Qualitative analysis of how U.S. college students construct their alcohol-related content identities via social media

Abstract

Background

This qualitative study investigates how college students construct their alcohol-related content (ARC) identities on social media platforms. Through the lens of social norms theory, symbolic interactionism, and public commitment paradigms, we examined how students portray themselves through ARC posts.

Methods

In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 college students (M_age= 21.2, SD = 1.67) who reported engaging in drinking and ARC posting to elucidate what types of ARC-related identities students employed on social media by going through participants’ social media posts. Thematic analysis was used to categorize ARC identity themes and subthemes.

Results

Results revealed two central themes where alcohol was either featured as focal point or as an accessory within students’ ARC identities. Under the central theme of alcohol as a focal point, subthemes of partier, humorist, and master drinker ARC identities were uncovered. Under the central theme of alcohol as an accessory, the subthemes of social/outgoing, sophisticated, and material status ARC identities were identified. Some students within the partier, humorist, social/outgoing, and sophisticated subthemes engaged in secrecy/implicit signaling to shield their drinking from others outside their in-groups.

Conclusions

Uncovering specific types of ARC identities could be helpful to identify harmful drinking patterns in college students. Future research could explore how the frequency in which students display their identities using alcohol as either a focal point or alcohol as an accessory might differentially predict varying levels of drinking and alcohol-related problems among college students. This type of research could help target which college students are more at-risk and inform intervention strategies for college students whose ARC identities are more intertwined with alcohol misuse and alcohol-related problems.

Qualitative analysis of how college students’ construct their alcohol-related content identities via social media

The intersection of social media and alcohol consumption among college students has emerged as a critical area of inquiry. As social media platforms become increasingly integral to communication among young adults, understanding how these virtual spaces influence real-world behaviors in relation to health and well-being is paramount [1, 2]. This paper delves into the complex dynamics of how students convey their identities via posting alcohol-related content (ARC) to social media across different platforms. We utilize the theoretical frameworks of symbolic interactionism, public commitment, and social norms theory, to explain how college students’ individual identities are constructed and reinforced via interactions with ARC, which may contribute to students’ problematic drinking [3, 4]. With 98% of young adults engaging with at least one form of social media [5], and nearly half of college students reporting recent alcohol consumption in the past month (49%), the urgency for this investigation is clear [6–8].

Drinking as a problem among college students

The transition into college is fraught with challenges, and for many students navigating the complex landscape of social interactions and academic pressures involves the consumption of alcohol [9]. While drinking is often viewed as an essential aspect of the college experience, the consequences associated with excessive alcohol use are far-reaching and problematic [1, 7, 10, 11]. Nearly a third of full-time college students aged 18 to 22 reported participating in binge drinking, which is defined as consuming five or more drinks for males and consuming four or more drinks for females within a two-hour period [8, 12]. The repercussions of such heavy drinking manifests in academic difficulties, health problems, unsafe sexual behaviors, and increased risk of addiction [10, 11, 13, 14]. Additionally, alcohol-related accidents remain a leading cause of death among college students [7].

ARC-related identity formation

In the digital age, students may begin to display their alcohol consumption to their peers via ARC across various social media platforms. Over time, students who post ARC frequently may begin to construct ARC-related identities. Identity development typically begins in adolescence and continues into early adulthood (18–25 years old) [15, 16]. During this formative period, individuals shape their sense of self through how they view themselves, the roles they take on, and the beliefs they internalize [17]. Social interactions also play a critical role in shaping identity, as the relationships and experiences adolescents and young adults engage in or are exposed to can significantly influence their self-perception [18]. Additionally, forming an identity that is positively perceived by others represents another important aspect of identity development [19].

Symbolic interactionism and ARC

Developed by Herbert Blumer [20] in the field of sociology, symbolic interactionism suggests that one’s identity is shaped through the process of assigning meaning to symbols and social interactions. This theory has been utilized to identify people’s social status as well as the identities they form in response to interactions with others [21].

Aksan et al. [22] further utilized this framework by looking at the social events in which symbols gain meaning. Individuals form meanings and construct identities through social exchanges, particularly in how symbols are shared and interpreted. For example, symbols of alcohol displayed in ARC can influence students’ perceptions and attitudes towards drinking. That is, college students who see their peers post ARC and receive positive feedback for such content, may lead these students to begin internalizing both that alcohol consumption and posting about alcohol are socially desirable or even celebrated behaviors. As a result, sharing ARC becomes more than a reflection of personal habits—it becomes a way to express identity and conform to peer group norms [23]. This interactive process—students posting ARC and receiving likes and comments—enhances the collective meaning of drinking, contributing to the formation of ARC identities.

Public commitment

According to literature on public commitment [24], “people have a strong desire to appear rational and consistent to others.” This psychological theory was proposed by Hollenbeck et al. [24] to explore the motivations behind people’s desire to maintain consistency of self, especially if they have displayed certain attitudes or behaviors in front of others. Previous literature has used the concept of public commitment to foster desirable behaviors (e.g., encourage recycling [25], weight loss [26], energy conservation [27]). However, it could also be utilized to explain why students begin to construct their self-identities surrounding ARC. For example, if students begin posting ARC, they may feel internal pressure to consistently present that image to their peers on social media. Indeed, previous literature has found that sharing ARC posts on social media at time 1 was predictive of sharing ARC posts at time 2 [28]. However, this is concerning because other studies have indicated that posting of ARC is positively associated with alcohol use [e.g., 29-34]. Over time, as students continue to post ARC, it becomes increasingly difficult for them to separate themselves from these personas because that would entail distancing themselves from like-minded peers.

Social norms theory

The reason why college students present themselves on social media, particularly regarding ARC, can be further explained by social norms theory, which posits individuals are influenced by their perceptions of peers’ behaviors and attitudes [35]. Borsari and Carey [36] applied this framework to elucidate how peers influence college student drinking. They proposed that students can indirectly influence others by modeling drinking as a desirable and socially acceptable behavior. Previous literature [37] has demonstrated that young people perceive that both their peers and influencers portray drinking as a desirable behavior. Thus, according to this theory, following being exposed to a steady stream of ARC shared by peers and influencers that normalize drinking, students may feel compelled to post their own ARC to meet the prevailing norms within their social networks. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that being exposed to others’ ARC is linked to heavy alcohol use [38, 39]. This is concerning given that exposure to ARC may lead students to overestimate others’ alcohol use and perceived approval of heavy drinking which, in turn, may not only influence the individual’s alcohol consumption but also amplify alcohol use within their social network.

ARC is often presented in a positive, glamorous light, with students highlighting social gatherings, parties, and lifestyles where alcohol plays a central role [37, 40–42]. These portrayals typically focus on the fun and social aspects of drinking, while downplaying or omitting any negative consequences [43]. As a result, research has shown that individuals who post and engage with ARC more frequently tend to report higher levels of alcohol consumption [44]. Students are more likely to engage in this behavior if posting ARC is seen as normal or even desirable within their social circles. Whether the audience is made up of close friends, potential romantic interests, or a larger collegiate community, students often tailor their ARC to align with content that can elevate their social status and connection within a given peer group.

Current study overview

Taken together, identity formation is a dynamic process through which individuals develop a sense of self shaped by evolving beliefs, values, interpersonal connections, and desire for social approval. Previous research [39] has indicated that that ARC may foster both individual and group-level drinking identities. Furthermore, drinking identity has been linked to alcohol use and alcohol-related problems, indicating that individuals who closely align their identity with alcohol engage in more alcohol-related behaviors and may self-present themselves to others, both in online and offline contexts, in ways that align with ways to maintain this identity [45–49]. However, there remains a gap in understanding the specific types of identities that are created and sustained through the posting of various forms of ARC. Thus, our study aimed to address the following research questions:

Q1

How do college students who drink heavily convey their identities by posting ARC to social media platforms?

Q2

What specific identities do students develop through posting ARC?

Q3

What theoretical insights do symbolic interactionism, public commitment, and social norms provide?

We recruited 20 college students in total that met study criteria (see Methods section) to participate in in-depth qualitative interviews to discuss how they and their peers developed ARC identities via social media. The findings elucidate the distinct, socially influenced identities that students construct around ARC to fit in with group norms. This research is important in that it could inform future interventions by helping at-risk college students understand how the ARC identities they have created might contribute to their problematic drinking.

Methods

Participants

A total of twenty participants were recruited for this study (M_age= 21.2, SD = 1.67). Fifteen participants self-identified as female (75%) and five participants (25%) self-identified as male. The self-reported racial composition of the sample was: White/Caucasian (60%), Asian (25%), Black/African America (5%), and Multi-racial (10%). The self-reported ethnic composition was: 60% non-Hispanic and 40% Hispanic/Latino.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Respondents completed a 7-minute screening questionnaire administered through Qualtrics, an online survey platform. The screening assessed inclusion and exclusion criteria to determine eligibility for participation in the study as well as other related questions such as how much they viewed others’ ARC posts. Inclusion criteria included being a college student, being between 18 and 26 years of age, having at least one episode of heavy drinking (i.e., 5 + drinks for women, 6 + drinks for men) in the past month prior to being interviewed, and having posted frequent (3 + posts over the last three months) ARC to their social media to Facebook, Twitter/X, Instagram or Snapchat.

During the screen, participants were asked to rate how frequently they viewed and posted ARC content on Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter/X using a Likert scale from 1 to 10, where 1 indicated “not at all” and 10 indicated “more than three times a week.” Results showed that 20 participants viewed ARC on Facebook an average of two to three times a month (M = 4.7, SD = 2.23), on Instagram between three times a month and once a week (M = 5.85, SD = 1.81), on Snapchat once to twice a week (M = 6.90, SD = 1.45), and on Twitter/X approximately three times a month (M = 5.29, SD = 1.72). Regarding participants’ self-reported posting ARC, 20% (n = 4) of participants reported posting on Facebook about twice a month (M = 4.25, SD = 2.12), 80% (n = 16) reported posting on Instagram about once a month (M = 3.31, SD = 1.82), 95% (n = 19) reported posting on Snapchat between three to four times a month (M = 5.72, SD = 1.36), and 35% (n = 7) reported posting on Twitter/X between two to three times a month (M = 4.71, SD = 2.43). During the in-depth interviews (as opposed to the screening questions), 5% (n = 1) of participants discussed ARC they and/or others posted to Facebook, 80% (n = 16) Instagram, 90% (n = 18) Snapchat, and 25% (n = 5) Twitter/X, with some participants discussing posting ARC to more than one platform (e.g., Instagram and Snapchat).

Researchers elected to explore these platforms based on a previous questionnaire in which students indicated those were the platforms they posted the most ARC to. Traditionally, college students are between the ages of 18–24 years old [50]. However, in recent years, undergraduate student enrollment has increased the most for 25 + years old [51]. Thus, in order to be inclusive, we included students between the ages of 18–26 years old. The institutional review board overseeing the study required that one of the exclusion criteria was self-reported pregnancy, given that pregnant individuals are considered a vulnerable population.

Procedure

Participants were recruited for this study using a research portal (i.e. Sona Systems) and from campus emails to students from a large, Southern, public university in the U.S. Additionally, we asked students who were enrolled in our study to put us in contact with friends that might be interested in participating (i.e. snowball recruitment methods). Friends of participants who were interested in taking part in the study either contacted the lab’s email address and were sent a screen to see if they qualified, or if requested, the lab directly emailed them the screen. Qualified participants were invited to come into the lab on-campus to take part in in-depth interviews. Participants provided their informed consent prior to being included in the study.

The purpose of the interviews was to help researchers understand the motives behind why college students post ARC. Some of the interview questions asked: “Why did you chose to post this content to this particular social media platform? What sort of validation do you get from this type of content? What was the context of the alcohol-related post? Are there aspects of personality that people are trying to convey when they post about alcohol-related content to social media? And why do you think people post alcohol-related content?” Although researchers had pre-determined questions for interviewees, they followed a semi-structured interview format such that the natural flow of conversation guided the crux of the interviews.

Participants were initially asked to go through their ARC posts with a research team member and display their posts over the previous 6-month period. However, during the interview process, it was revealed that no further new information was reached (e.g., saturation of information occurred) from going through participants’ posts for such a long duration. Researchers gathered participants’ opinions about an appropriate time frame to examine ARC posts. The research team then elected to study participants’ posts over a 3-month period to minimize participant burden. Interviews lasted on average more than an hour and half and were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Participants were compensated with a $40 Amazon gift card code, and if requested, they also received course credit.

Analysis

Interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis [52]. First, a research team member familiarized themselves with the transcripts for all 20 participants. While reading, a researcher made note of emerging categories, color coding the transcript to keep track of these tentative categories. Two other members of the research team familiarized themselves with the interview transcripts and independently coded the transcripts according to initial researcher’s categories while extracting supporting quotes. Agreement for supporting quotes for each category were then recorded, and the entire research team met to discuss disagreements and come to a consensus.

At this stage, due to a lack of supporting quotes for some of the initial categories, categories were revised. The transcripts were then re-coded by one member of the research team and quotes were sorted into these categories. The rest of the research team was presented with these quotes, blind to the categories that the previous aforementioned researcher had assigned and rated (on a scale of 1–7) how strongly each quote supported a given category. Only those categories that had at least 3 supporting quotes were retained. In total, the research team extracted 6 themes which exemplified the ways in which students presented their ARC identities: partier, humorist, master drinker, social/outgoing, sophisticated, and material status. These 6 themes were then categorized under two central themes (3 subthemes per central theme) of alcohol as a focal point and alcohol and alcohol as an accessory. Students with social/outgoing, partier, material status, sophisticated, and humorist ARC identities were found to also engage in secrecy/implicit signaling (e.g., an overarching category present in subthemes related to both central themes) as a way to shield those outside of their in-groups from seeing their ARC.

Results

ARC identities

This study sought to answer the following questions:

Q1

How do college students who drink heavily convey their identities by posting ARC to social media platforms?

Q2

What specific identities do students develop through posting ARC?

Q3

What theoretical insights do symbolic interactionism, public commitment, and social norms provide?

Our data and analysis explain that college students who drink heavily primarily convey their ARC identities through using alcohol as a focal point or alcohol as an accessory within their social media posts (Q1, e.g., the central themes). We also elucidate what specific identities these students portray via posts which use alcohol as a focal point or as an accessory (Q2, e.g., the subthemes embedded underneath each central theme). At the end of the results, we will discuss how the theoretical frameworks enhance our comprehension of the findings (Q3).

Central theme 1: alcohol as the focal point

After analyzing college students’ ARC social media posts, two central themes emerged. We will first discuss the central theme of alcohol as the focal point and related subthemes and subsequently elaborate on the second central theme of alcohol as an accessory and related subthemes later in the paper (see Fig. 1). In the central theme of alcohol as a focal point, alcohol was featured prominently as part of students’ ARC identities such that drinking defined students’ presence on social media. In particular, students appeared to be conveying to others they engaged in heavy drinking. Subthemes included partier, humorist, and master drinker. The overarching theme of secrecy/implicit signaling was also encompassed under subthemes related to both central themes.

Fig. 1.

Graphical representation of the Construction of Alcohol-Related Content Identities Model

Secrecy/Implicit signaling

Students who conveyed their ARC identities through secrecy/ implicit signaling were often covert in their posting. For instance, students often posted these secret ARC posts via direct messages to select individuals or private groups on Snapchat or via private social media accounts such as Finsta (a secondary Instagram account with select followers [53]). One student stated, “On Finsta, it’s like your private like whatever pictures that you don’t want everyone to know about and can comment on what’s going on in your life so it’s like a photo journal,” (Male, 20, Instagram Finsta). Using direct messages, private groups, or private social media accounts allowed students to post ARC without having to worry about other people’s negative judgement about their drinking behaviors.

Additionally, since some students noted that sororities enforced strict rules against members posting about alcohol consumption on social media—despite drinking remaining a central aspect of sorority life — members found ways to subtly signal their drinking through implicit cues recognizable only to fellow insiders (e.g., using a Yeti tumbler or relying on contextual cues). In cultivating their ARC identities in this way, they were able to able to increase social cohesion while maintaining an appropriate image to the outside world. However, in group members were still able to pick up on peers’ alcohol-related behaviors. One student stated, “...there will still be posts that are alcohol-related, like yeah, I might not necessarily see alcohol, but I know someone’s out at a club or they’re at some kind of a get-together with people where there’s definitely alcohol involved…when people are hanging out together, I think, I can kind of assume by the time of day and I just think like [they are posting ARC], especially the people that I know pretty well…” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile). We will discuss how the overarching theme of secrecy/implicit signaling is demonstrated within the partier and humorist subthemes of the alcohol as a focal point central theme and also within the social/outgoing and sophisticated subthemes of the alcohol as an accessory central theme.

Subtheme 1: partier

Students’ featured alcohol as focal point of their ARC identities through displaying a partier identity. The partier identity involved ARC promoting a heavy drinking lifestyle (e.g., dancing while tipsy), often in connection with fraternity or sorority events. One student stated, “Well so like a couple of them are in a fraternity so they’re with their frat brothers. I feel like they’ll post them being more like rambunctious and wild. And… like their friends like doing stupid stuff…you know like a mosh pit just like dancing around… doing something stupid. Driving or something…. I know they normally tend to do stupid stuff and post about it,” (Female, 21, Snapchat story). Another student said, “I mean, I have, my, one of my best friends is in a frat, and like, the pictures that I have from his friends, like I see their [Snapchat] stories. Like they’re obviously more likely to be posting things from like, their parties and stuff like that, and um, a girl I went to high school with who’s in a frat, like, she will also more likely to post a picture of her and like, her sisters drinking…it’s kind of like a badge of honor for some people… like they’re more inclined to post pictures of them drinking… because they wanna like, show off a little bit,” (Female, 21, Snapchat story). Sorority or fraternity parties seemed to provide opportunities for college students to post ARC which flaunted how much fun they were having.

Other common displays of a partier ARC identity were posts showing spontaneous alcohol-fueled participation in reckless and sometimes physically dangerous behaviors (e.g., tazing): “… people getting chased around by somebody with a taser…. My…class decided to buy a taser and keep it at the house, so -- I mean, it’s like a really mild grade taser, but regardless, they get drunk and they just start harassing each other with that thing,” (Male, 25, Snapchat direct message). Students who constructed a partier ARC identity portrayed themselves as carefree, daring, bold, and adventurous – behaviors which often made them the center of attention both online and offline.

Even posts which highlighted the negative effects of alcohol (e.g., vomiting in a toilet, being sloppy drunk) appeared to be perceived by peers to be in a positive light. A participant mentioned, “It is a toilet…Yeah, because she was like, I feel sick. And then… she was just very, very gone. We were all like pretty tip—like drunk that night, but like this is one of my friends that I said who always takes videos…. But yeah this is like one of the very few nights were I took a whole bunch of stuff…this I just like—like direct message—direct messaged to like this group chat that we have,” (Female, 18, Snapchat direct message). Overall, students seemed to construct ARC partier identities because they enjoyed the validation they received from their peers while being under the influence of alcohol (e.g., comments back), even if the ARC contained the negative consequences of alcohol use.

Students displaying partier ARC identities often engaged in secrecy/implicit signaling to hide their risky, wild behavior from others by intentionally posting on platforms that allowed them to restrict who saw their content. One student commented, “This would have been Snapchat because sororities have very strict rules about their girls and posting alcohol-related content, so whenever we have on Snapchat would have gone to our group rather than a public one,” (Female, 19, Snapchat, direct message). Posting ARC in this way helped ensure that individuals outside their peer groups would not judge them or that would not be punished for their heavy alcohol consumption. At the same time, it allowed them to connect with others who were displaying similar partier ARC identities and behaviors, fostering a sense of belonging within that group.

Subtheme 2: humorist

Unlike the partier ARC identity that displays more risky behaviors, the humorist ARC identity was more light-hearted and poked fun at drinking copious amounts of alcohol. Students presented their drinking experiences as enjoyable and entertaining by posting ARC depicting funny or ridiculous alcohol-inspired activities or by posting alcohol-related memes. One student described a meme she posted to Snapchat, “So it’s her drinking, [she] says ‘Local dumbass has poetry collection essay and test due tomorrow. Buys margarita pitcher instead,‘” (Female, 21, Snapchat story). Another student shared, “What I send to my friends is more of something with a funny caption, or a picture of myself, what I’m doing when I’m drunk, like this was to my friends, and I found those scooters that people ride on, and I couldn’t figure out how to do it, so I think it was just silliness,” (Female, 22, Snapchat direct message). Students minimized any negative consequences related to drinking by posting ARC with funny captions to photos/videos or featuring entertaining, alcohol-induced moments that resonated with their peers. By presenting a humorist ARC identity, students enhanced connections with their peers by emphasizing how drinking is a central, everyday component of college life. For example, one participant posted, “Bitches, I literally drank three Mike Hards last night and I—and still remembered to take off my makeup and have my nightly multi-vitamin, I’m such a crackhead,” (Male, 21, Twitter/X).

Because students were aware that they could be perceived negatively by others for making light of drinking heavily, they sometimes used secrecy/implicit signaling to post humorist ARC to select people whom they perceived would also find the content entertaining. For example, one participant shared, “Um, so I think Snapchat is more like… I’ll post more humorous stuff to Snapchat and less serious things. So maybe my friend is doing something silly like or maybe like, maybe they’ve got some weird outfit on, and they’re drinking or just I want to capture the moment, so I’ll do it very quickly on Snapchat, like I’ve done a couple like potlucks with friends and like, people all bring wine and stuff,” (Female, 21, Snapchat story).

Subtheme 3: master drinker

A master drinker ARC identity was used by college students to convey to their peers that they were able to “hold their liquor”. Students often portrayed themselves as “seasoned drinkers” who derived pride and satisfaction in their ability to consume large quantities of alcohol without losing control over their cognitive facilities. A participant revealed, “It becomes about like how much you can consume, or. how often, or, like, the situation. So like, it’s the two like, partying constantly or it’s like, ‘I can day drink with no problem, and like still go to events afterwards,” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile). Many displays of mastery of drinking involved competing with peers in drinking games (e.g. ring dunk, Edward-forty-hands, beer pong, ride the bus, wine race, flip cup, etc.) while being encouraged to drink more by nearby spectators, which in turn, reinforced students’ risky drinking behaviors [54]. For example, one student remarked, “...this was a random night when one of my friends wanted to do an Edward-forty-hands.You tape your hands to the 40 ounces of beer on each hand and you can’t take it off until you finish both of them.” (Female, 20, Snapchat story). Another student discussed their ring dunk ceremony, “...they have this tradition where like the seniors they have their like. class rings which is big to them and they’ll dunk, like put it in a whole pitcher of beer, and then you have to drink the entire thing of beer and then get the ring. And then, usually you do it with friends, and it’s like a race to see who can finish it first,” (Female, 19, Instagram main profile).

Master drinker ARC identities showcased students’ drinking prowess and superiority/mastery in drinking heavily. Since this ARC identity involved displaying drinking mastery, researchers did not observe secrecy/implicit signaling being used in these ARC posts.

Central theme 2: alcohol as an accessory

In the second central theme, students showcased different lifestyles while using alcohol as an accessory to enhance their self-identities. In these ARC posts, alcohol/drinking was utilized as a channel through which students could convey desirable or possibly even enviable lifestyles. Unlike the first central theme in which alcohol was the focal point of the post, individuals who displayed alcohol as an accessory may not feel that possessing a drinker identity is central to their self-concept. For instance, literature on students who are abstainers has found that, although these students chose not to drink, they do not perceive being a “non-drinker” as a core part of their identity [55]. Alcohol as an accessory identities were carefully constructed by the poster to portray what they believed to be an enticing image to their audience. Rather than dominating the students’ ARC identities, the presence of alcohol merely reinforced their way of life. Subthemes included social/outgoing, sophisticated, and material status.

Subtheme 1: social/outgoing

The social/outgoing ARC identity emerged from students’ desire to present themselves as likeable and gregarious. Colleges offer a wide range of social activities aimed at creating new connections and providing opportunities for students to enjoy time with their friends. Although these events were not always centered around alcohol, students frequently found themselves drinking in such settings. Students displayed a social/outgoing ARC identity as a way to demonstrate their prominence or popularity within social circles while having a good time – a highly desirable social status symbol in college. A participant stated, “I think just overall, I’m trying to convey that I have just like I’m multifaceted and there’s not just one side to me, and that I’m social and I like hanging out with people and meeting new friends and stuff,” (Female, 21, Snapchat story). For this student, showing her ability to engage in social activities was an important part of her social media presence. A social or outgoing ARC identity was characterized by actively participating in college events while drinking socially, typically in the company of like-minded peers. Another student shared, “It’s normally like, when I go out on the weekends and stuff like that, I’m normally out drinking, so. The only time I ever make [Snapchat] stories is when I actually go out and do something, so I don’t think most people would want to see a post of me just sitting watching Netflix 5 nights a week,” (Male, 25, Snapchat story). Similarly, another participant mentioned, “…in the month of September, I felt like I was, like even though I posted really little and stuff, but those specific parties I went to I was like, “Oh, I’m in college! I’m having fun! Look at me doing fun stuff!” (Female, 19, Snapchat story). Social connections were often spotlighted in these posts rather than students’ drinking behaviors.

College students with social/outgoing ARC identities used secrecy/implicit signaling to hide their “unacceptable” behaviors of drinking and hanging out with peers. Those outside of the peer group, such as family, may not have approved of these students’ drinking alcohol. Therefore, students with social/outgoing ARC identities sometimes featured their activities with peers while disguising their alcohol consumption during these events. They also tended to use platform specific features which allowed ARC content to disappear after a certain timeframe (e.g., Snapchat stories which typically disappear from view after 24 h). One participant revealed, “The reason we take [the Yeti tumblers] out is because if we’re going to a game or something but we’re just going to the tailgate without actually going to the game, that’s the best way for us to take pictures without having to worry. Because you can argue that they don’t know what’s in there, but a red solo cup is known to be a drink, but a lot of kids carry the Yeti. So kids our age would know I don’t think necessarily if I posted it on Facebook or something my family wouldn’t figure it out,” (Female, 19, Snapchat story).

Subtheme 2: sophisticated

Students depicted sophisticated ARC identities online by presenting their refined tastes vis-à-vis drinking at elegant gatherings. In these settings, alcohol was not the primary focus but rather an embellishment that enhanced the refined lifestyle they were trying to illustrate. These posts often featured settings that suggested maturity and an appreciation of finer things in life, such as treating themselves through consuming expensive drinks. Students who portrayed themselves through sophisticated ARC identities tried to present themselves as more elegant and mature than the typical college student. For example, one participant revealed, “…wine mom is like a… desirable aesthetic for like, mid-20s,” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile). Another student disclosed, “I think [they post it to] seem older…like they’re…in their 30s or something… Brunching [is] very, like, older woman,” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile). Students were very discerning in the aesthetics they displayed; thus, alcoholic drinks were used as props ARC to make them appear more accomplished and polished to their audiences. One participant stated, “Instagram, people post, like, pictures, and they want them to look more presentable… if they’re out like I was saying earlier, like out for brunch, or out for like, a drink with their friends, like they’ll make it look, classy,” (Female, 22, Instagram main profile).

Some students who engaged in sophisticated ARC identities utilized secrecy/implicit signaling to maintain a refined presence on social media. They intentionally kept more graphic, explicit ARC off their social media pages in preference of presenting a more cultured, curated presence. For example, one participant revealed, “Instagram is becoming a business, you don’t want people to see you post your drinking all the time because people high up will see it… Instagram I keep pretty aesthetically pleasing and don’t post alcohol, like I don’t do stories on there,” (Female, 22, Instagram main profile).

Subtheme 3: material status

Unlike the sophisticated subtheme in which students’ maturity or refined tastes were more of the focus of the ARC, college students’ posting of ARC in relation to their material status depicted an ARC identity focused on “showing off” or advertising their luxurious lifestyle. The material status ARC identity spotlighted students’ ability to take part in extravagant activities or sip expensive drinks, that others may not be able to afford. Many participants noted they saw peers ARC posts exhibiting these behaviors, “Yeah, like some guys will drink and they’ll show off their watches and chains and stuff like that, yeah,” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile), and “I went to an all-girls Catholic private school, so I have a lot of girls that I went to school with that are super, like, snobby. So, they’re like, always like, showing off their mimosas and whatever,” (Female, 21, Instagram main profile). Another student shared, “[I posted a picture where] me and my mom went to get facials with mimosas,” (Female, 22, Instagram main profile). Students drank while showing off enviable experiences or used upscale drinks to convey that they led a lavish lifestyle. Thus, alcohol served as an accessory or conduit through which college students portrayed their privileged way of life.

Students who adopted material status ARC identities typically did not engage in covert or implicit signaling, as the material possessions or experiences they displayed were openly linked to alcohol consumption. In these posts, alcohol often functioned as a visible indicator of material status, signifying both its financial cost and its broader associations with a desirable, exclusive way of life.

Q3: what theoretical insights do symbolic interactionism, public commitment, and social norms provide?

Based on our results, we found that college students’ creation of ARC identities on social media fell within two central themes, with alcohol either as the focal point of their identity, or with alcohol used as an accessory to complement the identity they were trying to portray. According to symbolic interactionism [20–23], students utilized the symbols of alcohol as a conduit to connect to other people. In doing so, students created a shared sense of identity on social media, which met the expectations of their in-group and/or what they perceived to be “normal” for a college student. For instance, we noticed that although students might have portrayed negative consequences of drinking (e.g. tazing, throwing up) within the partier subtheme, they and members of their directed audience may have perceived these posts in a positive light given that they bonded over these posts with select groups of like-minded people. This may be because drinking behaviors are often normalized and even celebrated as a rite of passage in college. In line with the theory of public commitment [24], students appeared to be driven to maintain a consistent presence online given that they were aware that their posts were being viewed by their peers. Moreover, according to social norms theory [35, 36], exposure to ARC posts may have overinflated students’ drinking norms because they were overestimating normative levels of alcohol use and perceived acceptability of heavy drinking. Thus, students may have been compelled to continually post ARC, which portrayed a specific, enduring identity that aligned with expected, normative behaviors, which can amplify both drinking and ARC posting within their social circles.

Discussion

Overall, we found that students posted distinct images to specific platforms, perhaps due to the features and functions as well as posting norms of those platforms. Thus, the ARC that students encountered on these specific platforms may have served as “scripts” or expectations, guiding how they constructed and communicated their identities through ARC on each platform. Our data revealed that students who aimed to present a carefully curated ARC identity—such as master drinker, material status, and sophisticated ARC identities — tended to favor Instagram as their primary platform. Instagram is known for its filters [56], which enable users to create a specific aesthetic; it is also renowned for being a social media platform that spotlights people’s desirable lifestyles [57].

By contrast, those who used social media more casually and shared alcohol consumption in a spontaneous, carefree manner—such as partier, humorist, and social/outgoing ARC identities—were more likely to prefer Snapchat to display their ARC. This may be because they can direct message their close peer groups as well as control how long other users view their content (e.g., the content often disappears within seconds; [57]). Our findings are consistent with previous literature [57, 58] which has indicated that students perceived that they were more likely to see chic, more cultivated images with alcohol on Instagram (versus Snapchat or Facebook), whereas negative consequences of drinking were more likely to be displayed on Snapchat (versus Instagram or Facebook). However, because group norms and expectations may vary depending on the reference group students are trying to reach, the same student may have portrayed different types of ARC identities depending on the audience they were attempting to connect with. That is, often the way students parsed out their audience according to group membership was by communicating with them on a specific platform [59].

For example, a college student attends a sorority formal. Before the student leaves, they take posed, refined pictures with their sorority friends holding fancy cocktails (e.g., which highlights a sophisticated ARC identity in which alcohol is used as an accessory to display an elegant image). They upload these well-thought out, cultured images to their Instagram main profile page because these images are perceived as being more acceptable (since the student has viewed similar posts on the platform) and desirable to their wider social media network. However, as the night progresses, the student begins posting wild, uncensored photos of themselves intoxicated (e.g., a partier ARC identity) and engaging in riskier behaviors to select close friends through a Snapchat private group. The student’s like-minded, heavy drinking close friends also tend to post to this Snapchat group since they can post about their drinking escapades in real-time without being afraid that their ARC will be seen by out-group members. By contrast, posts to the student’s Instagram main profile are more permanent and their network consists of friends/acquaintances and their family; thus, the student intentionally refrains from depicting a partier ARC identity.

Similar to our example, males may also display disparate ARC identities via different platforms. A male participant disclosed, “[I posted to] two friend- well three friends… Just that we were hanging out [drinking while at a football game],” (Male, 21, Snapchat direct message). Later, he described posting, “a picture—well a gif of Kramer [a character from the show “Seinfield”], uh, smoking a cigarette and chugging a beer simultaneously… I guess I thought it was really funny… I usually just post what I think other people might find funny,” (Male, 21, Twitter/X tweet).

In fact, we found that over half of participants (55%; n = 11) displayed both focal point and accessory ARC identities through their social media posts. In terms of the remaining participants (45%, n = 9), 15% (n = 3) of participants displayed multiple focal point ARC identities, oscillating between the subthemes of partier, humorist, and master drinker ARC identities while a similar number of participants showcased multiple alcohol as an accessory ARC identities (15%, n = 3), which vacillated between social, sophisticated, and material status ARC identities. Only one participant (5%) displayed a singular alcohol as a focal point ARC identity (partier) followed by only two participants (10%) who exhibited only the alcohol as an accessory ARC identity (sophisticated and social).

The majority of students appeared to adjust their ARC identity presentations [18, 19] by routinely posting to different social media platforms – a phenomenon known as “platform swinging” [59] - in order to depict desirable alcohol-related behaviors to certain audiences. According to the self-presentation literature [60], students may be intentionally attempting to control how others perceive them by selectively displaying different aspects of their identities to different audiences in an effort to be viewed favorably by them [61]. Hence, if these discerning identities are affirmed by audience members (e.g., their ARC posts receive likes and comments), it may signal to the student that they should continue to post similar content in order to continue receiving positive social validation [62].

Because students often post to multiple platforms portraying themselves in different ways, it may be the type of ARC that students post more frequently is more predictive of their drinking behaviors [63, 64] since it provides insight into the extent to which students’ self-concept is enmeshed in a particular ARC identity. Consequently, students who post ARC more frequently, particularly if they are projecting images in which ARC where alcohol is the focal point (partier, humorist, and master drinker), may be integrating more of a heavier drinking identity into their self-concept, which in turn, may lead them to maintain or even accelerate their drinking behaviors to align with their perceptions of their desired audiences’ expectations of them. Indeed, previous research has uncovered that students who endorse higher drinking identities tend to consume more alcohol [47] and socialize with like-minded heavier drinking peers [48, 49]. Moreover, because these students are likely posting and receiving similar ARC (in which alcohol is the focal point) from similar peers, they may be reciprocating in validating their peers’ ARC posts through likes and comments, thus solidifying and confirming both their and their peers’ ARC drinker identities.

Conversely, those who self-present via posting ARC in which alcohol is utilized as an accessory (social/outgoing, sophisticated, and material status) may be able to disengage from drinking more easily since alcohol may not be as central to their self-concept. Their lifestyles can still be portrayed via posts not featuring alcohol. The current research revealed that students exhibited two main types of ARC identities; however, given the qualitative nature of the study it was beyond the scope of the study to explore the above assumptions. Thus, future mixed methods research should be conducted to investigate if the frequency in which students post these two types of ARC identities might differentially predict students’ drinking and alcohol-related problems (which we will discuss in more detail in the future directions section).

College students across multiple ARC identities (partier, humorist, social/outgoing, and sophisticated) appeared to utilize secrecy/implicit signaling of alcohol (e.g., a student holding a Yeti cup at a tailgating event to signal alcohol consumption, contextual cues) to surreptitiously codify that they were drinking alcohol to their in-group members yet shield their alcohol use from the general public. Jose et al. [65] utilized language processing techniques to examine the content of Facebook posts and found that the language contained within users’ posts was reasonably predictive of their alcohol use when compared to users’ actual AUDIT-C scores. However, these language models and other automated machine learning techniques would likely fail to detect secrecy/implicit signaling posts as being alcohol-related, even though they may be a crucial facet to consider when examining students’ ARC posting behaviors in relation to their alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Moreover, given that students also use private groups to post ARC, some in which the posts are transient (e.g., Snapchat direct message, often disappear within seconds), it may be difficult to access these posts for assessment.

Secrecy/implicit signaling may encourage both the poster and those within the in-group to post more frequently given that these posts may foster cohesion [66, 67]. However, only in-group members have access to and/or are knowledgeable that these posts represent drinking. Students may post these types of ARC more frequently since they may perceive them as being less punitive (e.g., parents who view the students’ post would not be aware they are drinking so they would be less likely to express severe disapproval of their drinking). The discovery of secrecy/implicit signaling ARC posting points to the fact that both researchers and clinicians should adopt an interactive, collaborative approach whereby students should go through their social media posts with researchers and clinicians to pinpoint ARC that would have been otherwise missed. This may provide both researchers and clinicians with greater insight into who is most at risk in order to tailor prevention and intervention efforts.

Future directions

The ARC identity framework provided in the current study could serve as a useful model for identifying problematic alcohol-related social media behaviors. For instance, researchers could collaborate with participants to categorize and quantify their ARC posts, then compare these patterns with self-reported drinking habits. This could reveal whether certain ARC identities—especially those in which alcohol is more central—are more strongly linked to heavier or riskier drinking. For instance, researchers could provide empirical evidence as to whether frequently displaying ARC identities in which alcohol is the focal point is indeed more strongly associated with drinking than ARC identities in which alcohol is an accessory.

If supported empirically, researchers and clinicians might use our paradigm to analyze students’ social media activity and identify patterns tied to more problematic ARC identities in order to devise tailored interventions. For instance, they might implement motivational interviewing techniques which encourage students to self-reflect on the origins of ARC identities and the peer influences driving them in order to distance themselves from this identity and the social pressures reinforcing it [68, 69]. In doing so, students may feel empowered to redefine their identities and disengage themselves from social circles which perpetuate these problematic behaviors. Lastly, an interesting empirical question for future research to explore is the extent to which students’ ARC-related identities reflect pre-existing parts of their identity or whether the act of posting ARC based on perceived expectations of others actually re-defines their identity.

Limitations

The study’s qualitative method was chosen for its value in gaining insight into an important aspect of student behavior, thus leaving generalization and causality to other methods that are better suited to attaining those goals. Although the results of this study cannot be generalized, we would expect similar results with other samples. There is nothing to suggest that our findings are unique to this sample. Another possible limitation might be the presence of self-selection bias given that not all qualified students were willing to talk about their ARC in-depth with researchers. There is also the potential that the researchers’ presence may have influenced the participants’ responses. Due to the sensitive and stigmatized nature of alcohol-related behaviors, participants may have self-censored their responses. It was evident given that some participants were more candid in their responses, whereas others came off as more reserved or conservative in their answers.

Conclusion

In sum, the current research is important in that it classifies two central themes of college students’ ARC identities. Future research could utilize our paradigm to identify and code students’ ARC behaviors to disentangle how frequent posting of ARC, in which alcohol is the focal point or ARC in which alcohol is an accessory, differentially predicts college students’ drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences. The information gained from these types of studies may help researchers and clinicians to identify which students are more at-risk to tailor more efficacious prevention and intervention efforts targeting the reduction of drinking and alcohol-related consequences among these students.

Author contributions

M.F. contributed to data analysis and co-wrote the introduction, results, and discussion. P.B. contributed to data analysis and wrote up the methods. A.M. contributed to the data analysis and co-wrote the introduction and results. M.S. conducted the interviews, contributed to data analysis, and co-wrote the introduction, results, methods, and discussion and edited the entire manuscript for clarity and flow.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism of the National Institutes of Health under Grant numbers: R00AA025394 and K99AA025394 (PI: Steers), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R25DA054015 (MPIs: Obasi and Reitzel). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Data availability

The data is available from the corresponding author, Mai-Ly N. Steers, upon request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study was approved by the institutional review board of the University of Houston (STUDY00000486), and informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study (or the requirement for written consent was waived by the institutional review board). All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the Helsinki declaration as revised in 2013 and its later amendments.

Consent for publication

The participants provided informed consent regarding publishing their data (and/or photographs).

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.