Philosophical strategies for nature of science based on worldviews: The quantum interference of single electron

Abstract

This study aims to present a strategy to transform the worldviews of students, especially college science classrooms, into desirable current worldviews (Darwin, Quantum mechanics, Einstein, refer to Fig 1). Above all, the worldviews, that is metaphysical belief, needs to be changed. This is because metaphysical belief is the basis for the whole framework of conception. Since the previous study emphasized epistemological belief only, an emphasis was placed on metaphysical belief on which epistemological belief is based. Therefore, the two beliefs should be used to elucidate in the education of Nature of Science. Metaphysical belief in the science of cosmic order, symmetry, or disorder is often important in scientific research and can lead to an epistemological view that can select or reject a certain kind of explanation. Specially, the two-slit experiment with single electrons is a radical illustration of another paradigm shift, from classical (mechanistic materialism) to quantum physics (desirable dialectical materialism). The double slit electron experiment creates sensuous images that can be grasped at once. Because quantum mechanics is inherently abstract, it is difficult to accept its meaning.

1. Introduction

As a well-known definition, the nature of science (NOS) is described as the epistemology of science, or the value and belief inherent in the development of scientific knowledge [1]. The NOS can also be conceptualized as an answer to the questions of what science is, how it works, how scientists work in social groups, and how science itself affects and responds to the epistemological and ontological foundation of science, as well as scientific effort [2]. It continues to change according to the era and culture, perspective of philosophy, and goal and direction of science education [3]. In this aspect, the philosophical expansion and evolution of the concept of NOS in the science education of the 21st century is needed, in accordance with the changes in the times and social demands for education. Understanding the NOS is a key element in developing scientific literacy [[4], [5], [6]]. Scientific literacy requires affinity with scientific knowledge, understanding of the scientific process, sufficient understanding of STS relationship, and a thorough of the NOS [7,8].

Cobern [9] claimed that conceptual change to a desirable scientific concept will be difficult if the focus is only on the epistemological view of science, which mainly addresses thinking by human reason, rather than metaphysical belief. Thus, to fully grasp the NOS for scientific literacy education, NOS needs to be taken into account through a series of processes that produce scientific theory through rational reasoning, with epistemology based on the worldview of metaphysical belief.

Copernicus and Newton, who opened the door to modern science, and scientists such as Einstein and Niels Bohr in the 20th century, were among those on the front line. The reason they are highly praised is that they did not just discover the theory, a product of scientific epistemology which is their external achievement, but also noted the scientific worldview, that is, the philosophical ontology of how this world exists [10]. Thus, the metaphysics of natural philosophy should be boldly accepted rather than the scientific and philosophical development of NOS, which has been biased toward epistemology to date.

AAAS [11] provides a general description in Science for All Americans (SFAA) about the competencies that all American students must perform in science, technology, and mathematics by the time they graduate from high school. The nature of science is divided into three main themes: THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD VIEW, SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY, and THE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE.

The scientific worldviews emphasize that knowledge is gradual and changing rather than fixed. It emphasizes that science culture evolves and changes. Therefore, it can be said that education on the nature of science should deal with the subject of a scientific worldviews.

In particular, as an important research question to be proposed to students in this study, to keep the atom from decaying and to explain the wavelengths of the Balmer series emitted by the hydrogen atom, Bohr proposed a new model of the atom. He introduced bold assumptions not found in conventional physics, such as the concept of a “steady state” in which electrons do not emit light while orbiting, and the “quantum condition” in which the radius of an electron's orbit is limited to a discrete value. Then, what grounds can Bohr give for this assumption? A revolutionary idea was needed to find the basis. Bohr's assumption was a bold idea that defied common sense in classical physics.

Its breakthrough is the idea that de Broglie proposed, 10 years later, that electrons, which were regarded as particles, are 'waves'. He thought that all matter, not limited to electrons, was a ‘wave’ with a wavelength, so he named this wave a material wave. Proof that electrons are waves is that electrons, like waves, pass through the double slit and create interference patterns on the screen.

This electron double slit experiment is an important experiment in quantum mechanics that supports Bohr's principle.

2. Research purpose and research questions

In numerous studies, NOS was generally considered to have several aspects. Abd-El-Khalick and Lederman [12] characterized scientific knowledge as being: tentative, empirically based, subjective or theoretical, based on human reasoning, imagination and creativity, and socially and culturally rooted. They provided seven aspects of the NOS. The distinction between observation and inference, and the relationship between science theory and law were considered additional aspects of the NOS.

Thus, the study claimed that many elements of the NOS apply well to the modern philosophical worldview [13], Accordingly [the present study aims to present a strategy to transform the worldview of students, especially university students, into a desirable modern one.

First, this study establishes a possible worldview. Second, it interprets by modifying the conceptual change process presented by Cobern [9]. Third, nine elements of the NOS from Abd-El-Khalick and Lederman [12] are applied to the worldview through the process of establishing modern theory [11]. Fourth, to transform from metaphysical materialism to desirable dialectical materialism, it is used as a specific strategy which compares the structure of the worldviews. Specially, the two-slit experiment with single electrons is a radical illustration of another paradigm shift, from classical to quantum physics.

2.1. Structure of possible worldviews

2.1.1. Worldview proposed based on metaphysical premises

Nature of the world and source of knowledge: the metaphysical belief system as a concept framework (schema). <An authority engraved in the mind is a conceptual framework that leads to perception or value judgment. >

The present study accepts Cobern's research [9,[14], [15], [16]], viewing the metaphysical system as a worldview. Metaphysical belief in the science of cosmic order, symmetry, or disorder is often important in scientific research and can lead to an epistemological view that can select or reject a certain kind of explanation [17].

Regarding the ancient Greeks’ thought that permanence is a “more truthful or better” form of existence, and change is derivative and called “less truthful,” change, process, and transition are recognized as priorities in the current metaphysical worldview [18].

Idea or image, which is the contemplation of Plato, is not only the cause of all beings, but also the cause of all knowledge. The universal or general concept we hold is that an idea is nothing more than the reflection of our mind. True existence is the highest rational order of ideas that only the mind has insight into [18]. Therefore, it argues for the classical metaphysical ideology that true knowledge does not change, and that all things are governed by a unique system of physics without exception. Modern mechanistic determinism and dialectical materialism, which contain principles of determinism in this claim, argue that change is at the core of nature. Matter is dynamic rather than static [18]. Thus, it is divided into modern dialectical materialism, which claims knowledge continues to evolve and change.

Given that it, as a particular scientific concept, is often a belief in the ultimate nature of the universe and immunized from direct empirical refutation, it has metaphysical characteristics. Belief in absolute space or time is an example [17].

The epistemological contribution – value system as judgment and evaluation of truth: Epistemic value and non-epistemic value. Epistemological perspective: Metaphysical belief can shape epistemic value judgment. As a general view of knowledge, some standards of successful knowledge, such as elegance, economics, saving, and non-ad hoc, can be the basis of epistemic value judgment [17].

For example, if God was involved in the creation or order of nature, then of course it would be to explore the regularity of nature. Such an epistemic value system may be simplicity or consistency. Ethical value is based on unique cultural value, and with non-epistemic value (contextual, historical) judgment, socio-cultural values at the time can become the standard.

Recognizing and understanding the truth: Research method and produced theories (knowledge, belief) and phenomena related to theories (information). Anomalous phenomenon is in fact made up of argument or hypothesis, thus phenomenon or conflict that has not been resolved by existing or developing theory occurs. Hence, the anomaly is considered an important starting point for exploration. Anomalies are contradictory to existing theories. Anomalies not only serve as motivation and goal for proposing a new theory, but can also be used as universal truth instead of metaphysical belief, resulting in the use of new methodology. The methodology of scientific research suggests an exploratory hypothesis, consisting of analogies, becoming the motivation of research, analogy, metaphor and course of events, as a way of resolving these anomalies. Theory and law produced through comparison with other theories are thus justified. In addition, there are related phenomena.

Spirit of the times, or pattern of behavior by conventional wisdom at the time. According to Spranger, a student of Dilthey, objective mind (spirit of the times) is understood only by inserting a part into the whole. He refers to the atmosphere in which the whole life of the mind unfolds [19]. That is, in the value system and methodology, it is ultimately expressed in attitude and pattern of behavior that are understood as social principles leading to a community activity. Philosophy is always closely related to the situation of the time.

Worldviews, which is a metaphysical belief, is the basis of the important premise of thinking, and presents direction. The direction and content of value judgment and interpretation for all perceptions and objects of a person are produced and determined by this premise. They have the final authority in our ideological reasoning, forming a system of belief that is almost impossible to compromise, and has a solid foundation that does not change easily.

Metaphysics is important in determining the epistemological value system and methodology. The western geometric worldview had great influence on the rationalism epistemology based on reason. Here, reason assumes the substance behind the phenomenon, and the meaning of the substance was linked to the modern scientific worldview, resulting in a deterministic worldview. Determinism is a metaphysics, and as an ontological reference, this world itself has a deterministic structure. The worldview of Newtonian mechanics shows the deterministic worldview.

Newton's worldview was a natural way of describing the world that God has fully granted. Newton's god made this world so perfect that it was a perfect world, without even depreciation. The meaning of not depreciating includes the reversibility of time. Accordingly, past time, present time, and future time can be exchanged. It implies that time is homogenous. This homogeneity of time leads to its absoluteness. Free will is not allowed in homogeneous time, and this world moves like a machine.

In scientific investigation, the empirical object is the primary matter (actual fact), but through the empirical object the nomological object (judgment fact), which is the secondary material, should be reached. The scientific methodology can vary depending on how the nomological object can be described. In other words, it is about how one knows it. The problem of how to know is expressed as the principle of causality in science. The primary goal of science is to find the principle of causality between movement phenomena [10].

What we can know is that the epistemological aspect, which moves towards the end, is more important than the ontological aspect of what the end of the nomological object is. This is the scientific methodology. The issue of “what the end of the nomological object is (ontology), is as important as the question of how to get there (epistemology). This is because, depending on what the end is, how to get there may vary [10]. For instance, the ontological background, which assumes that the law of science – the existence of order – is fixed and certain. Behind the seemingly disordered phenomenon is an epistemological methodology that constantly explores it. This is because induction or hypothesis-deductive method in which non-epistemic value is not involved should be used. Thus, developing epistemology apart from ontology is not desirable.

2.1.2. Relationship between the NOS and the worldviews (refer to Table 1)

Table 1.

NOS and worldviews.

Metaphysical and Worldviews' Perspective (Suggested view)		Perspective of epistemological view
Metaphysical belief	(a) Tentative, (b) Supported by empirical evidence from the observation of the natural world. Dialectical determinism: Change takes precedence for aspect of being (18)	(a) Tentative. (b) Supported by empirical evidence from the observation of the natural world. (c) Described by theory-dependence, together with explanation derived from human reasoning, imagination, and creativity. (d) Influenced by the socio-cultural view of society.
Epistemological belief and value system	(c) Described by theory-dependence, together with explanation derived from human reasoning, imagination, and creativity. (weak causationism)
Patterns of behavior, or spirit of the times	(d) Influenced by the socio-cultural view of society.

Regarding some views on NOS, there is no complete agreement, but there seems to be a certain general standard. The general view of such NOS is described in four characters in science [1,4,[20], [21], [22], [23]]..

• (a)Provisional,
• (b)Supported by empirical evidence produced from the observation of the natural world.
• (c)Described by theory-dependence, together with explanation derived from human reasoning, imagination, and creativity.
• (d)Influenced by the socio-cultural view of society.

Realm of metaphysical belief. In the study of the possibility of change, which implies the potential of knowledge with regard to NOS, students were found to have a constructivist position that science knowledge can vary over time and society in general [24]. Students generally showed a realist position that scientific knowledge already exists in the outside world and is being discovered. As such, students who are not yet free from an absolutist perspective believe that the objective existence of knowledge exists in the outside world regardless of their perception [25].

Epistemological view. In order for students to be sufficiently aware of the NOS, the curriculum should be structured in a way that students can clearly understand the purpose of science, which is in line with modern epistemology [26]. In the study, they had a mechanistic worldview in the realm of metaphysical belief, and it was reflected in epistemology as is.

Cobern [9] suggested a strategy for change to a metaphysical belief based on worldviews rather than an epistemological approach. However, in more detail, as shown in Fig. 2, it was proposed. Therefore, as a specific strategy, we propose the following process as one of the strategies for changing metaphysical beliefs..

Fig. 2.

Epistemological and metaphysical processes according to worldview: Understanding Newtonian Mechanics.

2.1.3. Elements of NOS in terms of worldview (refer to Table 2)

Table 2.

Scientific worldview and elements of the NOS.

Structure of worldview	Metaphysical mechanics	Dialectical materialism and elements of NOS
Concept schema (metaphysical belief), Know the world through the hierarchy of theoretical being. (belief rather than thinking)	Knowledge must be absolutely certain. In principle, we can have a complete knowledge of all scientific laws [27]. (Mechanistic determinism)	Knowledge is the belief that previous scientific theory should change into a larger domain by the integration between the observational domain and the theory. (Dialectical determinism)	(Empirical) (Tentative)
Epistemological value system is deduced from metaphysical belief. (Rational thinking) Through the rational thinking of our human beings, theoretical existence for phenomenon is inferred.	When rationally inferring knowledge from the data, which are the output, comprehensiveness and simplicity, which are empirical accuracy and epistemic value are important. (Strong causationism)	When rationally inferring knowledge from the data, which are the output, or to resolve the conflict between theories, economics such as simplicity, which is the minimum epistemic value, are involved. Socio-cultural value of the time, which is non- epistemic value, influence the knowledge production and selection. (Weak principle of causality)	(Theory-Laden), (The distinction between Observations & Inference), (socially and culturally embedded)
Research method and calculated laws and theories are linked to value systems and metaphysical belief. Laws and theories produced by reasoning, and phenomena produced by those theories	Inductive method and hypothesis-deductive method	Human creativity plays a more important role than any specific scientific methodology.	(No single Method), (Creativity), (Laws and theories)
	Newtonian mechanics, theory of relativity	Darwin's theory of evolution, Quantum mechanics,	Output through rational reasoning
The spirit of the times or behavior	The universe is a fixed and deterministic world.	The universe continues to evolve, but it is a predictable world.	(Socially and culturally embedded)

Elements of NOS based on modern scientific worldview. <Conceptual diagram or premise by metaphysical belief> <Dialectical materialistic worldview>

In nature, matters come first, and there is a specific order among them. Our reason leads such order to be as understandable as possible (materialism). Although science theory, which is knowledge, is sustainable, it is the belief that the old science theory should be changed to a wider area (Tentative) when a new observable phenomenon (Empirical) appears. This aspect of being changes rather than remaining static.

<Value system that produces and determines knowledge through rational thinking>

To resolve the conflict between data (Theory-Laden), which are the product, through observation, and theory, and theory based on the metaphysical belief that knowledge evolves, when reasoning knowledge through rational thinking, economics such as simplicity, which is minimal epistemic value, are involved, and the socio-cultural values of the time, influence knowledge production and selection (The distinction between Observations & Inference).

<Research method and outputs>

Based on the belief that theory evolves, value is involved in inference from fact. Accordingly, there is no specific scientific methodology (No single Method), and human creativity plays an important role. Theories and laws, which are the knowledge of nature, play a different role in terms of function.

<Spirit of the times> <Evolutionary world >

The universe continues to evolve, but it is a predictable world. (Socially and culturally embedded).

The principle of causality means that a cause for an event exists, and determinism implies that there must be a result depending on the cause. In addition, determinism is emphasized in the horizon of ontology, and the principle of causality is emphasized in the horizon of epistemology [10]. If this world is deterministically determined by law, various scientific methodologies should be used with rational power in order to find such an ultimate law.

The NOS concept has been commonly used to refer to “the epistemology of science, science as a way of knowing or the values and beliefs inherent to the development of scientific knowledge” [1]. Bendixen et al. [28] presented five dimensions for epistemological belief from the study of students: (1) solid knowledge, (2) simple knowledge, (3) authority of omnipotence, (4) quick learning, and (5) innate abilities were verified.

• (1)There was a belief in knowledge that viewed knowledge as something that is certain or absolute rather than tentative.
• (2)Students see knowledge as fixed and simple, not context-specific.
• (3)Almighty authority describes knowledge as coming “out of self” from something like a textbook or teacher, not from interaction with others.
• (4)Students learn fast, not progressively.
• (5)Innate intelligence or learning skills are important to the acquisition of knowledge, and effort makes no difference.

The epistemological beliefs (3), (4), and (5), which is the process of knowledge, are derived from the metaphysical beliefs (1) and (2).

Knowledge is believed to be an absolute being that is certain and unchanging.

The formation of knowledge is derived from such metaphysical belief. Knowledge is acquired quickly from an authoritative textbook or teacher, and in the learning process innate intellectual ability or learning ability, which enables rational thinking, plays an important role.

Thus, from the metaphysical belief that knowledge is certain and fixed (metaphysical mechanics), it can be assumed that students have the epistemological belief that the process of learning science can be quickly acquired from existing suggestion, regardless of any value.

Therefore, the present study considered the worldview, which is the metaphysical belief, as important.

In order to move toward a desirable worldview of modern science, the existing mechanistic worldview should be used. This is because in studies of Korean middle school [29], and high school students and university students [30], the idea of the absoluteness that science theory is true, and anthropocentrism, are imposed on students. They have a kind of metaphysical materialism or mechanistic worldview. Qian and Alvermann's [31] study on students who believe that knowledge is simple and unchanging found that they do not like to give up, change, or explain their existing concepts that they understood. On the other hand, students who believed that knowledge is integrative and changing were interested in learning conceptual change. Accordingly, students' metaphysical belief influences their learning (refer to Fig. 3).

Fig. 4.

Quantum interference experiment with electrons.

Fig. 3.

A strategy for changing the desirable worldview for the NOS's education.

2.2. The double slit experiment of electrons

2.2.1. Newton's deterministic worldview and its Problems

The world of Newtonian mechanics is a world of pre-established determinism, and the object of observation that is part of physical reality that exists independently of the mind of the human subject is determined causally and strictly regardless of the behavior of the observer.

Since it is possible to measure the position and velocity of an electron particle correctly, the future position and speed of the electron are observed as expected. Therefore, each electron will pass through the two gaps, arrive on the screen, and create the expected patterns as demonstrated in Fig. 1 (Strong Determinism).

Teacher's suggested conflicts through the experiment: As demonstrated in Fig. 4, electrons fired one at a time from the double slit installation of electrons that were considered as particles appear as a wave-like interference pattern on the screen (experiment result on the right). However, when a detector is installed, they behave like particles and no interference patterns appear (experiment result on the left).

According to classical mechanics, considering that waves and particles are entities with different properties, the fact that the results before and after the detector's observation were different and the electrons fired one by one appeared as two completely different entities at the same time violates the principles of Western formal logic.

Fig. 1.

From a philosophical worldview, a change in the scientific Worldviews (refer to 19).

2.2.2. Suggestion of a dialectical deterministic Worldview

Teacher's Suggestion: It is to make probabilistic predictions (probability waves of electrons) about a phenomenon rationally. In addition, when an observation is made, only one of them is confirmed to be matter (particle) (Probabilistic Weak Determinism Proposal).

Student's Understanding: There is no specific process; although the results can be overtly revealed and reenacted by observation, the electrons are distributed only probabilistically before observation. Rather than the accuracy and correspondence between natural phenomena and theory, it is possible to grasp an important characteristic of quantum mechanics, which demonstrates probabilistic concepts with interactions between the observer as the subject and the electron as the object (Apprehensive).

To summarize the change in worldview again:

Due to the time-reversible feature of dynamic Newtonian mechanics, the cause can be the present and the past and the effect is the future. It is called the deterministic mechanism because it presupposes understanding the deterministic structure of external causes and effects from the standpoint that the future, which is the result, can be predicted precisely if the cause and effect are properly understood (Newton's Strict Determinism).

According to Newton, dynamical equations established by certain methodologies (hypothesis, deduction method) can precisely predict the position of an object over time if only initial conditions are known (Strong Determinism).

However, Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle, arguing that since the initial position and velocity of an object cannot be precisely determined simultaneously, its future position and velocity cannot be determined accurately. (Conflicts over Newtonian mechanics emerges.)

Bohr mathematically interpreted that the solution of the Schrödinger wave equation was the probability that a particle can exist in a specific place. Through the theory of probability based on the wave nature of the elementary particles, quantum mechanics, which helps humans understand the microscopic world, came to the fore. Even if we predict that there is a 99% chance of occurrence, it may not occur because of 1% of the variables, which might make the prediction wrong. Taking this into consideration, it is soft determinism, but it does not abandon determinism (Probabilistic Weak Determinism Proposal). Such quantum mechanics, in fact, explains and predicts many natural phenomena well (Apprehensive).

From the physical realism that the objective reality of an object can be grasped independent of the observer, only the relationship of entities can be grasped because the object is influenced by the observer. The act of measuring can be the observer's action or the will to measure. The observer influences the physical object. Considering this, it seems as if idealism is added to the empirical theory of observation. This is what we call methodological naturalism.

It can be argued that, in traditional Western science, the observer and observed object are clearly separated. However, in quantum mechanics, the observer and the object of observation cannot be separated, and they interact dialectically. Bohr's principle of complementarity expands our minds into wider areas.

2.3. The double slit experiment of electrons

Objects of Experiment: Metropolitan University, College of Education, 14 students, 4th grade. 7 Students Major in physics education, and 7 students majoring in biology education.

Date of Experiment: 2021 Autumn Semester.

Questions adhere to the qualitative research methodology.

Q1

. Through this experiment, don't you agree that objective observation is difficult in the end because the observer influences the object of the experiment?

Answer: It is quite confusing. Previously, science believed that scientific theories should be supported by objective data.

Q2

. What kind of objects do you think were used in past experiments?

Answer: I think they probably used bigger objects than electrons.

Q3

. If so, do you think that the observer and object of observation are separate?

Answer: Understanding the fact that the behavior of the observer influences the observed object through this double-slit experiment with electrons, again I think that there is a new world.

Q4

. Then, if it exists as a possibility wave before observation with a detector, can we say the law of causation does not apply?

Answer: Strict causality does not apply, but perhaps probability and weak causality apply.

However, I think there is no objectivity in knowing only by probability. <Transition period > Biology Major 4 Students.

Q5

. Do you think it is reasonable that probabilistic causal determinism applies in the subatomic world rather than the previous strict deterministic causality?

Answer: At least through this experiment, I understood that there is a world where probabilistic causal determinism applies.

However, it is confusing that the observer affects the observed object in the subatomic world. <Transition period>< Biology Major 4 Students.

The Results of qualitative research analysis.

Four students majoring in biology were in a transition period from strict causality theory to probabilistic causality theory. However, most of the students, including seven students majoring in physics and three majoring in biology among 14 students understood the probabilistic causality of the modern physics of quantum mechanics.

Young's double-slit experiment was necessary to convert the particle theory of light into a wave theory of light. Similarly, the single-electron double-slit experiment was a dramatic proof of the paradigm shift. It was the moment when classical mechanics changed to quantum mechanics. This experiment can be said to be a powerful experiment that transforms students into a modern, desirable dialectical worldview [32].

It is difficult for students' intuition to get used to the world of quantum mechanics. The same goes for how much you can understand the theory. But the double-slit electron interference experiment shows students in a dramatic and concrete way. It serves as an example of the most wonderful, fascinating experience we can have.

3. Discussion and conclusion

The NOS is an important component of scientific literacy. An accurate understanding of the nature of science is believed to help students identify the strengths and limitations of scientific knowledge and develop accurate views of how science can and cannot answer all questions. However, research results of students and science teachers’ views of the NOS consistently reveal that both students and teachers possess naïve (inconsistent) views about it.

First, the change of worldview in philosophical history is the process of changing from metaphysical ideology to metaphysical materialism and eventually dialectical materialism. In the process of student growth, they grow, believing that all materials have an ultimate purpose, and have a mechanistic worldview that seeks external cause rather than self-cause, eventually changing into a worldview that everything is created and changes.

Second, regarding the change of the NOS, it is suggested that students’ NOS be changed into the worldview in which knowledge is changed and created explicitly as the worldview changes, under the premise that it is the same as the change in the worldview of philosophy.

Third, the strategy of change is a kind of conceptual change strategy that causes conflict with the existing worldview that has been investigated.

Most of the Science Education Major Students, including seven students majoring in physics and three majoring in biology among 14 students, understood the probabilistic causality of the modern physics of quantum mechanics.

Through experimentation, quantum mechanics asks us to put aside the idea of imagining electrons as particles. The only moment an electron can be a particle is to the detector.

As The limitations of this research, It is a characteristic of the modern scientific worldview that leads the change of scientific theory from classically strong determinism to probability theory, which is a weak determinism, and naturalistic perspective. This can be said to correspond to Darwin's theory of evolution and quantum mechanics [33]. However, we have proposed a limited experiment only in the case of quantum mechanics. Therefore, it is necessary to present Darwin's probabilistic worldview.

Author contribution statement

Jun-Young Oh; Yeon-A Son: Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper. Sang- Kil Han: Conceived and designed the experiments; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Data availability statement

The authors do not have permission to share data.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.