at that time and provided an experimental paradigm for the application of EJ among minorities and through raising awareness of susceptible communities [48]. There is a need to address this topic and highlight the importance of conducting studies in this field to researchers interested in the topic. Moreover, the need is to prepare a group of researchers, who are fully aware of the ethical impacts of running similar researches, and could start and lead initiatives to minimise the effect on people living in these areas. Another focus should be on building strong influence of the local communities that suffer from hazardous source of pollution. Finally the focus should be on the government to minimise and avoid any existing and potential EJ cases.

Building the researchers’ capacity in ethics in research is highly needed in Jordan. Programs like the US National Institute of Health Fogarty International Center Research Education Program in Bioethics that aims to help develop capacity of researchers in low- and middle-income countries to carry out high-quality and ethically acceptable research is a good example; as a kind of research initiative that will make a difference. The Research Ethics Education Program in Jordan funded by that mechanism led by the University of California San Diego in collaboration with Jordan University of Science and Technology is funded by that mechanism and will train researchers on important subjects related to ethics in conducting researches. Ethics in conducting EJ researches is one of the major topics in this course. The need to disseminate the knowledge and values gained through this project will promote a well-designed research and implement clear ethical values.

Raising the awareness of the local-affected communities of the polluted areas is important to develop capacity building in the environmental impacts on health. Researchers and NGOs could arrange educational campaigns to explain the potential health hazards and consequences to local people and to scientifically explore the risks to these communities because of the injustice. Moreover, raising the awareness of these communities on how to avoid this potential risks and pollution and changing behaviours will help protect their health and that of their children. In addition, researchers and NGOs could help in building up advocacy and involving other governmental organisation to affect the policymakers and push toward issuing legislations and regulations that might positively affect the quality of life of those people.

A case to examine in Jordan in this context is Al-Hashmia city which is one of the most polluted cities in Jordan. In this case, for a researcher to highlight and investigate the case of environmental injustice in this city, he/she has first to design the study and consider all the ethical issues of choosing the research subjects and preparing the consent form. Researcher should pay attention to the situation of people living in these areas, and who are subjects of the potential studies. People living in these areas are more vulnerable because of their socioeconomic situation and because of their low income. Although residents of this area are receiving the primary health coverage through a government-led health service, they are still subjected to heavier polluted environment than other populations. Moreover, a group of non-Jordanian nationalities (Egyptian) work in this area and are more vulnerable because they might be working with no legal or expired legal permit, poor education and no health insurance. This group receive no service from primary health service provider, which makes them more impacted and vulnerable than Jordanians living in this same area.

Researchers should be aware of measuring proper biomarkers and recording accurate history in order to guarantee proper measurement of EJ, and avoiding procedures that might lead to lack of proper measure of exposure and consequently undermine the prevention measure and education about the subject. On the other hand, following procedures that will help in developing an effective preventive measure and equity in exposure (between people living in Al-Hashmia city and those who are protected because they are of high income and can afford better living conditions) will achieve EJ in Jordan.

Part VI: Conclusion and Recommendations

This review discussed the EJ situation in Jordan through exploring multi-disciplinary fields like industrial estates, heavy metals, air pollution, landfills and nuclear radiation. One of the limitations of this study is the lack of involvement of social scientists for better involvement of social studies and parameters, which could improve and identify clear EJ cases, and to be more precise in defining the challenges and solutions for these situations. The limited data on EJ makes it difficult to determine the potential and actual health impacts on the vulnerable populations. The existing data does not include epidemiologic studies that directly link the exposure to disease and are more focused on exposure levels, such as air or water pollution.

According to the authors’ views and conclusions, the lack of research in the field of EJ in Jordan could be due to three main reasons:

1. Lack of access to data (e.g. applicable to data sources from private sector)

2. Lack of interest by researchers

3. Inadequate understanding of ethics and research relationship

4. Lack of community awareness

Most of the environmental injustice cases in Jordan are according by the income and the ability of people to afford better living conditions away from pollution sources. Minorities in Jordan such as Circassians, Chechens, Armenians and others are not subject to EJ because they are living within residential cities like Amman. Therefore, the typical categorisation based on race that is applied in more developed countries does not necessarily apply here and other criteria of nationality, refugees’ status, rural and living near specific industrial and geographical areas.

It is recommended to raise the awareness of the local communities of serious environmental impact to affect the policymakers and to issue decisions that can alter and hamper the serious health effects.