Acculturative stress among Latino youth: A bioecological framework

Introduction

Over 62 million Latino individuals resided in the United States (U.S.) in 2020, accounting for half of the U.S. total population growth from 2010 to 2020 (U.S. Census Bureau). In addition to being the largest ethnic minority group in the country, Latinos comprise the youngest segment of the population, with one-third being under the age of 18 years^1,2. Despite their demographic significance, Latino youth, like other racial/ethnic minority groups in the U.S., are more apt to suffer from mental health disparities than their non-Latino White peers. For example, Latino youth report higher rates of anxiety^3,4, depression⁵, suicidal ideation and attempts^6,7, and higher rates of comorbidity when compared to their non-Latino peers⁸. Anxiety disorder diagnoses have tripled among Latino youth since 2017, with factors such as racial discrimination, parental separation, deportation fears, and specifically, chronic levels of stress implicated in this surge^3,9,10.

Within the realm of stress, acculturative stress—the psychosocial strain experienced by immigrants in response to challenging events when adapting to a new culture – is a significant predictor of anxiety and depressive symptoms among immigrant populations, including Latinos^11–14. Berry conceptually linked acculturative stress to other stress models (e.g.,¹⁵) and posited it as a psychological response to environmental stressors such as language barriers, difficulties with assimilating beliefs and norms of the host culture, and lack of social support¹¹. While research on acculturative stress has gained traction in the clinical^16,17 and research literatures^18,19, it has primarily centered on adults within the Latino community, leaving gaps in understanding its phenomenology on children.

In line with bioecological models of child development²⁰, this chapter reviews the literature on acculturative stress among Latino youth, focusing on individual, family/social, and societal factors that influence or mitigate acculturative stress. Examining individual factors, we review research on sex and age effects, temperament, cognitive factors, emotion dysregulation, and language acquisition^21–28. Shifting to family/social factors, we focus on family functioning, social support, and parental emotion socialization, given their direct and indirect associations with acculturative stress among Latino youth^29–35. Finally, drawing from prior research^36–39, we summarize findings regarding societal processes linked to acculturative stress, including racial discrimination, socioeconomic status and economic instability, sociopolitical context, and immigration-related fears. The chapter concludes by presenting a bioecological framework for understanding acculturative stress among Latino youth and offering recommendations for providers working with this population.

Individual Factors

Child Sex and Age

Research shows that Latina girls, compared to boys, experience higher acculturative stress, leading to elevated anxiety, depression, and risky behaviors^40–43. This vulnerability may be partially attributed to gendered socialization, as Latina girls are expected to adhere to familismo values (which emphasize family cohesion above individual needs), potentially resulting in increased interfamilial stress^44,45. Separate work suggests that Latina girls, given social freedoms in U.S (vs. Latino) culture, may acculturate faster, leading to parent-child acculturative gaps and family conflict⁴⁶.

Moreover, traditional gender role beliefs (e.g., “men don’t cry”) may lead Latino young men to suppress emotions and avoid seeking mental health support, contributing to acculturative stress and mental health problems⁴⁷. For example, one study found that after accounting for U.S. culture acquisition, heritage-culture retention, and acculturative stress, Latino men (vs. women) exhibited higher depression symptoms, while stronger affiliations with U.S. cultural practices were associated with greater acculturative stress and depressive symptoms among Latinas, possibly due to mismatches with gender role expectations⁴⁷. Notably, parental support, especially for boys, may help Latino youth cope with acculturative stress. In one study, parental support mitigated the negative effects of acculturative stress and family conflict on the prosocial behaviors of boys⁴⁸, whereas among girls, it buffered only the negative effect of family conflict, not acculturative stress⁴⁸.

The effects of child age on acculturative stress have also been examined. Sirin and colleagues prospectively examined the influence of gender, age, generation status, and acculturative stress on depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms trajectories among immigrant adolescents in 10^th, 11^th, and 12^th grade. Consistent with past work⁴⁹, mental health problems decreased over time for all age groups⁵⁰. Acculturative stress had a moderating effect, with internalizing symptoms increasing as acculturative stress increased⁵⁰. The age of immigration, in particular, may be especially relevant to acculturative stress, as younger arrivals experience less immigration stress, while discrimination stress affects Latino youth across all age groups²⁴.

Collectively, these findings suggest that girls may be at increased risk for acculturative stress, parental support may be key in mitigating acculturative stress (especially in boys), and the age of arrival may influence facets of acculturative stress. Further research is warranted to understand the mechanisms linking child sex and age to acculturative stress and emotional health among Latino youth.

Temperament

Temperament plays an important role in shaping how children respond to environmental stress^51,52, with individual differences potentially accounting for diverse reactions to acculturative stress. For example, in the context of school-based racial discrimination, children may exhibit distinct abilities to cope with stress. While one child may effectively regulate their emotions and pursue goal-oriented actions despite distress, another may experience heightened physiological dysregulation, anxiety, and avoidance. Consequently, acculturative stress could potentially intensify maladaptive behavioral and emotional responses in Latino children with sensitive temperaments.

Although research in this area is highly limited, behavioral inhibition stands out as a temperamental trait explored in relation to Latino youth’s acculturative stress^23,27. Behavioral inhibition is characterized by high levels of restraint, avoidance, and social withdrawal in novel situations, and is a well-established risk factor for childhood internalizing and externalizing problems^53–57. Cultural factors among Latino youth, such as higher familismo and respeto (respect towards elders and authority figures;⁵⁸, and more traditional gender roles⁵⁹, are linked to higher behavioral inhibition. Theoretically, high acculturative stress among Latino youth with high levels of behavioral inhibition might lead to further social withdrawal and isolation, heightening risk for anxiety, depression, and other mental health concerns. However, Gomez and Gudiño did not find support for an association between behavioral inhibition and acculturative stress in a sample of Latino adolescents. Additionally, and contrary to prediction, behavioral inhibition did not moderate the relationship between acculturative stress and internalizing symptoms²³. Clearly, more research is needed to understand how children’s temperamental responses may influence the acculturation process.

Cognitive Factors

Stress and negative life events can activate maladaptive coping methods, such as negative automatic thoughts, which are reinforced through repeated exposure to stressors^60,61. Consequently, acculturative stress among Latino youth may be linked to higher frequency of negative automatic thoughts. In this vein, Schlaudt and colleagues found that acculturative stress was associated with greater negative automatic thoughts in a sample of first- and second-generation immigrant Latino youth. Notably, this association was only found among those with low and average (but not high) levels of mindfulness²⁵, suggesting a potentially protective effect of mindfulness.

Anxiety sensitivity (AS), defined as the fear of anxiety-related sensations and the misinterpretation of such sensations as dangerous⁶², is another relevant cognitive risk factor that may hinder Latino youth’s ability to cope with acculturative stress. Although no research focusing on youth has explored associations between acculturative stress and AS, findings in the adult literature suggest clinically relevant associations^63–65. For example, Jardin and colleagues found that AS explained the associations between acculturative stress and symptoms of social anxiety, depression, anxious arousal, and suicidality among Latino college students⁶³. The experience of acculturative stress may be accompanied by physiological hyperarousal^25,66, potentially exacerbated by a tendency to catastrophize interoceptive sensations (i.e., high AS⁶⁷). Therefore, it is theoretically possible that AS may amplify acculturative stress and internalizing symptom associations among Latino youth. Future research examining the role of AS in Latino youth’s acculturative stress is warranted.

Emotion Dysregulation

Latino youth report higher levels of discrimination and stress^68,69, feelings of rejection, a sense of limited future, and devalued Latino identity⁷⁰. These acculturation-related stressors may contribute to emotion dysregulation (i.e., a pattern of emotional expressions and increased physiological arousal leading to long-term maladaptation⁷¹ and greater psychopathology^68,69,72 among Latino youth²⁸). Zhang and Gonzales-Backen found that greater acculturative stress was associated with higher levels of rule-breaking behaviors through elevated depressive symptoms, particularly among Latino adolescents with low levels of emotion regulation²⁸. Additionally, Archuleta found that first-generation Latino youth exhibiting greater acculturation to White American culture reported greater emotion dysregulation. Conversely, positive relationships with others, a sense of purpose in life, and environmental mastery were associated with better emotion regulation and lower levels of psychopathology⁷³. These findings collectively suggest that emotion regulation significantly influences Latino youth’s ability to cope with acculturative stress, highlighting the potential disruption in regulatory capacities by greater acculturative stress. Considering the malleability of emotion regulation skills, these findings emphasize emotion regulation as a potential intervention target in this population.

Language Acquisition

Learning a new language is a robust risk factor for acculturative stress^21,22,26. Spanish-speaking Latino youth who are learning English report feelings of hopelessness and insecurity, describing the process as stressful²². Learning a new language and being bilingual may also require youth to frequently alternate between languages and cultural contexts. This cognitive process of switching between different cultural frames as a response to social demand may lead to increased stress⁷⁴. Booth and colleagues found that bilingualism, and the associated difficulties with expressing ideas and knowledge when switching between English and Spanish at school, were key stressors in the acculturation process of Latino youth²¹.

Likewise, the pressure of language brokering, defined as acting as a linguistic and cultural intermediary for two or more parties from different cultural backgrounds with little to no formal training⁷⁵, is a common source of acculturative stress among Latino youth. Latino youth may be required to act as a translator for their parents, reading documents, translating during social interactions, or functioning as the main source of communication in medical emergencies. Acculturative stress in response to brokering is linked with the youth’s comfort with the language, frequency of brokering, and their perceptions surrounding brokering^75–78. Kam and colleagues identified three brokering profiles among immigrant youth: (1) infrequent-ambivalent, (2) occasional-moderates, and (3) parentified-endorsers. The largest profile, occasional-moderates, reported occasional brokering demands, low levels of family-based acculturation stress and parentification, and a moderate endorsement of positive brokering beliefs⁷⁶. The authors concluded that most adolescents who identify in the occasional-moderate profile view their brokering as a normal family role and typically demonstrate strong links with their ethnic identity⁷⁶.

Yet, when youth have a higher demand of brokering or perceive brokering negatively, acculturative stress may increase. Using longitudinal survey data from 234 Latino early adolescents in 6th–8th grades, Kam and Lazarevic found that brokering for parents indirectly affected alcohol and marijuana use through family-based acculturative stress⁷⁵. Specifically, brokering functioned as a stressor when Latino early adolescents perceived brokering as a burden, which indirectly increased acculturative stress in the family and adolescent alcohol and marijuana use⁷⁵.

While learning a new language can be mentally demanding, being bilingual offers various advantages. Bilingualism helps youth establish connections with peers, navigate social interactions, strengthen their ethnic identity, and foster a sense of pride²¹. Moreover, several studies have demonstrated that bilingualism acts as a protective factor, enabling youth to function effectively in diverse settings^79,80. In sum, even though the process of learning a new language can be highly stressful for Latino youth, achieving proficiency in a new language may serve as a protective factor against psychopathology.

Family/Social Factors

Family Functioning

Supportive family relationships can serve as a protective factor against acculturative stress in Latino youth³⁴. For example, Latino youth who felt supported by their parents and community, or had a strong family obligation, developed coping strategies, exhibited socioeconomic mobility, and achieved higher academic success²⁹. Conversely, youth who reported feeling isolated from their parents and families exhibited “escaping strategies,” such as moving out of their parents’ home, dropping out of school, and spending time with delinquent peers²⁹, which were linked with delinquent behaviors and increased drug use²⁹.

Family cohesion also serves as a protective factor against facets of acculturative stress, including discrimination and adaptation stress, among Latino youth^30,33. Although not specifically focused on acculturative stress, research has found that within Latino families, family support is also linked with better emotional regulation, parent-child relationship quality, and youth’s overall functioning across settings^30–33,35. Positive family functioning also predicted higher self-esteem, lower symptoms of depression, lower aggressive and rule-breaking behavior, lower alcohol use, and lower cigarette use among recent-immigrant Latino adolescents³².

While family functioning and cohesion are integral for Latinos’ adaptation to a new culture, immigrant families, including parents and extended family, may face an increased risk of developing maladaptive strategies due to heightened acculturative stress. Therefore, future research should focus not only on the impact of acculturative stress on Latino youth’s psychological outcomes but also examine its direct and indirect effects on parents and the family as a whole. Indeed, parental acculturative stress is associated with Latino youth’s conduct problems, anxiety, and depressive symptoms^81,82. A recent study by Wu and colleagues also found that Latino youth exhibited more severe depressive symptomology when both parent and child reported higher acculturative stress⁸². Therefore, in efforts to enhance Latino youth’s psychological well-being, it is essential to provide support not only to the youth but also their parents.

Social Support

The importance of social support, particularly peer support, in children’s psychosocial development is well-established^83–85. Children generally consider their peers as equal, providing companionship, entertainment, and support^83–85. Peers also provide emotional support and model emotion regulation skills, as over time children begin to lean less on parental figures for their emotional needs. Peer social support may protect mental health and foster resilience in Latino youth—even more so than family support^18,86. In the context of acculturative stress, healthy peer relationships and social support may buffer against anxiety and internalizing symptoms^4,18,87. One study found that youth report of social support, addressing both academic and emotional needs, mediated the relation between acculturative stress and internalizing symptoms among first-generation Latino immigrants⁸⁷. Consistent with these findings, Wasserman and colleagues found that levels of peer support (but not parent support) mitigated the effects of acculturative stress on Latino adolescents’ depression and anxiety symptoms⁴. Peer support may therefore play a critical role in Latino youths’ ability to adjust to a new culture.

Emotion Socialization

Emotion socialization is defined as the ways in which parents directly and indirectly teach their children about the meaning of emotions and how to respond to their own and others’ emotions^88,89. Healthy parent-child interactions are therefore central to adequate emotion socialization, with chronic dysregulation in these interactions posing an increased risk of socioemotional problems in children^90,91.

Three coping strategies have been identified as essential during stressful experiences: problem-focused coping (i.e., solving the problem), emotion-focused coping (i.e., regulating emotions), and avoidance-oriented coping (i.e., avoiding the problem^92,93). Acculturative stress may be linked to more frequent use of problematic parental coping strategies⁹⁴. Latina mothers who experience increased acculturative stress may experience difficulties activating positive emotion-focused coping strategies, leading them to rely on unsupportive emotional socialization practices. For example, a Latina mother who repeatedly experiences discrimination at work for speaking Spanish during her break may be more likely to react negatively to an anxious or depressed child at home (e.g., by minimizing or dismissing their distress), potentially exacerbating the child’s symptoms^95,96. In contrast, a mother who does not experience this type of stress may be more likely to use supportive emotion socialization strategies (e.g., encouraging expression of emotions), thereby modeling adaptive ways of coping with difficult emotions. Although no study to date has examined direct or indirect links between acculturative stress, parental emotion socialization strategies, and emotional and mental wellbeing among Latino youth, indirect evidence from a Latino sample suggests that greater Latino enculturation—the preservation or cultural socialization of one’s culture of origin⁹⁷—is linked with stronger beliefs about emotional guidance of children and lower youth emotional understanding⁹⁸. These findings hint at potential differences in emotion socialization practices of Latino families that may be linked with emotional difficulties in youth. Further research is needed to examine the direct and indirect links between acculturative stress, parental emotion socialization strategies, and childhood mental health outcomes.

Societal Factors

Racism and Discrimination

Racial discrimination, a source of acculturative stress, has been extensively studied among Latino families^9,38,99. Racial discrimination is related with higher perceived stress, leading to greater depressive symptoms and smoking behaviors among Latino adolescents³⁸. Similarly, Sirin and colleagues found that discrimination stress was significantly and prospectively associated with internalizing symptoms across middle-to-late adolescence¹⁰⁰. Furthermore, among Latino adolescents, perceived ethnic discrimination and bicultural stress was associated with higher acculturative stress, which in turn predicted depressive symptoms, cigarette smoking, alcohol use, aggressive behaviors, and rule-breaking behaviors¹⁰¹. In a qualitative study, Cervantes and Cordova found that the most frequently endorsed stressor among Latino youth was perceived discrimination, with one youth expressing that “overcoming discrimination based on nationality” is the hardest part of adapting to a new country²². Multiple Latino youth reported frustration with being stereotyped as “an under achiever” and “not hardworking.” Finally, various youth reported experiencing frequent discrimination from law enforcement, with one participant noting, “cops are so racist to you.” Overall, these studies emphasize the contributions of racism and discrimination to acculturative stress and psychopathology among Latino youth.

Socioeconomic Status and Economic Instability

Socioeconomic status (SES) and economic instability (e.g., experiences of poverty, food insecurity, homelessness, and lack of access to healthcare) are associated with acculturative stress and mental health problems among Latino youth^39,102. Potonchnick and colleagues found that 42% of Latino youth reported household food insecurity, which in turn was associated with higher acculturative stress, economic stress, and increased family conflict³⁹. Similarly, a recent systemic review of acculturative stress among Latino immigrants in the U.S. reported that economic constraints significantly influenced acculturative stress^14,103,104, with higher SES consistently functioning as a protective factor¹⁸.

Political Context and Immigration-Related Fears

Recent political debates in the U.S. have placed Latinos at the forefront of discussions regarding the legal rights and acceptance of immigrant populations into the country. The U.S. government’s implementation of strict immigration enforcement policies has led to increased stress in the Latino community¹⁰⁵. Fears of deportation, within a highly politicized context, impact the mental health of Latino immigrants, irrespective of their legal status^36,105,106. Research with adult samples has found that acculturative stress stemming from fears of deportation has a greater effect on immigrants’ stress levels than other challenges such as learning a new language or adjusting to a new culture.

A recent literature review found that increased risk, fear, and experiences of deportation were associated with greater behavioral changes (i.e., isolation from peers, angry outbursts, difficulties connecting with peers and family members), depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder among Latino youth¹⁰⁵. Family deportation vulnerability and fears are also associated with school-related stress among Latino youth^107–109. Greater legal vulnerability among Latino families was associated with difficulties in parent-child relationships, the child’s emotional well-being, and overall academic performance¹⁰⁷. Similarly, Cardoso and colleagues examined the effect of immigration fear on anxiety among 306 Latino high school students from two study locations (i.e., Harris County, TX and Rhode Island) with distinct political climates surrounding immigration. Immigration enforcement fear emerged as a primary predictor of anxiety and somatic complaints among both groups¹¹⁰, even after accounting for various risk factors (i.e., perceived discrimination, trauma exposure, economic status, and demographic characteristics). Collectively, these findings suggest that fears of deportation and the politicized context surrounding immigration taxes the psychological resources of Latino youth, contributing to increased acculturative stress.

Discussion

This chapter reviewed findings on acculturative stress among Latino youth, concentrating on individual, family/social, and societal factors and their association with acculturative stress and its consequences. Notably, individual factors suggest that girls may be more susceptible to acculturative stress, while the significance of parental support—especially in boys—and age of arrival should be considered^24,48–50. Cognitive-affective factors, such as anxiety sensitivity and emotion dysregulation, have shown robust associations with acculturative stress in the adult literature^111–114, yet research among children remains unexplored and is an important future avenue^{63–65,68,69,72,73}.

Bilingualism and language brokering may increase acculturative stress in specific situations^21,75, but not consistently across all contexts^76,79,80. Family/social factors, such as cohesive family functioning (e.g., shared affection, bonding experiences, and feelings of connectedness¹¹⁵) and positive peer relationships, were identified as significant buffers against the adverse effects of acculturative stress^18,34. Additionally, societal processes like racial discrimination, economic instability, the sociopolitical context surrounding immigration, and deportation fears were associated with increased acculturative stress severity among Latino youth^36,100,102, regardless of the degree of immigration-related tension that exists in different regions of the country¹¹⁰.

In line with Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of child development²⁰, we propose that acculturative stress is a multilevel process, emerging from the interaction of risk and protective factors across individual, family, social, and societal levels over time. Utilizing this framework enhances the discernment of risks and protective factors associated with acculturative stress among Latino immigrant youth, facilitating the development of personalized approaches and targeted interventions. Illustrated in Figure 1, our proposed bioecological model of acculturative stress for Latino youth functions as a guiding framework, not a universal prescription, recognizing that individual differences in personal experiences, level of acculturation, and family support can make some factors (e.g., language acquisition; deportation fears) more relevant than others for some children. Yet, we believe that a bioecological view of acculturative stress can aid practitioners in gaining a fuller understanding of the stressors impacting Latino youth, informing a well-rounded treatment plan.

Figure 1.

A bioecological model of acculturative stress among Latinos

When working with Latino families, clinicians are encouraged to adopt a culturally sensitive approach for a nuanced understanding of the factors contributing to youths’ acculturative stress and well-being. Utilizing a bioecological framework (Figure 1) to assess acculturative stress in Latino families is recommended. Inquiring about factors such as age of arrival in the U.S., youth preferred language, household language, family SES, and parental involvement can inform where potential risks (or protective factors) may lie. Using a multi-informant approach, clinicians can create a space for open conversations about their cultural values, acculturative experiences, and the youth’s identification with the family’s culture of origin, which can then inform treatment choices. For instance, clinicians can collaborate with Latino families to raise awareness of the acculturation gaps that commonly emerge between foreign-born Latino parents and their U.S.-born children, thereby mitigating the risk of parent-child conflict.

Clinicians are further encouraged to assess Latino youths’ level of acculturative stress at various times throughout the intervention period and use appropriate intervention protocols flexibly, as environmental factors (e.g., deportation fears, discriminatory experiences) may impact treatment adherence. The Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) can aid in assessing and understanding Latino youth’s functioning through a cultural lens. Various questionnaires also can aid acculturation and acculturative stress assessment among Latino youth and families¹¹⁶. For example, the Acculturative Stress Inventory for Children (ASIC¹¹⁷) assesses perceived discrimination and immigration-related stress and only takes approximately 10 minutes to complete. Questionnaires like the Social, Attitudinal, Familial, and Environmental Acculturative Stress Scale (SAFE¹¹⁸) or the Abbreviated Hispanic Stress Inventory-Immigrant Version (Abbreviated HSI-I¹¹⁹) offers a parent’s perspective, while the Abbreviated Multidimensional Acculturation Scale (AMAS¹²⁰) is a self-report measure of overall acculturation experiences. Collectively, these strategies and assessment tools can potentially help clinicians gain a broader and evidence-based understanding of acculturative stress among Latino youth and its role in their mental health.

Conclusion

This chapter synthesized research on acculturative stress among Latino youth, emphasizing relevant factors at individual, family, social, and societal levels. A bioecological model for acculturative stress in Latino youth was offered that considers risk and protective factors across these levels, providing a structured framework for research and clinical endeavors in this area. This framework can improve our efforts to better address the role of acculturative stress in Latino youth’s mental health, aiming to minimize risks and leverage the resilience and protective factors present in Latino youth and their families.

KEY POINTS.

• Acculturative stress contributes significantly to mental health problems among Latino youth.

• Latino youth may be more susceptible to mental health disparities than their non-Latino White peers due, in part, to acculturative stress.

• There are individual, family/social, and societal processes that contribute to or mitigate acculturative stress in Latino youth.

• A bioecological model can serve as a useful framework for understanding acculturative stress in Latino youth and help clinicians and providers working with this population.

SYNOPSIS.

Acculturative stress—the psychosocial strain experienced by immigrants in response to challenging events when adapting to a new culture – is a significant predictor of mental health outcomes among immigrant populations. This chapter synthesizes research on acculturative stress among Latino youth, emphasizing relevant factors at individual, family, social, and societal levels. A bioecological model for acculturative stress in Latino youth is proposed that considers risk and protective factors across these levels, providing a structured framework for research and clinical endeavors in this area. This framework can potentially improve our efforts to better address the role of acculturative stress in Latino youths’ mental health, aiming to minimize risks and leverage the resilience and protective factors present in Latino youths and their families. The chapter concludes with recommendations to providers on how to assess acculturative stress in Latino families from a bioecological perspective and how to integrate this information into the formulation of an informed treatment plan.