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Journal of Food Science and Technology logoLink to Journal of Food Science and Technology
. 2024 Jan 24;61(9):1621–1631. doi: 10.1007/s13197-023-05923-9

Therapeutic effect of goat milk and its value-addition: current status and way forward

Rajneesh Thakur 1,2, Prachurya Biswal 1,2, T P Sari 3, Deepak Kumar 4, Narashans Alok Sagar 5, Sonam Bhardwaj 1, Hari Om Pandey 1, Gauri A Chandratre 6, Ayon Tarafdar 1,✉
PMCID: PMC11263276  PMID: 39049908

Abstract

Goats are important livestock mainly recognized for their low rearing costs and adaptability to harsh climate making them suitable for small farmers. Goat’s milk has been tagged as highly consumed milk in many parts of the world and also carry essential substances as minerals, vitamins, enzymes, proteins, electrolytes and fatty acids which are easily metabolised by the body. The unique health benefits of goat milk make it a remedy for various disease conditions. Additionally, the low allergenicity and high digestibility of goat milk make it a popular dairy product for infants and immunocompromised individuals. This review summarizes the efforts and achievements made in analyzing goat milk’s nutritional, therapeutic, and functional properties and its current applications in the food and nutraceuticals sector. Also, the article provides insights into the diverse range of food and cosmetics applications of goat milk-derived components. Besides the long history of the use of goat milk for human nutrition, the scientific literature concerning various bioactive components and their beneficial therapeutic effects with respect to modern science are also reviewed in detail.

Keywords: Bioactive peptides, Prebiotics, Functional properties, Immunity, Value-addition

Introduction

Milk is an irreplaceable part of the human diet and has been considered a complete food. In terms of nutrition and health, milk is one of the most cost-effective sources of nutrients and provides uncountable health benefits. Goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) are the oldest domesticated animal and a potential source of high-quality milk in many regions of the world, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The current trend of naturally driven foods with excellent digestibility and therapeutic benefits resulted in an increased demand for milk and milk products from goats (Ranadheera et al. 2019). When it comes to the contribution to total milk production all over the world, goat milk ranks third after cow and buffalo milk production. Global milk production from goats was around 20.60 M mt in 2020, which accounts for approximately 2% of the total milk production (FAO 2020). In many developing countries, milk production through goat farming is vital to the economy and food sector. In regions such as the Middle East, southern Asia, and several tropical areas, dairy goat farming is one of the main sources of animal protein, calcium, and phosphorus. The top ten goat milk-producing countries are listed in Table 1 along with their contribution to the world’s goat milk production (FAO STAT 2020).

Table 1.

Global ranking for the production of goat milk

Rank Country Contribution to the world’s production Production quantity
2020		 5-year growth in number of goats
(2015–2020)
1 India 28.59 5.89 M 9.49
2 Bangladesh 12.97 2.67 M 0.45
3 Sudan 5.66 1.17 M 3.47
4 Pakistan 4.69 965.00 K 14.20
5 France 3.30 679.30 K 14.07
6 Turkey 2.69 554.14 K 15.16
7 Spain 2.54 523.90 K 9.15
8 South Sudan 2.27 467.15 K 0.68
9 Niger 1.98 407.35 K 21.67
10 Netherlands 1.98 407.00 K
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M Million, K Thousand

There has been an upsurge in the demand for goat milk production and their value-added goods in the recent years. The main reasons associated include the higher domestic consumption; the affluence of goat milk products, particularly cheese, and yogurt, in many developed nations; the prevalence of cow milk associated allergies and other gastrointestinal issues; and the potential health advantages of goat milk consumption for example, its higher oligosaccharide and nucleotide content. Medical practitioners also encourage goat milk consumption for individuals with hyperallergic reactions to cow or buffalo milk. In addition, those who are allergic or intolerant to cow milk are searching for alternatives due to increased awareness of these symptoms. The distinctive composition of goat milk makes it a potentially acceptable substitute. It is also the best source of dietary calcium, which helps avoid high blood pressure, osteoporosis, and other bone-related health issues (Kapadia et al. 2016).

Composition, nutritional and functional properties of goat milk

Goat milk is an excellent source of protein, and minerals including calcium, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, and vitamin A, also best acknowledged for its therapeutic and functional characteristics for human health and nutrition. The functional properties of goat milk as in other milch animals, are dependent on its biochemical properties which is due to the presence of different milk constituents such as proteins, lipids, fats, vitamins, and minerals. The constituents may vary according to breed, age of the animal, stage of lactation, physiological state, and composition of feed. In addition to this; the effect of genetic factors, environmental conditions, and the diversified agricultural practices followed also influence the composition, biochemical as well as the functional properties of goat milk (Verma et al. 2019). As compared to temperate regions, breeds found in Europe produce less fat, however, the lipid profile resembles invariably among goat milk of different regions (Li et al. 2022). The composition of milk from selected goat breeds is represented in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2.

Milk composition of selected goat breeds

Breeds Total milk
solids (%)		 Milk
protein, %		 Milk
fat, %		 Milk
lactose, %		 Salt (%) References
Alpine 14.10 4.53 4.65 3.97 0.09 Vulić et al. (2021)
Saanen 11.60 3.64 3.20 3.86 0.09
Boer 16.39 3.78 5.96 5.70 – Regmi et al. (2021)
Damascus 12.56 2.51 4.42 4.48 – Gocmen et al. (2022)
Anglo Nubian 13.68 3.02 5.01 4.94 – Praharani et al. (2015)
Malagueña 13.64 3.40 5.49 4.53 – Ferro et al. (2017)
Osmanabadi 12.80 3.98 4.12 4.35 0.85 Ferro et al. (2017)
Jamunapari 12.37 3.38 3.36 5.62 Verma et al. (2019)
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Table 3.

Therapeutic benefits of goat milk and derived compounds

Bioactivity Study design Applications/Salient findings References
Neuroprotective effect The potency of goat milk and cow milk in reducing indices of autism spectrum disorder in valproic acid (600 mg/kg)-induced rat pups A positive effect was found with of goat’s milk fed group as compared to cow milk-fed groups in social behavior and interaction Al-Dossari et al. (2023)
Neuroprotective effect The potential of fresh goat milk (100 ml/day) in managing indices of dementia was studied for 70 days in patients of which, 10 received Donepezil (Aricept) along with goat milk and the other 10 received Aricept only. Enhancement in mini–Mental State Examination scores along with improved memory scores was observed in dementia patients Kaura et al. (2022)
Memory-enhancing The ability of goat milk in managing D-galactose induced brain aging was studied in Sprague Dawley rats Enhanced memory performance in the study group as compared to the control group. Goat milk contributed to protection against memory decline and enhanced spatial memory performance. Safdar et al. (2020)
Anemia Recovery The potential of fermented goat milk in recovering iron deficiency was studied in Wistar rats Apart from anemia recovery, diet containing fermented goat milk also exhibited neuroprotective effect by enhancing brain molecular functions. Moreno-Fernández et al. (2019)
Anticancer activity The ability of goat milk-derived protein hydrolysates on HCT-116 human colorectal carcinoma cell line was studied Pepsin-derived hydrolysates of casein fraction caused 80.92% apoptotic cell death indicating their potential application as anti-cancinogenic agents Cakir and Tunali-Akbay (2021)
Anticancer activity The casein and whey proteins isolated from various kinds of milk (cow, goat, sheep, mare, donkey, and camel) were evaluated for anticancer activity against MCF7 cells The casein and whey protein fractions of sheep and goat milk did not exhibited any cytotoxic activity Shariatikia et al. (2017)
Anticancer activity Isolated peptides from goat milk containing high linoleic acid were analyzed for benzopyrene-induced lung cancer in rats Goat milk peptides retarded cancer cell development also repaired the damaged inter-alveolar cell Sidik (2017)
Anti-diabetic activity α -glucosidase inhibitory activity of goat milk yogurt made with probiotic cultures and fortified with roselle extract was evaluated The highest inhibition (87.72%) was achieved with 25% roselle extract with an IC 50 of 13.64% Wihansah et al. (2018)
Anti-diabetic activity Hydrolysates of αS2 casein isolated from casein fractions of goat milk were evaluated for their ability to block Insulin Receptor The hydrolysate fractions of goat milk αS2 casein bind to insulin receptors and may reduce the insulin resistance mechanism. Pertiwi and Fatchiyah (2020)
Anti-hypertensive activity LAB fermented goat milk was evaluated for angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory Highest angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory activity (60.33%) was exhibited by Lc. lactis ssp. lactis BD17 with an IC50 of 0.297 ± 0.10 mg/mL Rubak et al. (2022)
Anti-hypertensive activity Goat milk casein hydrolysates prepared with trypsin were evaluated for angiotensin II-mediated adverse effects on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) The highest inhibitory activity was observed with hydrolysateysate fraction Phe-Pro-Gln-Tyr-Leu-Gln-Tyr-Pro-Tyr (FPQYLQYPY) Qiao et al. (2022)
Antioxidant properties The effect of seasonal changes on the antioxidant activity of goat milk is evaluated Antioxidant properties of goat milk were found to be dependent on seasonal changes. The protein fractions are significantly affected by seasonal changes as compared to other fractions of goat milk. Voronina et al. (2023)
Antioxidant properties The gastrointestinal digesta of skim goat milk powder added with grape-pomace-seed extract was evaluated for antioxidant properties The addition of seed-extract powder increased the antioxidant properties in comparison to the digested heat-treated skim goat milk sample Milinčić et al. (2022)
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Goat milk is whitish in color and has a strong ‘goaty’ flavor, which is attributed to the free and short-chain fatty acids especially caproic acid, and caprylic acid present in it. The absence of agglutinin in goat milk results in lesser creaming on storage as compared to other kinds of milk. Among different components of milk proteins, goat milk lacks αs1-casein, as a result, the products such as cheese, yogurt, and dahi produce a thin gel structure in comparison with their counterparts made with cow or buffalo milk. The absence of αs1-casein and the presence of a higher concentration of calcium and phosphorous makes a difference in the casein micellar structure in terms of composition and size in comparison with that of other milk (Tafes 2020). Variability in the amino acid composition is found among cow milk and goat milk partly due to the absence of αs1-casein in goat milk. The non-protein nitrogen in goat milk is in higher proportion as compared to cow milk (Prosser 2021).

The characterization of goat milk casein and whey protein collected at various lactation stages from colostrum to end milk indicates the influence of the lactation stage on the functional properties and protein profile (Qin et al. 2021). Good thermal stability, surface hydrophobicity, and emulsifying properties have been reported in colostrum whey proteins while water-holding capacity and foaming properties have been found to be excellent for goat casein (Qin et al. 2021). A recent study by Sun and co-workers explored the mechanism of protein biosynthesis at various stages of lactation using data-independent acquisition-based proteomics (Sun et al. 2023a). The study revealed new insights into whey proteomics at various stages of lactation with an abundance of 238 proteins and their developmental changes, which could help in understanding the physiological functions of goats (Sun et al. 2023b). A similar study by the same research team analyzed the developmental changes of casein micellar structure from goat milk and identified 15 proteins during the whole lactation cycle. The presence of small-sized fat globules and protein micelles, higher proportions of short and medium-chain fatty acids in addition to lower allergen compounds in comparison with breeds of other milk, goat milk has better functional properties in terms of digestibility which is especially beneficial for infants and aged population (dos Santos et al. 2022). According to another report, goat milk oligosaccharides are more prevalent than bovine milk oligosaccharides and exhibit some structural characteristics similar to that of human milk oligosaccharides. Therefore, goat milk has the potential to exhibit unique functional qualities that may be utilized in a variety of commercial milk products including infant milk formula (van Leeuwen et al. 2020a).

Therapeutic benefits of goat milk

Proven therapeutic properties of goat milk make it a highly investigated livestock milk for treatment and prevention of various diseases. The main functional properties of goat milk are highlighted in this section.

Immunomodulatory properties

Immunomodulators are substances that have the property to modify the immune system of the body to fight against diseases. Some proteins present in goat milk such as lactoferrins and caseins not only have antimicrobial properties but also exhibit immunomodulatory effects. Use of probiotic strains of Lactobacillus rhamnosus bacteria isolated from goat milk exhibited immunomodulatory potential on the intestinal and respiratory system of Swiss-albino mice (Mathipa-Mdakane et al. 2022). According to the findings of the above research, some Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from goat milk possess better therapeutic properties as compared to others which can further be manipulated for their therapeutic use. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) encapsulated in a lipid bilayer membrane, released by all cell types present in any biological fluids are spherical nano-dimensional structures having autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and endocrine activity that operate as signaling mediators between cells (Kalluri and LeBleu 2022). Goat EVs were investigated in an in vitro model for inflammation in the gut for their easy availability, nontoxic properties, and most importantly, absence of immunogenic properties. The findings suggested a beneficial effect on intestinal mucosa with the capacity to modulate inflammation by activating the immune system (Mecocci et al. 2022).

García-Burgos and coworkers (2022) investigated the effect of fermented goat milk on iron deficiency anemia in Wistar albino rats and found that consumption of fermented goat milk can enhance the immune function that was diminished due to iron deficiency or overload. Along with this, it also showed the ability to diminish the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, modulating complement working system which is required in a living being for optimum functioning of the immune system (García‐Burgos et al. 2022). It should be noted that LAB Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus hirae isolated from goat milk were found to possess potent probiotic properties and immune stimulant effects (Rajput and Kumar 2022). A detailed study conducted by Julia et al. (2013) to determine the effect of goat milk powder on the immune response of intestinal mucosal epithelium and the total number of lactobacilli present in caecal contents of rats infected by Salmonella typhimurium showed that goat milk powder was unable to upregulate the immune system to eliminate the infection in rats to maintain the lactobacillus colony in the gut. Goat milk might not be able to replace cow milk but the immunomodulatory effects of goat milk cannot be denied as found in both in vitro and human studies. As it has a potent ability to trigger the immune system, it can be further studied for manipulation of this property for use in medicinal and nutritional supplements for better immunity both in animal and clinical models.

Prebiotic supplement

Prebiotics are substances or simply growth promotive medium for the host intestinal bacteria in a specific way to provide health benefits to the host. Human milk contains molecules with prebiotic potential such as oligosaccharides that can promote the growth of Bifidobacterium and other beneficial gut microorganisms in the infant’s gastrointestinal tract, also exhibiting anti-inflammatory and anti-infective properties that reduce the adhesion of enteric pathogens to epithelial cells and modulate the host immune responses (dos Santos et al. 2022). From the former context it can be suggested that manufacturing functional dairy products from a natural source that has oligosaccharides similar to that of human milk is of great interest and investigations by researchers showed that goat milk may be a source of prebiotic oligosaccharides that are crucial for intestinal health (van Leeuwen et al. 2020a). As there is an interaction between the functional ingredient and the elements of the food matrix, the addition of prebiotic substances may alter the qualitative attributes of dairy goods. Inulin and oligofructose are the two primary prebiotics utilized in dairy industries (Verruck et al. 2019a). The limitations of higher sugar content and low calorific value of inulin and oligofructose can be overcome by using a natural source of prebiotics obtained from goat milk. According to Meyrand et al. (2013), out of 30 oligosaccharides discovered in goat milk, four were structurally related to those found in human milk.  Further, Leong et al. (2019) suggested that significantly higher amounts of oligosaccharides were found in goat milk demonstrating potent prebiotic and disease-prevention properties.

The study conducted by Verruck et al. (2019b) on the effects of full-fat goat milk on microcapsules of probiotic bacteria, (that are metabolically stable and active in the food product) Bifidobacterium BB-12 and the characteristics of the respective spray-dried powders were studied at different temperatures (4 and 25 °C) of storage for 120 days and the best results were found at 4 °C storage of microencapsulated probiotic bacteria. Probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus derived from raw goat milk having prebiotic properties exhibited the best folate production and cholesterol assimilation properties which can further be used as prebiotic and starter culture (Tulumoğlu et al. 2022). A study by Pruksasri and Supee (2013) depicted the feasibility of producing goat milk containing GOS (galacto oligosaccharides) by treating milk with the enzyme β-galactosidase. Goat milk is believed to possess the best prebiotic properties in comparison with milk obtained from other species and may act as a natural source of oligosaccharides to promote the growth of prebiotic bacteria in human nutrition. Most importantly, goat milk as a prebiotic is able to limit the higher sugar content and low calorific value of commercial prebiotics used in human nutrition. This area should be further investigated and clinical trials are needed to evaluate the prebiotic properties of goat milk oligosaccharides, especially in products such as infant milk formulae, to understand whether the supplementation benefit the microbiota diversity of infants or not.

Anticarcinogenic properties

Milk is considered a significant source of bioactive peptides and has the potential to be utilized in the production of nutritional supplements owing to its beneficial health impacts on humans. Anticarcinogenic characteristics have been investigated against mammary, colon cancer, and in colorectal and breast cancer in animal and in vitro models (Cakir and Tunali-Akbay 2021). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a family of isomers of linoleic acid mostly found in meat and milk of ruminants, supposed to be present in the highest amount in goat milk leading to its anticancer activity. According to reports, agitation of the eicosanoid-dependent cell signaling pathway, antioxidant properties and disruption of the receptor-mediated pathway of estrogen exhibited by fermented goat milk may be the mechanism for the anticarcinogenic activity of CLA. However, the exact mechanism by which the CLA prevents cancer is not fully explored.

Unique food-derived anticarcinogenic bioactive peptides were identified from hydrolysate fractions of goat milk proteins (Cakir and Tunali-Akbay 2021). The casein fraction of goat milk that was treated with pepsin in the laboratory led to apoptotic cell death in the HCT116 human colorectal cancer cell line. The anticarcinogenic effect of goat milk-originated bioactive peptides on colorectal cancer cell lines of human origin were investigated and the results revealed that casein fraction treated with pepsin showed the highest potential to cause 80.92% apoptotic cell death in HCT116 cell lines suggesting goat milk-derived bioactive peptides as a potent source of novel anti cancerogenic agents (Cakir and Tunali-Akbay 2021). In addition to the presence of these proteins, the presence of LAB in goat milk exhibits potential anticarcinogenic activities which can be supplemented as probiotics to humans on a regular basis. Many studies were conducted on the isolation, identification, and characterization of LAB isolated from goat milk and explored in the field of cancer physiology. Results showed that these bacteria present in raw goat milk exhibit the potential to reduce carcinogenic growth and toxicity of carcinogens. Apart from the nutritional benefits, goat milk proteins are excellent sources of bioactive peptides produced by natural fermentation/ enzymatic hydrolysis which contribute to excellent bioactivities in terms of managing chronic diseases including cancer. However, the mechanism of action of the bioactive peptides and LAB derived from goat milk in preventing cancerous growth should be explored more for optimizing formulations for developing targeted delivery.

Antioxidative properties

Biologically produced free radicals can be neutralized and scavenged by natural and synthetic substances which are known as antioxidants (enzymatic i.e., glutathione peroxidase and non-enzymatic i.e. Vitamin E and Se) (Stobiecka et al. 2022). Oxidation is a necessary process for all biological reactions in living beings however, it has the potential to seriously harm the biological systems causing atherosclerosis, diabetes, accelerated aging, cardiovascular diseases, and the breakdown of essential biological molecules when there is unchecked oxidative stress created by free radicals in the body. Intake of antioxidants in the form of dietary supplements or foods high in antioxidants may prevent oxidative stress and consecutive damage to the body (Khan et al. 2019). There is great scope for the potential use of protein hydrolysates or purified peptides of goat milk in the nutraceutical industry as potential antioxidative bioactive peptides. They also exhibit an exciting opportunity for therapeutic candidature in the pharmaceutical industry for the treatment or prevention of oxidative stress and associated diseases.

The goat milk hydrolysates produced by fermentation by LAB/ enzymatic hydrolysis were investigated in vitro and in vivo for antioxidant properties indicated their role in neutralizing the oxidative molecules by scavenging free radicals, iron chelation and prevention of auto-oxidation of PUFA (Polyunsaturated fatty acids) (Gobba et al. 2014). As discussed by Gobba and co-workers (2014), the permeate hydrolysate having non-protein molecules that appeared to be more significant than peptides to impart antioxidant properties. The microfiltration of goat milk before enzymatic hydrolysis found to enhance the antioxidant properties of the resultant peptides (Gobba et al. 2014). The fermented products from goat milk such as kefir, cheese and yoghurt also exhibited antioxidant properties which is attributed to the presence of low molecular weight peptides. The kefir produced from goat milk exhibit multifunctional health enhancement effects on humans such as scavenging of free radicals and ferric ions that helps in balancing the oxidant-prooxidant balance in the body, naturally (Biadała and Adzahan 2021). The antioxidant properties of goat milk may vary among species, stage of lactation, processing treatment undergone etc., however, it exhibits splendid biological activities to be used for the production of futuristic nutraceuticals to combat oxidative stress and the aging process in humans.

Anti-inflammatory properties

The ability of goat milk and derived components in reducing inflammation or swelling of an organ and subsequently blocking pain signaling via the central nervous system to the brain has been exploited by many researchers. The presence of CLA, oligosaccharides, and EVs are majorly responsible for the anti-inflammatory activities of the goat milk derivatives (Kao et al. 2020). It has been demonstrated that CLA has anti-inflammatory properties which reduce the body’s production of pro-inflammatory cytokines linked to cancer, atherosclerosis, irritable bowel syndrome, and other diseases in the human body. Oligosaccharides due to their prebiotic qualities and ability to serve as microbe receptors, stand among the anti-inflammatory molecules of goat milk. According to a study by Spanish researchers, rats with colitis administered with goat milk oligosaccharides reported fewer serious colon lesions and healthier favorable gut microbiota, indicating that goat milk aids in reducing inflammation and encourages the healing of injured intestinal colon epithelium (Daddaoua et al. 2006). Neutrophil regulation is mediated by galectins, and activation of neutrophil reaction is used in necrosis due to colon inflammation. Galectin augmentation in the gut by gMOS may aid in immunological regulation and lessen the necrotizing impacts of inflammation. In addition to galectins, interactions between oligosaccharides and the gut’s toll-like receptors (TLRs) have already been demonstrated (van Leeuwen et al. 2020a). Relevant studies on goat whey protein oligosaccharides in reducing the inflammation of colitis induced by acetic acid (Araújo et al. 2016) and colitis induced by a 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) in rats and mouse models, respectively have been reported (Sousa et al. 2019). EVs which are generally encapsulated by signaling molecules found in goat milk, possess immunomodulation, and regeneration properties and reduce inflammation to some extent (Mecocci et al. 2022). In light of the above discussion, goat milk should be explored more both in animal and clinical models to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory response in different types of cancers, gastrointestinal diseases, and autoimmune diseases.

Anti-hypertensive properties

Milk protein-derived antihypertensive peptides are a great field of research as they could significantly reduce blood pressure (BP) in prehypertensive and hypertensive patients. Milk-derived antihypertensive peptides enriched products are also available in the commercial market (BioZate, Evolus®, Calpis, etc.,) especially, tripeptide sequences IPP (Ile-Pro-Pro) and VPP (Val-Pro-Pro) isolated from milk casein is an all-time potent angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (Samtiya et al. 2022). Goat milk components have been extensively studied for ACE inhibitory peptides by many researchers. A study by Ibrahim and co-workers compared the antihypertensive effect of gastric digesta of casein and whey proteins isolated from goat milk and compared with that of an antihypertensive drug, captopril (Ibrahim et al. 2017). Novel ACE inhibitory peptides identified were QSLVYPFTGPI (β-casein sequence 56–66), ARHPHPHLSFM (κ-casein sequence 96–106), and PEQSLACQCL (β-lactoglobulin sequence 113–122). The highest inhibitory concentration (IC) 50 values obtained for casein and whey-derived peptide were 5.46 µg/mL and 4.85 µg/mL, respectively against the synthetic drug captopril (3.56 µg/mL). The study concluded the potential of goat milk-derived peptide sequence as a functional ingredient in antihypertensive remedies.

Fermented milk is considered a source of ACE inhibitory peptides due to the presence of LAB, which cleaves long peptide chains into low molecular weight fractions having potent biological properties. One such study by Rubak and co-workers employed ten different strains of LAB isolated from fermented foods and breast milk that were used for inoculating goat skim milk, followed by fermentation and analysis for ACE inhibitory potential (Rubak et al. 2022). Out of the different LAB strains tested, Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis BD17 showed highest inhibition of 60.33 ± 4.73% with a peptide content of 4.037 ± 0.27 mg/mL. However, the strain took the longest fermentation time (48 h) to produce peptides. LAB is the dominant group of bacteria traditionally being used for producing fermented milk products such as yogurt and kefir. Kefir made from goat milk has a long history of consumption and is considered a source of multifunctional peptides including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and ACE inhibitory properties (Parmar et al. 2020). However, most of the studies employed ultrafiltered fractions for bio-functional evaluation which is highly expensive to be adapted to commercial applications, especially in the food industry. Also, to be used in food formulation, apart from regulatory aspects, in vivo and clinical trials of the novel bioactive peptide formulations are necessary for the confirmation of the declared activity and non-toxicity (Sari et al. 2022).

Anti-diabetic properties

Diabetes Mellitus is one of the chronic diseases and a leading cause of death. According to IDF (International Diabetes Federation) Diabetes Atlas 10th Edition, “3 in 4 adults with diabetes live in low- and middle-income countries and 537 million adults are living with diabetes worldwide” (IDF Atlas 10th Edition 2021). Apart from limiting the day-to-day activities of humans, high healthcare expenses are also correlated with diabetic care (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2022). This led to a research-drive on naturally driven compounds in managing hyperglycemia as a safe alternative to synthetic drugs. There is ample evidence in the reported research focusing on the ability of milk-derived peptides to regulate blood glucose levels either by inhibiting carbohydrate hydrolases (α-amylase, α-glucosidase) and DPP-IV or by acting as agonists of glucagon-like peptide 1 (Antony and Vijayan 2021). However, researches related to the anti-diabetic properties of goat milk and derived bioactive components are scanty. Recently a study by Gong and co-workers (2020) indicated the antidiabetic potential of Flavourzyme-mediated casein hydrolysates of goat milk powder in terms of high-glucose-induced insulin resistance in HepG2 cells. The novel antidiabetic peptide fractions identified by the researchers were SDIPNPIGSE, NPWDQVKR, SLSSSEESITH, and QEPVLGPVRGPFP, respectively from αS1-casein, αS2-casein, β-casein, and β-casein (Gong et al. 2020). These peptides were able to decrease the expression of PCK1 and G6PC enzymes, thereby, decreasing insulin resistance and increasing the glucose consumption rate and glycogen concentration. Supplementation of plant extract into goat milk fermented with probiotic strains leads to an enhancement in the anti-diabetic properties of yogurt. For instance, a study by Wihansah et al. (2018) analyzed the α-Glucosidase Inhibitory activity of roselle extract added yogurt to that of plain yogurt. It was found that plant extract added to yogurt exhibited much higher antidiabetic activity than plain yogurt samples. It is likely that the presence of phytochemicals, phenolic and flavonoid compounds promote the anti-diabetic activity of yogurt samples. There is evidence on the efficacy of fermented goat milk as a pretreatment for diabetes, however, clinical trials are necessary to understand how a new therapeutic agent works under physiological conditions with fewer harmful side effects than an existing treatment.

Value-added goat milk products

There are several potential value-added products that have been generated over the years using goat milk (Fig. 1). This section provides an overview of the different industrial sectors that have utilized goat milk for the generation of these products with health promoting properties.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Potential products with high functional properties derived from goat milk

Milk products

Goat milk provides a smooth texture to milk products due to its small-sized fat globules in comparison to other kinds of milk, it has relatively lower amount of αs1-casein which results in a softer gel structure with higher water holding capacity and lower viscosity (Gomes et al. 2013) which is a desirable attribute in many fermented milk products. Fat percentage play a crucial role in goat milk products as, low -fat milk had the highest appearance outcome among all the different types milks, although full fat goat milk had high percentage in flavour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. Preparation of khoa, a heat desiccated milk through goat milk resulted in imparting beneficial textural properties including a hard body and smooth texture with controlled oiling off, along with a desirable yellowish appearance in the final product. Researchers have successfully prepared other milk products commonly consumed in Indian subcontinent such as paneer, sandesh and rasgolla with goat milk.

Cosmetics

Cosmetic science has become an important parameter for human beings working not only in body beauty but also focusing on improving personal appearance, contribution and in prevention of aging (Basudkar et al. 2022). Goat milk presence in the field of cosmetics has been exploited in the areas of facial mask, shampoo, skin care products, and soaps etc. Facial mask cream prepared from goat milk kefir exhibited the ability to provide face care. The addition of goat milk in formulation of soap and shampoo either in solid or liquid state also shown better results in comparison with traditional ingredients (Cornelisse et al. 2017). The pH similarity of goat milk with that of human skin and the moisturising properties made it a key ingredient in the cosmetic industry. Further, the presence of capric and caprylic acids with the benefit of sun protection helps in formulating moisturising creams aimed at sun blocking.

Nutraceuticals

In the scenario of nutrition and physiological properties, goat milk play a crucial role in all-around development of human beings and it should be promoted especially for developing countries, where the chances of malnutrition and other related diseases are more prominent with high poverty levels. There are countless benefits of goat milk including better digestibility, low calorie, low cholesterol and presence of medium chain fatty acids which can be exploited for the production of nutraceuticals which are easy to process in body functions as compared to raw milk. Goat milk contain 250 to 300 mg/L oligosaccharide, which is 4–5 times higher than the content available in cow milk (Martinez-Ferez et al. 2005). Moreover, as discussed earlier, goat milk is an excellent source of bioactive peptides which can be used for preventing various disease conditions.

Beverages and food products

Beverages and fortified probiotic drink share a crucial role in food and beverage industry, especially the one which is added with biologically active substances with additional health benefits. Dairy beverages could be utilized for fulfilling the needs of induvial focused on their immune system, improve gut or cardiovascular health, and help in maintain the weight percentages (Sharma et al. 2020). Fermented milk beverages are a good source of potassium, and they have to maintain the function of blood pressure and cardiovascular activity. Beverages for infant with better organoleptic profile has been formulated with goat milk as it eliminates the various symptoms of infant like as gastrointestinal issues, vomiting, constipation, and respiratory disturbance. The nutritional properties of goat milk from perspective of infant nutrition are extensively reviewed by Prosser (2021). Goat milk whey, a by-product from cheese manufacturing industries was employed for the production of a functional nutraceutical beverage employing milk, and fruit juices fermented with water-kefir grains (Nastar Marcillo et al. 2022). The addition of fruit juices can mask the ‘goaty’ flavour of the goat whey apart from enhancing the antioxidant properties of the prepared beverage.

Conclusion and perspectives

This review highlighted the therapeutic benefits of goat milk in terms of its immunomodulatory, prebiotic, anticarcinogenic, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive and antidiabetic properties along with its application in various sectors. Recent advancements in goat milk derived bioactive compounds and its role in human health were also considered. The distinct biochemical characteristics and therapeutic properties of goat milk make it an alternative to other milk and have been used for centuries as a medicinal drink. It is also considered a suitable source of dairy especially for infants and the aged population owing to its nutraceutical properties including high digestibility. However, the unpleasant flavor of goat milk limits its application in many food formulations. Research focusing on improving the taste and flavor of goat milk thus seeks immediate research attention. Researchers have explored the applications of goat milk and derived components as a remedy for various diseases. However, more work needs to be conducted to investigate the commercial applications of these components, especially in the new sectors of food and pharmaceutics. Similarly, the exact mechanism of action of the bioactive components contributing to the beneficial properties needs further investigation to yield more promising results with significant applications. Even though the protein hydrolysates/bioactive peptides released by the goat milk protein fractions were extensively studied for their beneficial effects, the studies focusing on their membrane permeability to reach the intracellular targets are not fully elucidated. Clinical trials are needed to further confirm the nutritional adequacy and safety of the novel peptide fractions isolated from goat milk for food/pharmaceutical applications. Similarly, in vivo stability of the bioactive fractions has to be elucidated further. Nevertheless, more in-depth studies and clinical trials are recommended for the therapeutic potential of goat milk-derived bioactive fractions especially when claiming against chronic/neurodegenerative disorders.

Authors’ contributions

RT, PB, TPS, DK, NAS, SB: Writing – manuscript draft, collecting literature, analysis and interpretation, HOP, GAC, AT: Review and editing, Supervision, Data validation.

Funding

Not Applicable.

Data availability

All data used in this work have been specified in the article and any additional data required can be found from references duly cited in the article.

Code availability

Not Applicable.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Consent to participate

Not Applicable.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Ethics approval

Not Applicable.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note

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