The spiritual philosophy of Advaita: Basic concepts and relevance to psychiatry

Abstract

Advaita is a major Hindu spiritual doctrine that has its roots in the Vedas. This essay presents a broad overview of some key aspects of Advaita. Then, the following five important features of Advaita that have relevance to the practice of psychiatry are elaborated: 1. The Guru-Sishya (teacher-disciple) dyad, 2. Levels of reality, 3. Sleep analysis, 4. Indispensable role of knowledge, and 5. Using analogies.

INTRODUCTION

Advaita (Nondualism[1]; A-not, Dvaita-two) is one of the many spiritual philosophies that have their origin in the Vedas, the primary religious scriptures of Hinduism. There are four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva. In each Veda, the first section dealing with various religious rituals is known as Karma Kanda (Karma – action, Kanda – portion) and the second part that is concerned with spiritual topics is called Jnana Kanda (Jnana – knowledge) or Vedanta (anta – end; Vedanta – ultimate goal of the Vedas). Within the Jnana Kanda, there are numerous self-contained texts called Upanishads dealing with the spiritual knowledge for attaining Moksha (liberation) through the realization of the true nature of one’s self. This knowledge is typically imparted by Gurus (teachers) to Sishyas (disciples) in the form of a dialog with questions and answers.

Apart from Advaita, the other two main schools of Indian Hindu philosophy that have a substantial following even today are Dvaita (dualism) and Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism).

THE THREE CORE PRINCIPLES OF ADVAITA

The entire spiritual philosophy of Advaita has long been elegantly summarized into the following three fundamental postulates:

1. Brahman Satyam: The only truth is Brahman (the infinite, universal consciousness).

2. Jagat Mithya: The whole experienced universe is only an illusion (due to Maya).

3. Jivo Brahmaiva Naparah: The Atman, the individual consciousness, is identical to Brahman.

The Brahman is of the nature of Sat (eternal truth: refers to infinite existence in time – the past, present, and future), Chit (consciousness), Ananda (bliss), and Ananta (infinite existence in space – with no limitations). The name Advaita (Nondualism) is derived from the conviction that there is only one true entity in the whole universe – Brahman (or Atman).

The Maya is the cause of the whole experienced universe including the mind-body complexes. This universe is superimposed on the Brahman like a movie being superimposed on a cinema screen. Just as the movie transitorily borrows the space of the screen to manifest, the illusory universe temporarily borrows its existence from Brahman. The cinema screen exists before, during, and after the movie is shown; likewise, Brahman exists before, during, and after the created universe. In the same manner, as the screen is not affected by the scenes of the movie, the Brahman is not affected by the happenings in the universe. At a personal level, it is the individual consciousness (Atman) that lends life to the body and awareness to the mind, and this immortal Atman exists before birth, during life, and after the death of the person concerned, and is not affected by anything that happens to the mind and body of that individual.

The third truth affirms that the Atman, the individual consciousness (also called Jivatma; Jiva – individual) that bestows awareness to the mind-body complex of every individual, is in its true nature, no different from Brahman, the universal consciousness (also known as Paramatma; Param – supreme), which supplies existence to the whole universe. The phrases in the Upanishads that proclaim the sameness of Atman and Brahman are called Mahavakyas (Great sayings). The two most famous Mahavakyas are as follows:

1. Tat Tvam Asi [Thou Art That, (or) “You (Atman) are That (Brahman)”] in the Chandogya Upanishad[2] (verse 6.8.7) of the Sama Veda.

2. Aham Brahmasmi (I am Brahman) in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad[3] (verse 1.4.10) of the Yajur Veda.

MAJOR TEXTS OF ADVAITA

1. Upanishads: as mentioned earlier, these are part of the Vedas, and each Veda has many Upanishads. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad are the two largest ones.

2. Bhagavad Gita (‘Gita’)[4]: this is included within the great Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. The Gita contains 700 slokas (verses) spread over 18 chapters, in which Lord Krishna (regarded as an avatar or incarnation of Lord Vishnu) discloses spiritual knowledge to the Pandava warrior Arjuna, just as the war between the Pandavas and their cousins, the Kauravas, is set to commence.

3. Brahma Sutras[5]: authored by the poet-saint Veda Vyasa, who also composed the Mahabharata, this work is in the form of 555 aphorisms dealing with various sublime aspects of the Jnana Kanda of the Vedas.

Adi Shankara, who is revered as the greatest philosopher in Advaita heritage, has written elaborate commentaries on all the above works. The Sishya is expected to systematically master, under the guidance of the Guru, these commentaries also, along with the original texts.

SPIRITUAL LIBERATION IN ADVAITA

Liberation in Hinduism is called Moksha (or Mukti), which generally refers to freedom from Samsara, the cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. According to Advaita, the unliberated individual experiences suffering as he (or she) believes the world including one’s mind-body complex to be true. By studying the Advaita scriptures under a capable Guru, the Sishya acquires the steadfast knowledge of the three core principles above. He intellectually dissociates himself from the finite, unpredictable world of Maya and identifies with the infinite, blissful Brahman. He thus accomplishes Moksha in the here and now.

After liberation, the individual is called a Jnani (the wise one). The Jnani will continue to perceive the world sensorily like everyone else, but he will lead the rest of his life in a dispassionate manner unperturbed by changes, good or bad, that occur in one’s mind, body, or the external world, with the resolute belief that nothing that happens in this Maya world can alter the infinite, blissful nature of one’s original self.

At least two conclusions of Advaita philosophy are unique: (a) the assertion that it is only knowledge (of Atman-Brahman oneness) that can lead to liberation and that (b) this freedom is possible in this world during one’s life itself rather than having to wait for death, reaching a higher world (like the abode of the Gods), and only then being able to gain Moksha.

FIVE KEY ASPECTS OF ADVAITA

To illustrate potential relevance to psychiatry, I have selected the following five aspects of Advaita. For each, after a brief description, I would be highlighting its utility to some aspect of psychiatry:

1. The Guru-Sishya (teacher-disciple) dyad

2. Levels of reality

3. Sleep analysis

4. Indispensable role of knowledge

5. Using analogies.

1. The Guru-Sishya (teacher-disciple) dyad

In the Vedic tradition, great emphasis is placed on the relationship between the Guru and Sishya. This is especially so in Advaita. The title Upanishad (Upa – near, nishad – sit down) itself conveys this by indicating how this teaching is delivered: by the Guru to the Sishya who is sitting down reverentially close by. A typical scenario for introducing Advaita education would be a Sishya, who is extremely troubled and unable to make sense of the ever-changing world, approaching a Guru as a last resort. The Guru who has already realized the illusory nature of the world is empathic, realizes the suffering of the Sishya, reassures him that there is a way out of this suffering, and imparts the knowledge. The Sishya attains this knowledge in three sequential stages: Shravanam (listening – to the teaching of the Guru, the scriptures, the commentaries, etc.), Mananam (mentally reflecting on the learned knowledge and clearing doubts), and Nididhyasanam (meditating on this knowledge and solidifying it so that it remains enduring for the rest of one’s life). After mastering these stages, the Sishya acquires the status of a Guru, to continue the Guru-Sishya tradition.

The initial verses of the Bhagavad Gita clearly describe the Sishya’s (Arjuna’s) state of mental anguish (1.27- Chapter 1, Verse 27), physical distress (1.28, 1.29), intellectual ambivalence (1.30 to 1.46) and the decision to quit (1.47). The Guru (Lord Krishna) then imparts spiritual knowledge from the second chapter onwards. The 11^th verse of the second chapter, where Krishna declares “You have grieved for those that should not be grieved for; yet, you speak words of wisdom. The wise grieve neither for the living nor for the dead,” is considered very important in the Advaita tradition.

In psychiatry (and psychotherapy), the patient-professional relationship has been shown by numerous studies to be an important independent factor that influences the prognosis. The three positive factors of the psychiatrist/therapist that have been repeatedly cited for over half a century are empathy, warmth, and genuineness.[6] Just as the Guru, who, despite knowledge of the ephemeral character of the world, can perceive the world from the Sishya’s point of view, it is very important for a psychiatrist to be empathic and to be able to see the world from the patient’s perspective to understand the biopsychosocial factors[7] that are distinctive to each individual. Just as Advaita knowledge is acquired in stages before unwavering realization, the mental health of a severely ill patient may have to go through several phases (admission to hospital, initiation of treatment, dose adjustment, community follow-up, long-term maintenance treatment, etc.) before optimal recovery[8] is achieved.

2. Levels of reality

According to Advaita, there are three levels of Satyam (reality):

1. Pratibhasika Satyam (individual reality): this is the internal world that is exclusive to each person (e.g. thoughts, dreams, etc.), and is not known/knowable to others unless disclosed.

2. Vyavaharika Satyam (shared reality): this is the empirical world that is common to everyone around us, such as country, time, weather, and gravity.

3. Paramamarthika Satyam (the highest reality): this is the sphere of Atman/Brahman, which lends existence to the earlier two realities, but is not affected by anything that happens in those lower realms.

In Advaita, the desperate Sishya seeks a Guru to make sense of this world that is full of misery. The role of the Guru is to elevate the Sishya, slowly but surely, from the second level (of suffering) to the third level of Atman/Brahman (which is beyond suffering).

In psychiatry, a patient with psychosis experiences delusions and hallucinations. A delusion is a false, fixed belief that is not based in reality, held by the subject with conviction despite evidence to the contrary, and not shared by others in the individual’s subculture. A hallucination is a sensory deception in which a perception occurs in the absence of a real external stimulus. But, according to the patient, these beliefs and perceptions are not just in his mind (level i above), but have an external reality (level ii above). In other words, the barrier between the individual and shared realities[9] is breached.

The patient then goes (or is taken) to a psychiatrist to make sense of and to get relief from the torment caused by one’s (seemingly real) psychotic beliefs and experiences. The role of the psychiatrist is to relieve the suffering by restoring the ‘ego boundary’ between the self and non-self.

3. Sleep analysis

In Advaita, the main purpose in life is for the individual to realize his/her true nature (Atman), which is the real subject (‘I’) upon which all objective experiences are overlaid. To exemplify this, one of the experiences that is analyzed is sleep. Unlike psychoanalysis, where the content of the dreams is the unit of enquiry, in Advaita, the whole sleep, including dreams and deep sleep, is analyzed.

For example, in the Mandukya Upanishad, which is considered by many scholars to be the most esoteric of all the Upanishads, the individual is analyzed as he goes through the following three Avasthas (states) every day and night:

1. Jagrat (awake state)

2. Svapna (dream state)

3. Sushupti (deep sleep)

In this paradigm, the progression of self-realization is as follows:

• In the awake state, both the mind and body are active. In the dream state, only the mind is active. In deep sleep, neither the mind nor the body are active.

• In other words, during the awake state, the awareness of the self (‘I’) occurs when both mind and body are active. During dreaming, the awareness continues even though the body is no longer active. In deep sleep, there is no awareness, but there is retrospective realization upon waking up (“I slept”). Thus, the self continues to exist irrespective of the activity of the mind and/or body, demonstrating that it is not dependent on the mind or body for its existence; in fact, it is the other way around – the self is needed for the awareness of the existence of the mind and body.

• This self is the real self – Atman. As it transcends the mind and body, it cannot be affected by the problems occurring in them.

• By claiming this Atman as one’s real nature, the individual achieves Moksha (liberation).

The importance of sleep in psychiatric disorders is well established. In fact, some consider sleep as a vital sign of mental health.[10] Insomnia plays a prominent role in most mental disorders: for example, as a symptom (early morning awakening in depression), a trigger (for mania), or a warning sign (of an impending psychotic episode). Prescribing hypnotic medication[11] is an art and, if not judiciously done, can lead to long-term dependence.

Sleep has been well studied by our psychotherapeutic colleagues too, all the way from traditional psychoanalysis (Freud considered the ‘Interpretation of Dreams’[12] as his magnum opus) to contemporary cognitive behavior therapy (CBT),[13] which is the treatment of choice for primary insomnia.

4. Indispensable role of knowledge

In Advaita philosophy, awareness of the true nature of one’s self leads to spiritual liberation. This awareness can be achieved only through knowledge and not through experience, as Atman/Brahman being the self cannot be objectively experienced. Spiritual practices, such as religious rituals and meditation, are useful preliminary means for purifying and stabilizing the mind to be receptive to knowledge, but these practices, on their own, are not sufficient to lead to liberation.

Just as a body of water needs to be both clean and still to properly reflect sunlight, a mind that is both pure and stable (not swayed by vices like lust, anger, jealousy, etc.) is a prerequisite for receiving and utilizing the knowledge of Advaita.

As liberation in Advaita is not experiential, but instead results from unshakeable knowledge, it cannot be measured by rating scales, such as the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30).[14] The MEQ has items very similar to concepts in Advaita, such as internal and external unity, transcendence of time and space, and sacredness, and is used to measure (“Advaita-like”) experiences reported by subjects after intake of hallucinogens, such as psilocybin. Psilocybin-assisted therapy[15] is now emerging as a potential treatment for depression.

Psychoeducation is a crucial element in the treatment of the whole range of psychiatric disorders. Providing appropriate information (e.g. reassuring a patient with Panic disorder that an acute anxiety episode will resolve on its own, and will not kill, even if it feels otherwise during the attack) can be life-changing for patients with common mental disorders. Empowering patients with relevant knowledge about the nature of their illness, rationale for treatment, potential side-effects of medication, warning signs of relapse, etc., helps to engage them in care, improves compliance, and can lead to better outcomes even in severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia[16] and bipolar disorder.[17]

In CBT for depression, one of the two core strategies[18] is ‘cognitive restructuring’ (the other being ‘behavioral activation’), which involves the therapist helping the patient identify maladaptive patterns of thinking such as dysfunctional assumptions, understand how cognitive distortions lead to depression, and then learning how to challenge them and start thinking more objectively to improve one’s mood. Thus, in CBT, like in Advaita, without altering the external world, which initially seemed to be the source of one’s problems, just the knowledge of how to change one’s mental outlook alone can result in major positive changes.

5. Using analogies

Advaita teaching is particularly famous for employing simple analogies to illustrate the most profound of truths. I have selected the following three well-known ones:

1. Rope-snake analogy

2. Clay-pot analogy

3. The tenth man analogy

i. Rope-snake analogy

This is used to exemplify the relationship between Brahman and Maya.

A man is walking in a dimly lit area. In front of him, he perceives a snake on the ground, and so he turns to run away. A bystander reassures him that it is not a snake but only a rope. The first man is relieved of his anxiety and continues his journey.

In this analogy, the (real) rope is Brahman and the (imaginary) snake is Maya. Due to ignorance of the rope, the false illusion of a snake is perceived. Similarly, due to the ignorance of Brahman, the illusory Maya is experienced as real. When a Guru provides the knowledge that the only real entity is Brahman, the Sishya is relieved of his distress and continues his life journey as a Jnani.

To get rid of (the fear of) the snake, no action (beating it with a stick, running away from it, etc.) is necessary. Just the awareness, that it is merely a rope and not a snake, is sufficient. Similarly, to get rid of (the unhappiness caused by) Maya, no specific action is needed. Just the steadfast knowledge that Brahman alone is real and that Maya is only a superimposed illusory reality is adequate for liberation.

ii. Clay-pot analogy

This is used to illustrate the role of Brahman as the cause of this universe.

For making a pot, two things are needed – the potter who is the ‘efficient’ cause and clay which is the ‘material’ cause. Even after the pot is formed, it is still substantively only clay that has now been given a new form and a name. When the pot is destroyed, it loses its name and form and becomes clay again. (Aristotle, when giving a similar analogy, listed two further causes, ‘formal’ and ‘final,’ in addition to ‘efficient’ and ‘material’).

In creating this Maya universe, Brahman serves as both the efficient cause and material cause. So, the created universe is nothing but Brahman with countless names and forms. When the universe ends after losing all its names and forms, it again becomes the original Brahman from which it was generated.

For conveying the same message regarding creation, ‘wood-furniture’ and ‘gold-jewellery’ analogies can also be applied.

iii. The tenth man analogy

This is used to demonstrate that knowledge of the self is necessary and sufficient for liberation.

Ten men attempt to cross a river by swimming. After reaching the other side, the leader of the group starts counting to make sure that all have arrived. He is able to count only nine men. He becomes very frantic and desperate presuming that one person has drowned. A passer-by, who has been observing, reassures the leader that all 10 are safe. He then reveals that the leader himself is the tenth man; the latter only then realizes that he had not been counting himself. Thus, the mere recognition that he was the tenth man was both necessary and sufficient to remove his distress.

Similarly, the struggling Sishya tries to relieve himself of worldly discontent by trying different external means (amassing wealth, forming new relationships, assuming positions of power, etc.) but without success; in despair, he seeks a Guru. The Guru reveals the knowledge that the Sishya need not search elsewhere to overcome his lack of contentment; self-realization (that his original nature Atman is none other than Brahman) alone is sufficient. By claiming this infinite nature as his real self, the Sishya is liberated. Thus, in Advaita, the process of liberation is a knowledge-based ‘discovery’ of one’s already existing true nature, by removing the ignorance caused by the illusory covering of Maya, and not an action-driven ‘invention’ of designing a new perfect version of oneself.

The use of analogies can also be quite powerful in psychiatry. For instance, employing the analogy of chronic physical disease (e.g., diabetes) can be valuable in enlightening patients with severe enduring mental illnesses (e.g., bipolar disorder):

• Both are long-term conditions with periods of stability and instability.

• Both require regular follow-up.

• Both need maintenance treatment to minimize complications.

• Despite adequate compliance and regular follow-up, unpredictable triggers (e.g., infection/life events) can precipitate emergencies (e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis/manic episode).

• Overcorrection can also cause significant problems (hypoglycaemia; antidepressant-induced mania).

CONCLUSION

Advaita philosophy, although several thousand years old, still retains its relevance and continues to guide spiritual seekers. By basically negating this material world as illusory and asserting that the true nature of each individual is identical to the one supreme infinite blissful consciousness, it is a progressive doctrine that does not distinguish based on superficial differences like religion, race, gender, caste, class, nationality, etc., As a highly intellectual pursuit with the aim of relieving suffering, Advaita shares many similarities with psychiatry, some of which I have highlighted. While Advaita deals with nondualism at the plane of a higher reality, psychiatry as a profession is still endeavoring to overcome the powerful Cartesian dualism[19] that has been dominating medical thinking for centuries, to try to establish another kind of nondualism − parity between mental and physical health. Over the last few decades, there appears to be a growing interest in applying aspects of Advaita philosophy to modern psychology and psychiatry.[20,21,22,23] At a general level, the tenet of oneness, so categorically and confidently propounded by Advaita, that Atman/Brahman is Ekam (one), Evam (the only one), Advitiyam (without a second), has the potential to offer both solace and solutions for today’s world that is grappling with problems arising from inequality, such as gender discrimination, racial prejudice, religious fundamentalism, wealth disparities, exploitation, dictatorships, and wars.

Financial support and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.