Food-Derived Micronutrients as Alleviators of Age-Related Dysfunction: A Dive into Their Effects and Cellular Mechanisms

Abstract

Aging is an inevitable, multifaceted biological process characterized by the progressive decline of physiological functions, ultimately leading to increased susceptibility to chronic diseases and mortality. A combination of genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors, including dietary habits, exposure to pollutants, and ultraviolet radiation, influence this natural phenomenon. The consequences of aging manifest as various health complications, such as cardiovascular diseases, Type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, malignancies, and visible signs like dermal dryness and wrinkles. An imbalance between the body's antioxidant defenses and the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species leads to oxidative stress, which is a key part of the aging process. This imbalance induces cellular damage, apoptosis, and tissue dysfunction, accelerating age-related decline. Antioxidants, both endogenous and exogenous, play a pivotal role in mitigating oxidative stress by scavenging harmful free radicals. Micronutrients from food, such as certain vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, have gotten a lot of attention as exogenous antioxidants that may slow down or fix age-related problems. This review synthesizes findings from comprehensive literature searches on platforms such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, encompassing studies published between 2018 and mid-2024. It looks into the biochemical roles and cell mechanisms that these micronutrients use to fight oxidative stress and support healthy aging. Micronutrients that are high in antioxidants, like vitamins A, C, and E; essential trace minerals, like zinc, copper, and selenium; and phytochemicals, like flavonoids, curcumin, and resveratrol, can help restore the body's oxidative balance. But, even though they seem to have good effects, there isn't enough solid scientific evidence to support the use of these micronutrients as anti-aging agents on their own. This review talks about how eating antioxidant-rich foods every day might be a safer and more long-lasting way to help people live longer and lessen the effects of age-related problems.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

Aging is a natural, slow-progressed, death-ended process that is associated with many changes at the cell, tissue, and overall body levels. Telomerase insufficiency, oxidative stress (OS), chronic diseases, tissue damage, and tumorigenesis are examples of these changes [1]. Despite the scientific advances in the field of biomedicine, aging remains a challenging puzzle, requiring the development of theories to fully understand its mechanisms and behavior [2].

The literature has identified two main theories that explain aging, as shown in Fig. 1: the first, known as the programmed theory, asserts that aging follows an internal biological clock and biological timetable. Subdivisions of this primary theory include the programmed senescence, endocrine theory, and immunology subtheories [3]. Error theory is the second aging-explained theory, which proposed that aging may be a consequence of internal and external assaults that damage cells or organs, inducing age-related dysfunction. Error theory, being a more recent theory, has undergone subclassification into six branches: wear-and-tear, rate of living, cross-linking, free radical, somatic mutation, and activity sub-theories [4].

Fig. 1.

The main aging theories and their subdivisions

Given the error theory, the most widely accepted understanding of aging is currently the free radical (FR) subtheory, which uses a genetically modified mouse model for approval [5]. This subtheory posits that the overproduction of oxygen and nitrogen phenotype free radicals (FRs) accelerates the aging process by damaging cells and tissues [6].

In 1957, Harman significantly enhanced our understanding by proposing that the accumulation of oxygen FRs could modify numerous elements of the cellular microenvironment and alter genetic variables—a theory believed to be the root cause of all living organisms' aging and demise [7]. In 1972, the demonstration of mitochondria as the primary sites of FR-induced chemical processes led to an update of this proposal. When viewed as a progressive decline in the operational coordination of complex multivariable biological systems, an individual's genotype undoubtedly influences the rate of aging [8]. Over the past two decades, persistent research has failed to uncover any genetic indicators of aging [9].

Anti-Aging Strategies

Key options for enhancing a healthy lifespan involve adjustments to lifestyles and medicinal or genetic interventions [10]. Also, a suitable diet and reduction in consumed calories are potent players, according to many investigations [11]. According to Liu J.K., studying aging provides opportunities for the medical and healthcare fields to develop anti-aging drugs that enhance cell repair, initiate autophagy, alter gene function through epigenetic changes, and reduce calorie intake [12].

Anti-aging medicine is a relatively recent field of medicine that is rapidly advancing. This area is one way that cutting-edge medical and scientific knowledge is helping to find and treat age-related problems before they become catastrophic [13]. Rather than aiming to increase the average lifespan, one of the primary goals of this class of medications is to help people maintain their current level of health for as long as possible [14]. To strengthen health-conscious research, Rattan suggested changing the primary objective of this area of study from anti-aging medicine to health-aging-promoting medicine. It should now be clear why healthy-aging, rather than anti-aging, is the standard word among experts [15].

The mechanisms through which OS induces age-related dysfunction should be separated from the crucial role of beneficial FRs as molecules of communication since they influence and supervise critical health-maintaining longevity networks [16]. Anti-OS agents play an essential function in preventing age-related diseases, including atherosclerosis [17], neurodegenerative disorders [18], cancer [19], Type 2 diabetes [20], and facial wrinkles [21] at the cellular level. Additionally, these agents can positively influence gastrointestinal function [22] and the immune response [23] by reducing inflammation- and degenerative-provoking events within the biological system.

Food-Derived Micronutrients and Healthy Aging Relationship

Food-derived micronutrients (FDMs) can positively influence the cellular-protecting processes within the human body through various functions, including their anti-OS capacity [24]. In this regard, many studies recommend the intake of healthy food that contains a collection of vegetables, fruit fibers, green tea, nuts, whole grains, and seafood [25–27]. Key FDMs, such as specific vitamins [28], minerals [29], and phytochemicals including flavonoids [30], coumarins [31], and terpenoids [32], have received significant attention for their potential to alleviate age-related dysfunction and support healthy aging. The FR proposal on aging indicates that these natural products serve, in addition to their nutritional benefits, as effective scavengers of harmful free radicals [33].

Vitamins

The anti-aging effects of vitamins are multi-pronged, including protection against OS, promotion of skin health, improvement of cellular repair processes, and maintenance of general bodily functions [34]. Although they can help slow down the aging process, it's best to use vitamins with caution, keeping in mind that everyone has different health concerns and requirements [35]. Vitamins are important components in the quest for healthy aging, and continuing study is revealing how useful they are in increasing longevity and alleviating the age-related dysfunction. In this regard, the most investigated vitamins are A, C, and E [36].

Vitamin A

Vitamin A (Vit-A) exists naturally in two forms: retinol, which is present in animal-derived foods, including various dairy products, liver, fish, and eggs. Both animal- and plant-derived products contain the other form, known as provitamin A or carotene. The latter category includes sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach, kale, mangos, melons, and apricots [37, 38]. Vit-A, an essential nutrient, plays a significant role in skin wellness-enhancing and aging-mitigating effects. As an anti-aging agent, this vitamin comprises a range of chemicals such as retinol and other retinoids, each playing a distinct role in preserving young-looking elastic skin [39]. One over-the-counter retinoid that is well-known for its ability to improve skin texture and minimize wrinkles is retinol [40]. The most potent retinoid is retinoic acid, which has strong anti-skin-aging attributes by directly influencing the cellular processes of skin cells [41]. Retinaldehyde, an intermediary type between retinol and retinoic acid, achieves a satisfactory balance between skin tolerability and efficacy [42].

Vit-A works as an anti-aging drug in a variety of studied ways, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Initially, this vitamin may hasten the loss of cellular debris and promote the growth of new ones. The look of wrinkles and variable texture is lessened by this increased cell turnover, which results in skin that is healthier and more attractive [43]. Also, Vit-A could boost collagen production, which helps to reverse age-related changes [44]. Moreover, the vitamin's ability to diminish hyperpigmentation, particularly due to aging and sun exposure, may improve the skin tone [45]. Furthermore, the increased production of elastin under the effect of Vit-A makes the skin look fuller and more resistant to drooping [46]. Additionally, this vitamin possesses anti-OS properties, enabling it to scavenge FRs that cause damage to skin cells and accelerate the signs of aging, thereby maintaining a youthful and healthy appearance of the skin [47].

Fig. 2.

The most investigated mechanisms by which Vit-A could combat the progression of aging

By stimulating collagen formation and improving skin suppleness, within the aforementioned mechanisms, Vit-A has the potential to reduce the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles, among other anti-aging advantages [48]. By using this vitamin to reduce the appearance of pores, even out skin tone, and smooth out fine skin texture, you may achieve a more refined look [49]. In addition, Vit-A may aid in the management of acne by controlling oil production and avoiding blocked pores; untreated acne can cause scars and premature skin-aging state [50]. Maintaining the skin's elasticity and youth is crucial, and this vitamin can assist the skin's barrier function by boosting moisture retention and reducing dryness [51]. The end result of all this work to promote cellular regeneration and diminish dullness is a more even toned and glowing skin [52].

Vitamin C

Vitamin C (Vit-C), also known as ascorbic acid, is an essential water-soluble vitamin renowned for its antioxidant properties, immune support, and vital role in collagen synthesis. While there are numerous natural sources of this vitamin, three prominent ones are fruits, vegetables, and other plant products. The most important Vit-C-rich fruits are berries, citrus fruits, kiwi, papaya, pineapple, mango, guava, acerola cherries, cantaloupe, and watermelon [53–55]. Bell peppers, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes, peas, and sweet potatoes are vegetables rich in this vitamin [56–58]. The last source is the herbs, which contain a high amount of the vitamin under investigation, such as parsley and thyme [59, 60].

There are a number of ways in which Vit-C, an anti-aging drug, might accomplish this, as shown in Fig. 3. To begin, this vitamin has the potential to scavenge FRs caused by pollution, UV light, and other environmental stresses. These reactive chemicals can subject skin cells to OS, hastening the aging process. Vit-C's ability to reduce the effects of OS means it can help keep cells healthy and prevent the appearance of wrinkles and other signs of aging [61–63]. Second, the collagen-forming enzymes prolyl and lysyl hydroxylase need Vit-C as a partner to hydroxylate proline and lysine residues, respectively. A boost in collagen generation enhances skin elasticity and suppleness, thereby diminishing the appearance of wrinkles and drooping [64–66]. Third, by lowering inflammation and scavenging FRs, Vit-C strengthens the skin's defenses against damage caused by ultraviolet radiation. It helps fix hyperpigmentation and rough skin texture that the sun has already caused [67–69]. Fourth, Vit-C may lessen the development of dark patches and skin tone variations by inhibiting tyrosinase, an enzyme responsible for melanin biosynthesis. In this respect, taking this vitamin consistently may result in a more even skin tone and increased luminosity [69]. Lastly, a healthier and more even complexion could be achieved with the help of Vit-C, thanks to its anti-inflammatory characteristics, which soothe sensitive skin and lessen redness [70].

Fig. 3.

The most investigated anti-aging mechanisms of Vit-C

According to the processes described above, there are numerous anti-aging benefits of consuming Vit-C from natural sources on a daily basis. Some of these benefits include a decline in the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles; an improvement in the firmness and texture of the skin; an increase in its brightness and radiance; protection from environmental damage; and improved wound healing and skin restoration [71–73].

Vitamin E

Protecting cells from OS, promoting skin health, immunological function, and general well-being are all important roles that vitamin E (tocopherol, Vit-E), a potent antioxidant, plays. There are eight distinct forms of this vitamin, with α-tocopherol being the most prevalent and active in the biological system [74]. Many foods found in nature, such as nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, pine nuts, peanuts, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, safflower, olive, and soybean oils), leafy greens (spinach, kale, swiss chard, and broccoli), and fruits (kiwi, mango, papaya, and avocado), contain Vit-E. Other notable sources of the vitamin under study include tomatoes, Vit-E-fortified foods, whole grains, shellfish, and fish [75].

Figure 4 displays the many mechanisms by which Vit-E can exert its anti-aging action. The potential of this vitamin as an antioxidant is one of the main ways it wards against aging. The vitamin has the capacity to scavenge the FRs caused by contamination, sun exposure, and other environmental stresses. Vit-E may also delay the aging process by protecting cell membranes and halting the oxidation of lipids in skin cells. To that end, this vitamin may mitigate photoaging effects, including dark patches and rough texture, by lowering UV-induced destruction [76, 77]. The second mechanism involves the emollient properties of this vitamin, which it exploits in two phases to help the skin retain moisture and remain smooth, supple, and moisturized. It aids in the preservation of the skin's natural lipid barrier, allowing moisture to enter and signs of dry, flaky skin to exit, thereby accelerating the aging process. Vit-E also aids in preventing water transpiration, which improves the skin's suppleness and appearance by fortifying its natural barrier [78, 79].

Fig. 4.

The most studied anti-aging mechanisms of Vit-E

According to the third mechanism, Vit-E may help keep collagen fibers from degrading and causing skin weakness by reducing OS. In this function, this vitamin may preserve the skin's integrity and elasticity, thereby reducing the appearance of wrinkles and fine lines [80, 81]. Given the fourth mechanism, the antioxidant capabilities of Vit-E may aid in restoring skin damage brought on by environmental aggressors such as pollution and ultraviolet radiation. Burns, wounds, and scars may all benefit from its use in the healing process. The anti-inflammatory properties of this vitamin may also be useful in reducing the signs of inflammation on the skin, which can hasten the aging process if not treated [82, 83]. The fifth mechanism depends on the capacity of Vit-E to promote skin repair and regeneration; this vitamin may be useful in fading dark spots and achieving a more even skin tone. In addition, it might make the skin look younger and more lively by reducing the appearance of dark bags beneath the eyes [84, 85].

Numerous studies have pointed to Vit-E's potential as a topical anti-aging agent, which could mitigate both the short-term consequences of sun exposure and the long-term effects of photoaging [86]. Also, many studies have shown that this vitamin may help the skin retain more moisture, which in turn makes wrinkles less noticeable and improves the skin's texture [87]. Furthermore, the clinical research also suggests that the vitamin under investigation might hasten the skin's healing process, which makes it helpful for mending damaged skin and diminishing the look of scars—a problem that gets worse with age [88].

Essential trace minerals

In order to keep one's health and lifespan in check, essential trace elements, as illustrated in Fig. 5, are required. Zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se) are three of the most significant of these elements. Figure 6 shows that these three micronutrients shared five anti-aging mechanisms. Despite that, each of these elements has its own unique mechanism through which it can slow down the aging process.

Fig. 5.

Examples of essential trace elements

Fig. 6.

The shared antiaging mechanisms between Zn, Cu, and Se

Zinc

There are several food sources of Zn, but the most accessible and abundant are those derived from animals, including shellfish, meat, and chicken. Consuming more plant-derived Zn sources such as legumes, seeds, and whole grains may be necessary to meet daily needs for this trace mineral. However, a diet rich in a mixture of these foods can help people get enough Zn [89]. This mineral can bind to about 2,000 genetic factors and 300 enzymes, making it an essential cofactor of numerous metallo-enzymes. In addition to its critical roles in development, growth, the immunological response, skin preservation, brain functioning, and reproduction, Zn is required for many cellular metabolic processes [90]. Collectively, this mineral is involved in many activities related to catalytic, structural, and regulatory at the cellular level [91].

Around one hundred distinct enzymes rely on Zn to facilitate important chemical processes. Also, this trace element is structurally important because of the role that it plays in the formation of proteins and cell membranes. Moreover, a Zn fingerprint, a well-known structure-protein motif, is present in many receptors and gene-related molecules [92]. Research indicates that this essential mineral has an effect on the composition of cellular membranes, and a reduction in its content makes these cellular parts more susceptible to OS, which in turn affects their activities. On the other hand, Zn finger structure proteins control the transcription quantity of particular genes by recognizing specific patterns in DNA, regulating gene expression [93]. In cellular signaling, Zn influences hormone release and neurological impulse transfer, among other things. Finally, recent research has revealed that this trace element plays a role in programmed cell death, or apoptosis, an important cellular regulator that affects development and a number of age-related disorders [94].

Copper

Cu, a trace mineral vital to many biological processes, is involved in the development of hematopoietic-, neuronal-, and immunity-related cells. It is essential for the health of human skin, bones, and cardiovascular systems, besides its antioxidant characteristics [95]. There are many food sources of this trace element, including those obtained from plants and animals. The healthiest foods include legumes, nuts, seeds, shellfish, and organ meats; the moderately healthy options include whole grains, leafy greens, and some fruits. To make sure humans get enough Cu for maintaining different body functions, consuming a nutritious diet that contains a mixture of these items is necessary [96].

Cu can act as an antiaging agent through a variety of cellular mechanisms. The first mechanism relies on the fact that the enzyme superoxide dismutase requires this essential mineral for its proper function. This enzyme works by neutralizing the OS and tissue damage that FRs, especially superoxide radicals, cause. Accordingly, Cu could help diminish the appearance of fine lines, sagging skin, and wrinkles by lowering levels of OS, which in turn protects cells from the injury that such damaging reactive moieties cause [97]. Furthermore, OS speeds up aging by destroying vital skin and tissue proteins like collagen and elastin. Consequently, Cu as a cofactor could shield cells from this harm by bolstering the enzyme's activity [98].

In the second mechanism, Cu is thought to work by starting up the enzyme lysyl oxidase, which helps connect the filaments of elastin and collagen. This connection preserves the skin's and connective tissues' structural integrity by strengthening the extracellular matrix. Consequently, Cu may help keep skin looking young and tight by nourishing this matrix, which in turn reduces sagging and wrinkle production [99]. Thirdly, Cu could activate fibroblasts, which are cells that make collagen and other skin matrix-forming components. This, in turn, enhances the skin's ability to self-heal from damages caused by factors such as sun exposure, pollution, and general wear and tear [100]. Additionally, this essential element may facilitate epithelialization, which is the formation of new skin cells to cover a wound. In this regard, active angiogenesis leads to faster skin regeneration, resulting in a more even skin tone, less skin damage, and fewer scars. As an activator of this process, Cu could increase the transport of oxygen and nutrients to injured areas, thereby hastening the healing of wounds and boosting the skin's integrity [101].

Persistent inflammation, a major contributor to aging, leads to the breakdown of the skin's collagen and elastin components, which brings us to our fourth mechanism. The anti-inflammatory properties of Cu may make it useful for maintaining the skin's structure and look. By decreasing inflammation and increasing healing, peptides linked to this essential element have proven helpful for skin disorders such as rosacea, acne, and eczema [102]. The fifth mechanism is dependent on copper peptides' ability to stimulate skin remodeling. In this way, they may hasten the decomposition of damaged proteins and promote the creation of healthy ones, thus assisting in the reduction of the visibility of scars, fine lines, and wrinkles. In addition to preventing moisture loss and shielding the skin from environmental aggressors that hasten aging, this class of peptides may also improve the skin's protective barrier [103].

According to the sixth mechanism, Cu has the potential to speed up the skin's recovery from UV damage. It achieves this by reducing cellular damage from UV-induced OS and helping DNA repair. This trace element also has a role in repairing DNA damage, especially oxidative DNA damage, which builds up with time and makes skin look older. As a result, the element under study could help keep cells healthy and functional by promoting DNA repair, which in turn slows down the aging process [104]. In accordance with the seventh mechanism, the melanin-forming enzyme tyrosinase requires Cu as a cofactor. So, proper supplementation of this essential mineral could help keep pigmentation in check, which in turn delays the onset of gray hair and evens out skin tone. Given this mechanism, the mineral under study not only could prevent age spots and uneven skin tone but also shield skin from UV-induced hyperpigmentation by promoting melanin formation [105].

The enzyme cytochrome c oxidase, which is essential in the creation of energy within cells through a chain of transferring electrons, cannot function properly without Cu. This fact serves as the foundation for understanding the eighth mechanism. Given the importance of mitochondrial activity in cellular energy production, this essential mineral may have a role in prolonging longevity by boosting effective energy metabolism, which in turn supports the energy demands of skin cells and ensures their appropriate functioning. Therefore, the element under study may help slow down the aging process and protect cells from damage [106].

Sugar molecules attach to proteins like collagen and elastin, a process known as glycation, to form advanced glycation end products. These rigid and ineffective end products contribute to the drooping of the skin and the development of wrinkles. According to the ninth mechanism, Cu may help keep the skin elastic and resilient by protecting proteins from uncontrolled glycation [107]. The final mechanism involves the capacity of copper peptides to stimulate hair follicles and reduce inflammation. This, in turn, increases blood flow to the scalp, promotes the development of hair, and helps fight against weakening and hair loss, which are common signs of aging [108].

Selenium

The trace mineral Se is vital for several body processes, including antioxidant protection, thyroid health, and immunity reinforcement, among others. Many animal- and plant-derived foods contain this mineral, but Brazilian nuts are the richest source, providing the body with an extra dose to meet daily needs [109]. Other sources include seafood (tuna, sardines, salmon, shrimp, halibut, crab, and lobster), organ meats (beef liver and lamb kidney), poultry (chicken and turkey), eggs, dairy products (milk and yogurt), whole grains (brown rice and barley), legumes (lentils, chickpeas, and kidney beans), vegetables (spinach and broccoli), sunflower seeds, and button mushrooms [110].

Because of its functions in antioxidant protection, cellular preservation, immunological support, and restoration of DNA, Se is an effective anti-aging mineral. An important component for staying healthy and looking young as humans get older, it helps decrease OS, preserves collagen, promotes skin renewal, and shields various tissues from age-related illnesses like cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's [111]. Incorporating Se-rich foods into the human diet on a regular basis can have a positive impact on the health of the skin, hair, and internal systems, correcting the age-related dysfunction [112]. In this regard, many antiaging mechanisms have been proposed to achieve the correction.

A vital antioxidant enzyme that shields cells from OS, glutathione peroxidase, requires Se as a cofactor. This fact determines the first mechanism. This essential mineral carries the potential to combat the damage FR causes to cells and tissues. Therefore, the element under study could contribute to the preservation of the skin's structural components in general and collagen in particular, thereby preventing signs of early aging, discoloration, and dullness [113]. Damage to DNA, which causes cells to become less competent in replicating and preserving their own health, is a major factor in the second proposed mechanism. On a cellular level, Se may slow down aging by repairing damaged DNA. Thus, this trace element may assist in lowering the buildup of genetic mutations that cause skin defects and age-related dysfunction [114].

In order to stave off infections, undesirable inflammation, and age-related illnesses, a robust immune system is essential. According to the third mechanism, Se may strengthen this system by increasing cytokine synthesis and activating white blood cells. Therefore, it stands to reason that a robust immunity may aid in warding off diseases that hasten the aging process and cause harm to many tissues, particularly the skin [115]. Hormones secreted by the thyroid gland regulate metabolism, which in turn impacts the pace of aging. The conversion of T4 hormone (inactive form) into T3 hormone (active form) affects an individual's metabolism, energy levels, and general vitality, and the fourth mechanism suggests that Se may play a role. The metabolic efficiency that comes with a functioning thyroid may aid in weight maintenance and general energy levels, mitigating the lethargy and exhaustion that are common side effects of getting older [116].

The element under study, according to the fifth mechanism, may help prevent dandruff and hair thinning, two symptoms of aging. This trace mineral may promote healthy scalp and blood flow, which in turn may encourage hair growth. Another possible benefit of the Se is its ability to fortify nails, protecting them from the inevitable brittleness and discoloration that comes with aging [117]. Optimizing insulin sensitivity while preserving normal blood sugar levels is crucial for combating aging, and this is where the final mechanism of Se comes into play. In doing so, this trace element may help lower the probability of acquiring type 2 diabetes, a disease commonly linked to aging. In the same regard, better management of the normoglycemic state may thus aid in the avoidance of undesirable glycation of important proteins like collagen and elastin [118].

Plant-derived secondary metabolites

Some secondary metabolites (PMs) found in plants, like polyphenols, sterols, and triterpenes (shown in Fig. 7), may help slow down the aging process because they are mainly antioxidants [119]. When these PMs with this potential are applied to the skin or taken orally, they may prevent the excessive production of FRs and, consequently, a variety of age-related dysfunctions [120]. In order to slow down aging, phytochemicals like stilbenes, anthocyanins, flavonoids, coumarins, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, and rosmarinic acid are important [121]. This is because phenolic OH-groups found in their structures can counteract the effects of harmful FRs [122]. For example, transdermal administration reports that the latter chemical can stop elastases and collagenases from working and can also get rid of harmful FRs [123]. Also, the blueberry-derived anthocyanins could provide beneficial protection against the aging process of epithelial cells [124]. Moreover, quercetin may assist in managing memory deficits and spatial comprehension in elderly mice. As a result, consuming foods high in antioxidant-functioning PMs can enhance cognitive performance while avoiding unhealthy aging [125]. Finally, increasing phytosterol intake may be a significant strategy to lower cholesterol and avoid cardiovascular disease, carcinogenesis, wrinkles, and other age-related dysfunctions [126]. Despite the abundance of research on PMs with antiaging properties in the literature, this work focuses on three phytochemicals: curcumin, resveratrol, and quercetin. This focus stems from their extensive investigation and their shared antiaging mechanisms, as depicted in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7.

The main classes of PMs with their antiaging properties

Fig. 8.

The most investigated PMs with their shared antiaging mechanisms

Curcumin

Curcuma longa, the scientific name for turmeric, is a distinctive yellow spice that finds widespread use in cooking, especially in South Asian and Arabic cuisines. It contains curcumin (CUR), a naturally occurring polyphenolic phytochemical. Turmeric gets its bright yellow hue and many health advantages from its active component, CUR. There are a few additional natural sources of CUR, but they contain far lower concentrations than turmeric, which is the principal and most abundant source. These are ginger (Zingiber officinale), Javanese turmeric (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), and wild turmeric (Curcuma aromatica) [127]. This PM has gained significant interest because of its antiaging potential that is mediated through several mechanisms.

The first mechanism depends on the capacity of CUR to scavenge harmful FRs, and it consequently could preserve skin cells, organs, and tissues from OS, postponing the onset of wrinkles, fine lines, and skin elasticity deterioration [128]. Secondly, a major factor in aging and the onset of age-related dysfunctions is chronic inflammation. Curcumin could inhibit pro-inflammatory pathways by blocking nuclear factor-kappa B, an inflammation-mediated molecule. So, the anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin make it useful in the fight against or mitigation of age-related disorders, including arthritis, heart disease, cognitive decline, and diabetes [129].

The third mechanism postulated that CUR could trigger proteins that regulate metabolism and increase cell lifetime. These proteins belong to a class of histone deacetylases known as sirtuins, which exhibit increased activity, particularly SIRT1, in the presence of this phytochemical. Because of its role in cellular structure maintenance and restoration, CUR has the potential to delay the start of cellular aging and increase life expectancy [130]. CUR may shield skin cells from harmful UV radiation and environmental contaminants and also increase the production of collagen, according to the fourth mechanism. This phytochemical may lessen the look of wrinkles and sagging skin by performing this function, which involves keeping the skin hydrated, smooth, and flexible [131].

Because of its ability to pass the blood–brain barrier, CUR has neuroprotective effects, such as lowering the accumulation of amyloid plaques—a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease—and fighting neuroinflammation. According to the fifth mechanism, This phytochemical may delay cognitive loss and reduce the likelihood of age-related neurodegenerative illnesses like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's by shielding neurons from OS and inflammation [132]. The breakdown of mitochondria, the cellular engine, is a characteristic of age-related dysfunction. Research has demonstrated that CUR can improve mitochondrial function by boosting cellular energy production and enhancing antioxidant responses. Here, the sixth mechanism postulates that the phytochemical under study may aid energy maintenance, cellular damage reduction, and overall viability and metabolic performance with age by enhancing mitochondrial health [133].

CUR may strengthen endothelial cells, which line blood vessels. Based on this fact, the seventh mechanism proposes that the function of endothelium cells naturally declines with age, thereby increasing the risk of heart diseases. Similarly, researchers hypothesized that the ability of this phytochemical to inhibit platelet aggregation may aid in the prevention of blood clots and cholesterol levels. Therefore, CUR may help lower the probability of atherosclerosis and hypertension, two cardiovascular dysfunctions associated with aging [134].

Telomeres, the protective caps at the ends of DNA strands, shorten with age as cells divide. According to the eighth mechanism, CUR may slow the aging process by lowering inflammation and OS, two factors that shorten telomeres. In this capacity, the phytochemical under investigation has the ability to delay the physiological aging process by reducing the shrinkage of telomeres, which in turn may increase the lifetime of cells [135]. The last mechanism is based on autophagy, the body's normal action of removing unhealthy cells and replacing them with healthier versions. Researchers have discovered that CUR could speed up the action of autophagy, which helps cells eliminate damaged proteins and other components. Maintaining organ and tissue health is an important part of keeping cells healthy and delaying aging. The phytochemical under investigation may contribute to this process by acting as an autophagy-stimulating agent [136].

Resveratrol

Certain plant-derived products, such as grapes, peanuts, pistachios, berries, and Japanese Knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum), contain the natural polyphenolic compound resveratrol (RVL) [137]. This phytochemical has gained attention for its potential activities against many medically relevant conditions, including cancer [138], Parkinson’s disease [139], and OS-mediated disorders [140]. Furthermore, recent research studies have documented the antiaging characteristic of the chemical under study, as its effects mimic those of a healthy fasting and caloric restriction regime [141]. Researchers have postulated various cellular mechanisms to account for this trait. In all of them except the fifth, eighth, and last ones, RVL partnered with CUR. On the other hand, there's evidence that the former phytochemical can enhance insulin sensitivity, which in turn aids in the body's regulation of blood sugar levels. In addition to lowering the likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes, a prevalent illness associated with aging, improved insulin sensitivity may bolster metabolic well-being and assist in maintaining a healthy weight [142].

Quercetin

The natural flavonoid antioxidant quercetin (QCT) has a long list of health advantages and biological traits with a potential capacity to slow down the aging process. It is abundant in many plant-based sources, such as fruits (apples, blueberries, blackberries, cranberries, citrus fruits, grapes, and cherries), vegetables (onions, kale, broccoli, spinach, and bell peppers), herbs (capers, dill, cilantro, and chili peppers), beverages (green tea, black tea, and elderberry tea), buckwheat, and honey [143, 144]. As an antiaging prospect, QCT can perform this function through mechanisms similar to those of CUR [145].

Conclusion

Aging is an intricate biological process influenced by OS, lifestyle factors, and dietary choices, underscoring the critical role of nutrition in promoting healthy aging. This review talks about how micronutrients from food, like vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, might help fight age-related problems by protecting cells and acting as antioxidants. Among these, vitamins A, C, and E; essential minerals like Zn, Cu, and Se; and phytochemicals such as CUR, RVL, and QCT have shown promise in alleviating OS and supporting vital physiological functions. However, new research shows that taking supplements without thinking may be harmful, especially those with lipid-soluble vitamins. This makes it even more important to get these nutrients from a diet full of whole, nutrient-dense foods. The cornerstone of healthy aging lies in the adoption of a balanced diet rich in fresh fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, seafood, and other natural sources of antioxidants. These dietary choices not only provide the body with essential micronutrients but also support overall health, reduce the risk of chronic diseases, and promote longevity. The results shown here are encouraging, but more thorough and focused research is needed to fully understand how these micronutrients work in cells, how they affect each other, and how they affect long-term outcomes related to aging. Future investigations should prioritize the development of personalized nutrition strategies tailored to individual genetic and lifestyle factors. Additionally, looking into new mixes of micronutrients found in food that may improve mitochondrial health, boost autophagy, and lower inflammation could lead to new ways to achieve healthy aging. Ultimately, fostering a culture of preventive healthcare that emphasizes whole-food nutrition over supplementation will be instrumental in addressing the challenges of an aging global population. By integrating scientific insights with practical dietary recommendations, this review advocates for a paradigm shift toward holistic, food-based approaches as the foundation of healthy aging. This perspective not only aligns with evidence-based practices but also holds the potential to empower individuals to control their health, ensuring a longer and higher quality of life.

Future recommendation

The continued investigation into the cellular mechanisms by which vitamins, minerals, and PMs promote health and lifespan bodes well for their potential use in the future as anti-aging agents. With the growing body of knowledge about the aging process, the authors of this work can now offer some important recommendations for anti-aging strategies that use the reviewed micronutrients. The field of nutrigenomics is opening the door to personalized supplement regimens that take into account each person's unique genetic composition and manner of life. With individualized dietary supplements, humans can tackle specific aging disorders with vitamins, minerals, and PMs. Also, micronutrients that prevent cellular senescence or activate proteins linked to longevity, such as sirtuins, will probably be the focus of future studies. It is going to be crucial to have natural products that can increase autophagy, promote mitochondrial health, and decrease OS. Moreover, a significant area of interest in antiaging research will be senolytics, which aid in the clearance of dead cells, and senomorphics, which inhibit the senescence of cells. There is hope that PMs like QCT can play a more significant part in supplements that promote longevity due to their senolytic properties.

Mitochondrial health is critical to aging, as cellular energy production declines with age. Future antiaging agents may focus on supporting mitochondrial function and biogenesis, which will help maintain energy levels and reduce age-related fatigue. On the other hand, skin aging is not only a visible sign of age but also a marker of overall health. Therefore, the authors recommend concentrating on topical and ingestible antioxidants that promote skin elasticity, collagen production, and UV damage repair. The authors also recommend micronutrients that support neuroprotection and reduce oxidative stress in the brain, as cognitive health is a crucial aspect of healthy aging. Moreover, the authors prioritize PMs that cross the blood–brain barrier and support neuron health. Furthermore, as immune function naturally declines with age, micronutrients that support immune health and reduce chronic inflammation may be essential for healthy aging. In addition, future anti-aging formulations may likely combine immune-supportive vitamins, antioxidant minerals, and anti-inflammatory PMs. Finally, gut health is emerging as a significant factor in aging, impacting everything from immunity to mood. So, future anti-aging approaches may include prebiotics and PMs that promote a balanced microbiome.