The impact of peer effects on college students’ sports normative behavior intention: a moderated mediation model

Abstract

This study investigates the mechanisms through which peer effects, attitudes toward sports policies, and formal institutional factors influence college students’ intentions to engage in normative sports behaviors. The goal is to provide theoretical insights and practical guidance for enhancing students’ adherence to normative sports conduct, fostering positive behavioral habits, and promoting holistic physical and mental development. A total of 2,340 college students from 20 universities across China participated in a structured questionnaire survey. Data analysis was conducted using AMOS 28.0, SPSS 24.0, and the PROCESS macro. The findings reveal that: (1) Peer effects are significantly and positively associated with students’ intentions to engage in normative sports behaviors; (2) Attitudes toward sports policies partially mediate the relationship between peer effects and normative sports behavior intentions; and (3) Formal institutional factors significantly moderate the relationships between peer effects and normative behavior intentions, peer effects and policy attitudes, and policy attitudes and behavioral intentions. Moreover, the strength of these positive associations increases as a formal institution becomes more robust. The study concludes that peer effects influence students’ behavioral intentions directly and indirectly via policy attitudes. The moderating role of formal institutions underscores the need for a combination approach of internal and external collaboration, integrating peer effects, policy attitude cultivation, and institutional development, to more effectively foster good sports behaviors among college students.

Introduction

During the 18th Fifth Plenary Session of the Communist Party of China Central Committee in 2015, the 13th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China officially established the promotion of “Healthy China” as a national strategic task for the first time. Subsequently, the Outline of the Healthy China 2030 Plan explicitly identified strengthening health education, enhancing nationwide health literacy, and extensively promoting public fitness activities as critical pathways for cultivating self-regulated health behaviors and achieving universal health [1]. In the new era, the education sector concurrently prioritized “enhancing ideological and political education and promoting students’ all-around development.” The newly issued Education Power Construction Plan (2024–2035) emphasizes the strategic position of this goal [2].

As the backbone of future societal development, college students play a pivotal role in shaping social cognition, value systems, and moral orientations. However, with the rapid advancement of modern technology and socioeconomic transformation, deviant behaviors in college sports have increasingly emerged, raising scholars’ concerns [3]. Such behaviors impair students’ physical and mental well-being and may also permeate other domains, potentially leading to adverse effects on campus culture and broader social order. Encouraging adherence to normative sports behaviors is thus of considerable significance. It helps prevent misconduct at its root, supports the formation of healthy behavior patterns, and promotes comprehensive development. It also enables the integration of moral education into physical education, thereby reinforcing the synergy between physical training and ethical cultivation, which has profound implications for talent development.

From a theoretical perspective, the Theory of Planned Behavior posits that behavioral intention is a key predictor of future behavior, preceding actual conduct and shaping its direction [4]. As behavioral intention reflects cognitive plans rather than enacted behaviors, there were no adverse consequences of actual behavior, and laws and regulations would not punish them. Therefore, students had less concealment during sampling, making this way to be a more reliable construct than directly measuring deviant behaviors. Prior studies have demonstrated a negative correlation between students’ intentions to comply with sports norms and the likelihood of engaging in deviant behaviors: the stronger the intention to adhere to norms, the weaker the intention to violate norms, and the lower the propensity to violate them [5]. The Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior, proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen, posit that behavioral intention precedes behavior. This behavioral intention is determined by the individual’s attitude toward the behavior and social norms and pressure [6]. Therefore, focusing on normative behavioral intention offers an efficient and practical lens through which to identify influencing factors, monitor psychological dynamics, and target high-risk groups for early intervention via moral education and psychological counseling, ultimately reducing the incidence of deviant behaviors.

Cultural and institutional contexts further underscore the importance of the peer effect in Chinese society. Rooted in collectivist traditions, Chinese culture places high value on collectivism and harmonious interpersonal relationships. Therefore, peer relationship plays an important role in adolescents’ growth. Combined with China’s education system, where students typically spend more time in school than their peers in many other countries, peer interaction among adolescents is frequent and intensive [7]. Furthermore, the Chinese government attaches great importance to adolescents’ physical and mental health. In recent years, a series of policy documents emphasizing there has been a strengthening of school sports programs and a promotion of physical activity among youth have been issued. Consequently, the significance of peer effects in adolescent physical activity is particularly pronounced in China. Existing literature has extensively explored the impact of peer effects on adolescents’ exercise intentions, highlighting the critical role of athletic role models and peer relationships in promoting sports participation and physical activity among youth [8, 9]. High-achieving students can serve as positive role models for other students. Conversely, underperforming students may exert negative influences. Empirical evidence indicates that students exhibiting low ability combined with disruptive behaviors can generate significant detrimental peer effects [10], which refer to behavioral or psychological changes arising from mutual influence among individuals of similar age and background [11]. They manifest as a tendency for individuals to conform to peer behaviors [12].

For university students, who are typically geographically distant from their families and spend the majority of their daily lives interacting with classmates, peers play a critical role in personal development. Within increasingly interconnected peer networks, interactions characterized by close proximity and high frequency profoundly shape students’ cognitive processes, attitudes, and behaviors [13]. Peer effects constitute a significant vehicle for the transmission of social norms, whereby numerous behavioral standards and values are transmittled via peer interaction. Additionally, research on sports policy attitudes indicates that school sports policy attitudes play a significant role in adolescents’ physical health. The higher the recognition of sports policies by college students, the more conducive it is to smooth implementation and advancement of these policies. This effectively enhances college students’ normative sports behaviors and amplifies peer effects [14]. In other words, sports policy attitudes are likely to play a mediating role in the relationship between peer effects and sports normative behavior intention.

Moreover, a system constitutes a mandatory framework of rules designed to regulate relationships among individuals, between individuals and society, and to govern the actions of agents within specific spheres of social life [15]. It embodies specific value pursuits and exerts a significant guiding influence on individuals’ value choices and orientations [16]. Functioning as a normative standard, a system constrains individual behavior, corrects value pursuits, and fosters development of personal capabilities. Within the traditional research paradigm, studies have predominantly centered on formal systems at the national and organizational levels, along with their structural configurations. Through establishing clear and explicit interaction rules and standard strutures [17], formal systems provide authoritative behavioral guidelines for interactions among societal members, thereby enhancing societal order and stability [18]. Within the context of university sports, codified regulations governing student athletic conduct, such as documents, rules, regulations, and codes, can be categorized as formal systems. However, persistent issues characterized by “the absence of applicable laws, non-compliance with existing laws, lax enforcement, and inadequate supervision” have severely impeded the effective implementation of these systems in standardizing professional athletes’ conduct [19]. This indicates that maturity of formal systems and the rigor of their enforcement are likely critical variables influencing university students’ intentions to conform to sports behavior norms.

In light of this, this study takes ordinary college students as empirical research subjects to investigate the influence of peer effect on normative sports behavior intention. It employs attitudes toward sports policies as a mediating variable and formal institutions as a moderating variable to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. This approach aims to delineate more clearly the process through which peer effect operates, providing empirical evidence for formulating institutional recommendations to prevent and reduce deviant sports behaviors in educational settings.

Theoretical framework and research hypotheses

Relationship between peer effects and sports normative behavior intention

The Theory of Planned Behavior posits that individuals’ intentions to perform a behavior are determined by their attitudes toward the behavior and their perception of social norms, with actual behavior arising only after intentions are formed [6]. The interdisciplinary application of peer effect has been widely used in education, social psychology, and economics. In higher education research, scholars, primarily using data from Western universities, have explored peer effects on a variety of outcomes, including academic achievement, health, career development, and deviant behavior [20].

In psychology, peer effects often manifest as conformity and social learning, where individuals align with group norms and acquire new behaviors through peer imitation. Sociological studies stress that peer group norms and behaviors exert powerful guiding and constraining impacts on individuals [21]. Although peer effects have been extensively studied in many areas, their impact may be different. Carrell found that each disruptive peer in a classroom corresponded to a 1/14 standard deviation decrease in academic performance and a 17% increase in rule violations, underscoring negative peer effects [22] Yet the proverb “One who walks with the wise grows wise, but a companion of fools suffers harm” illustrates the positive potential of peers. Positive peers provide resources and support that facilitate achievement, while negative peers may lead adolescents astray [23, 24].

In sports science, peer effects significantly influence adolescents’ physical activity patterns. Fitzgerald et al. summarized six ways that peer groups influence adolescents’ physical exercise, including social support, group norms, acceptance, competition, role model, and peer pressure. Among these, social support and group norms are pivotal factors. When positive normative sports behaviors exist within a peer group, they are readily emulated by others [25]. Active peer interactions and exemplary behaviors foster stronger intentions to adhere to sports norms. Furthermore, structural differences in educational policies between China and Western nations, particularly Chinese adolescents’ longer school hours, may amplify peer effects in physical activity contexts [7]. Based on these findings, this study proposes Hypothesis H1: Peer effects positively predict sports normative behavior intentions.

Mediating role of sports policy attitudes

Peer effects are a multidimensional phenomenon profoundly shaping individuals’ beaviors, attitudes, and decision-making [26]. In terms of individual attitudes towards policies, peer effects are primarily manifested in positive role models and antipathy. When individuals observe their peers being rewarded or recognized for complying with policies, they tend to imitate such behavior, forming a positive attitude towards the policy. Conversely, if individuals perceive that their peers receive undue benefits during policy implementation, they may experience a sense of unfairness, leading to dissatisfaction and resistance towards the policy [27]. In the specific field of attitude towards sports policy, peer effect also has both positive and negative influences. Positive peer effects generate increased exercise opportunities and enjoyable experiences, fostering favorable attitudes toward sports policies. However, when peers evade sanctions for inappropriate behavior, this may spark unhealthy competition and aversion toward both sports and sports policy [28]. Therefore, this study proposes Hypothesis H2a: Peer effects have a direct positive impact on sports policy attitudes.

Sports policy attitudes encompass cognitive, affective, and behavioral intentions towards school sports-related policies [29]. At the cognitive level, individuals’ understanding and perception of sports policy content form the basis for influencing their attitudes and behavioral intentions. Additionally, their perception of the policy implementation process is equally important. When individuals believe that policies are effectively and fairly implemented, they are more likely to trust and be satisfied with the policies, increasing their willingness to comply. Moreover, individuals’ expectations and evaluations of policy outcomes also affect their behavioral intentions. If they believe sports policies can bring positive health benefits, enhance sports skills, or improve teamwork abilities, they are more likely to actively participate in related sports activities, forming positive sports normative behavior intentions. At the affective level, satisfaction with policies serves as the bridge between cognition and behavior. The higher the satisfaction with sports policies, the more willing individuals are to comply with policy requirements and exhibit positive sports normative behavior intentions [30]. At the behavioral intention level, studies have shown that female students tend to have higher aversion towards the Standard policy, with less exercise behavior compared to male students, exhibiting higher levels of avoidance and deviant behaviors, while also showing a strong tendency towards effortful behavior [31].

Based on the above analysis, this study proposes Hypothesis H2b: The sports policy attitudes have a direct positive impact on the intention to regulate sports behavior. Based on the relationship revealed by hypotheses H2a and H2b, hypothesis H2 is proposed: sports policy attitude mediates the relationship between peer effects and sports normative behavior intentions.

The moderating role of formal institutions

Neo-institutional theory emphasizes that institutional frameworks consist of two major components: formal institutions and informal institutions [32]. As a normative system that governs and constrains individual behavior, institutions have been widely applied across multiple disciplinary fields. In the field of education, formal institutions refers to the written regulations issued by the Ministry of Education and universities, The informal system includes traditions, habits, conventions, campus culture and value and moral norms of universities [33]. Existing research indicates that effective regulation and guidance of student behavior require formulation, enforcement, and publicity mechanisms grounded in core socialist values, with reward and punishment systems playing a central role [34]. Institutional frameworks provide an orderly and rational environment for college students’ growth, learning, and daily life. When institutions operate fairly and safeguard individual rights, students are more likely to internalize norms and regulate their behavior accordingly [35].

The role of formal institutions primarily manifests in institutional formulation, supervision, and publicity. Institutional formulation examines whether universities establish clear, reasonable, and comprehensive behavioral regulatory systems. Institutional supervision focuses on whether universities, teachers, and staff effectively fulfill supervisory responsibilities and establish robust reward-penalty mechanisms. Institutional publicity evaluates whether universities conduct education on behavioral norms and ideological-political principles [3]. First, regarding institutional formulation: Most Chinese universities lack well-developed physical fitness testing systems and regulations [36]. Student interviews revealed that “the implementation of various rules and regulations in university teaching has deficiencies in certain aspects, leading students to develop a psychological tendency to exploit loopholes.” Clear policy documents provide explicit behavioral standards for individuals and groups. This not only reduces misunderstandings and confusion among peers but also helps individuals understand and comply with relevant policies more accurately, enabling efficient policy implementation by individuals and groups, thereby fostering positive affect toward policies. Second, regarding institutional supervision: Existing literature indicates that, on one hand, university administrators inadequately supervise the national fitness standards testing, while on the other hand, teachers exercise lax oversight during testing processes, resulting in frequent occurrences of proxy test-taking, violations of testing requirements, and direct falsification of data [37]. Furthermore, establishing reward-penalty mechanisms ensures effective policy implementation [38], enhances individuals’ and groups’ trust and satisfaction with policies, thereby strengthening their positive attitudes. Finally, regarding institutional publicity: Universities should strengthen the dissemination of sports policies to enable students to exercise conscientiously and undergo testing earnestly, thereby promoting students’ physical health [39].

In the domain of school sports policies, formal institutions guide students’ active participation in physical activities by establishing explicit curriculum standards and instructional norms. This not only regulates student behavior but also reinforces positive attitudes toward sports policies through beneficial peer interactions. Simultaneously, regarding resource support, formal institutions provide robust guarantees for individual and group engagement in sports activities. This enhances individuals’ positive attitudes toward sports policies, increases their motivation for sports participation, and facilitates the formation of positive normative sports behavior intention. Although peer effects can motivate students to comply with sports behavior norms to some extent, compliance ultimately hinges on individual volition. In such contexts, peer effects inevitably reveal inherent fragility and limitations—lacking the mandatory enforcement capacity of formal institutions—and prove inadequate in promoting comprehensive and sustained normative compliance [40].

Based on this analysis, the study proposes Hypothesis H3a, H3b, and H3c. Hypothesis H3a: Formal institutions exert a positive moderating effect on the relationship between peer effect and attitudes toward sports policies. Hypothesis H3b: Formal institutions exert a positive moderating effect on the relationship between attitudes toward sports policies and normative sports behavior intention. Hypothesis H3c: Formal institutions exert a positive moderating effect on the relationship between peer effect and normative sports behavior intention. The hypothesized framework of variables is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Analytic framework. Note: SNBI stands for “sports normative behavior intention”, PE stands for “peer effect”, SPA stands for “sports policy attitude”, and FS stands for “formal system”

Data sources and methods

Data sources

The data employed in this study were derived from a project funded by the National Social Science Fund of China, approved in 2017 and led by Professor Chen Shanping. The project was implemented between January and November 2018. It included an open-ended exploratory survey, a closed-ended pilot survey, and a nationwide closed-ended formal survey. The present study utilizes data from the final nationwide formal survey. In terms of sample selection, this study is designed based on sample representativeness and survey feasibility. To ensure national representativeness, 20 universities were randomly selected from various regions across China: four in North China, two in Northeast China, five in East China, four in Central South China, three in Southwest China, and two in Northwest China. The target population comprised full-time undergraduate students currently enrolled in these institutions. A stratified random sampling method was employed to enhance feasibility and ensure sample balance. Specifically, 120 students were selected from each university. Collaborators at each institution were instructed to conduct stratified random sampling across academic year and gender, selecting 30 students per grade level (freshman to senior), with an equal number of male and female participants (15 of each gender per grade) to ensure the rationality of sample distribution. The survey was administered using paper-based questionnaires, which were mailed to institutional collaborators. A total of 150 questionnaires were sent to each university, with instructions to collect 120 valid responses. Collaborators were asked to promptly replace any damaged or incomplete questionnaires. Through close coordination with institutional collaborators, the survey was distributed to 2,400 students who agreed to participate under the principles of voluntary participation, anonymity, and confidentiality.

During the data processing stage, reverse-scored items within the questionnaires were processed and responses with identical answers to over 70% of items were excluded [41, 42]. Given that all four scales employed were abbreviated versions (the longest containing only 12 items), the number of missing values per scale did not exceed 20 instances, accounting for 0.9% of the observations, well below the 5% missingness tolerance threshold [43, 44]. The study employed variable-level median imputation to handle missing data. This approach minimizes parameter estimation bias while preserving the original distributional characteristics. After the above treatment, a total of 2,340 valid questionnaires were retained, yielding a response rate of 97.5%. Regarding the sample composition, gender distribution was approximately balanced: 1,145 male respondents (48.9%) and 1,195 female respondents (51.1%). The distribution across academic years was also relatively even: freshmen (25.6%), sophomores (25.8%), juniors (24.4%), and seniors (24.2%).

Research instruments

Peer effects

To assess the influence of peers on individuals’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors toward deviant conduct in sports, this study employed the Peer Effects Scale developed by Chen Shanping et al.[3]. The scale consists of six items: (1) “My classmates believe that deviant behavior in sports is not a serious issue”; (2) “My classmates tend not to criticize or report deviant behaviors when they observe them”; (3) “My classmates are generally tolerant of deviant behavior in sports”; (4) “Some of my classmates have engaged in deviant sports behaviors”; (5) “Some of my classmates have benefited from engaging in deviant behaviors”; and (6) “My classmates who engage in deviant sports behavior have not been punished.” The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly agree” (1) to “strongly disagree” (5) with higher scores indicating less negative influences from peers, further reflecting the positive effect of peer effect obliquely. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.886. The confirmatory factor analysis yielded the following results: χ²/df = 15.61, NFI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.08, indicating good reliability and validity of the scale.

Sports normative behavior intention

The Intention Toward Normative Sports Behavior Scale developed by Chen Shanping et al.[5], was used to measure college students’ behavioral intentions regarding compliance with, or violation of, sports norms. The instrument comprises two subscales—compliance intention and violation intention—each containing five items, for a total of ten. The items address themes such as sports ethics, classroom discipline, competition rules, facility regulations, and legal compliance. Representative items include: (Compliance intention: “I have considered strictly adhering to sports ethics.” Violation intention: “I have considered using improper means during a physical education exam.”) The scale employed a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly agree” (1) to “strongly disagree” (5), with five items related to compliance intention scored in reverse. The mean score was computed for each of the two dimensions. Higher scores indicate a stronger willingness among university students to adhere to relevant sports conduct norms and weaker intentions to violate these norms. Consequently, individuals with higher scores are less likely to exhibit norm-violating behaviors during sports activities. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for all subscales ranged from 0.947 to 0.959. Confirmatory factor analysis results were as follows: χ²/df = 10.96, NFI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.07, indicating good reliability and validity of the scale.

Sports policy attitudes

To assess students’ perceptions, affective responses, and behavioral intentions regarding school sports policies, the Sports Policy Attitudes Scale developed by Chen Shanping et al. was utilized [39]. The scale includes five dimensions: policy content approval, implementation approval, effectiveness perception, overall satisfaction, and policy compliance. Each was measured by one item. Sample items and response options were as follows: (1) Content of school sports policies: ①Unreasonable ②Not quite reasonable ③Relatively reasonable ④Reasonable ⑤Very reasonable. (2) Policy implementation: ①Not standard ②Not quite standard ③Relatively standard ④Standard ⑤Very standard. (3) Policy effectiveness: ①Not important ②Not quite important ③Relatively important ④Important ⑤Very important. (4) Overall satisfaction: ①Not satisfied ②Not quite satisfied ③Relatively satisfied ④Satisfied ⑤Very satisfied (5). Degree of compliance: ①Not strict ②Not quite strict ③ Relatively strict ④Strict ⑤Very strict. The scale used a 5-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes towards school sports policies. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.894. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded the following results: χ²/df = 46.47, NFI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.07, indicating good reliability and validity of the scale.

Formal institution

The Formal Institutional Mechanisms Scale developed by Chen Shanping et al.[3] was employed to assess students’ perceptions of the comprehensiveness of school regulatory frameworks and their effectiveness in regulating student behavior. The scale comprises three dimensions: institutional formulation, supervision, and dissemination. Institutional formulation assesses whether the school has established a clear, reasonable, and comprehensive system of behavioral norms, consisting of three issues (e.g., “The behavioral norms for students’ physical conduct at my university are not well-established”). Institutional supervision evaluates the adequacy of supervision provided by the school, faculty, and other administrative personnel, consisting of six issues (e.g., “My university lacks oversight of deviant behavior in physical activities”). Institutional dissemination examines whether the university conducts adequate communication and ideological education regarding behavioral norms, consisting of three issues (e.g., “My university has publicized the norms of sports behavior”). All items within this dimension are scored in reverse. The 5-point scale of Likert was used for scoring, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, from “1” to “5”. The average score of each dimension constitutes the total score of the scale, and the higher the score, the higher the students’ sense of identity with the formal school regulation. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for all subscales ranged from 0.865 to 0.946. Confirmatory factor analysis results were as follows: χ²/df = 18.77, NFI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96, IFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.08, demonstrating good reliability and validity of the scale.

Control variables

Prior research has identified significant differences in peer effects and deviant sports behaviors among college students across various demographic and background characteristics, including gender, academic year, urban versus rural residency, only-child status, enrollment in key universities, and student leadership roles (e.g., class or league cadre status)[45]. The incidence of deviant sports behavior tends to increase with grade and urban and rural students differ in terms of access to social and human capital. In turn, this affects their exposure to physical education, as well as their development of sports skills and literacy. Only children typically exhibit greater adherence to classroom behavior norms than non-only children, differences that are largely attributed to disparities in urban and rural resources and education, with urban settings generally offering higher-quality education [46]. Students from key universities have better behavior norms than those from non-key universities, and class and league cadres exhibit lower levels of sports deviant behavior and better moral development [47]. Accordingly, the current study incorporated the following background characteristics as control variables: gender, academic year, urban/rural residency, only-child status, key university enrollment, and class/league cadre status. These variables were chosen to explore differential influence on peer effect, formal system, and college students’ sports normative behavior intention.

Research methods

Data analysis for this study was conducted using AMOS 28.0, SPSS 24.0, and the PROCESS macro, a statistical plugin developed by Andrew F. Hayes [48] specifically designed to analyze the complex statistical models, particularly those involving mediation and moderation effects. The PROCESS macro can efficiently process complex structural equation models, significantly streamlining analytical procedures that are otherwise cumbersome in traditional statistical workflows. For parameter estimation, the macro utilizes bias-corrected bootstrap (BC-Bootstrap) methods by default. This improved technique enhances the accuracy of estimates by correcting bias and is widely recognized as a stable, reliable approach in contemporary statistical analysis [49].

This study explores a path model of the mixed type that includes direct effects, mediating effects, and moderating effects. To ensure the results’ stability and reliability, the effect value of each sample was calculated, and a 95% confidence interval was constructed. If the confidence interval did not contain zero, it indicated that the complex mixed model is tested. The PROCESS plug-in was used in this study for model 4 and model 59. Model 4 is primarily used to test mediating effects, analyzing the role of one or more mediating variables between independent and dependent variables. Model 59 is used to test moderating effects, analyzing the impact of moderating variables on the path relationships. Prior to testing, all variables were standardized. The moderation effect was tested separately for the direct effect, the front path (the influence of independent variables on the mediator). and the back path (the influence of the mediator on the dependent variable) of the mediating effect. The overall moderated mediation model was considered valid only if all three interaction effects reached statistical significance. Theoretically, a significant moderating effect on any single path mentioned above is sufficient to establish moderated mediation [50]. However, based on this study’s theoretical presuppositions, the integrated model is considered to validate the study’s theoretical presuppositions only when the moderating effects across all three paths are simultaneously significant. In the process of testing the significance of regression, this study used the 95% interval estimation of BC-Bootstrap for measurement with 5000 repeated sampling to ensure that the effect was significant.

In G*Power, the “Linear multiple regression: Fixed model, R² increase” option was selected with an effect size of 0.15 (or 0.02), α = 0.05, power = 0.95, number of tested predictors = 3, and total predictors = 9. The calculated required sample size was 119 (or 863). The effective sample size of this survey was 2,340, which satisfies the sample size required for statistical testing.

The study drew its sample from 20 universities. Because students from the same institution may share institutional norms and peer environments, we first examined whether the data exhibited a nested structure by calculating the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for our key variables. The ICC was 0.036, well below the conventional threshold of 0.059, indicating that between-university differences were minimal and the nesting effect was negligible. Consequently, we opted for conventional statistical techniques rather than multilevel modeling.

Research results

Common method bias test

To minimize the potential influence of common method bias (CMB) on the study’s findings, multiple measures were incorporated throughout the research design and implementation phases. At the level of program control, participants were explicitly informed of the study’s confidentiality policy, aimed at reducing response bias driven by concerns over information disclosure. In terms of questionnaire design, reverse scoring items were included, and the order of questions was optimized to reduce response bias arising from item sequencing or directional consistency. Furthermore, to verify the presence and extent of CMB, the collected data were analyzed using the single-factor test method. Results showed that the cumulative variance explained by the first factor after rotation was 32.789%, below the critical threshold of 40% [51]. According to this result, it can be concluded that there is no serious common method bias in this study.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

According to the descriptive statistics and correlation analysis presented in Table 1, all four core variables in the study were significantly correlated with one another. Particularly noteworthy is the correlation between peer effect and formal institutions, which reached 0.586 (p < 0.001). Although this relatively strong correlation could raise concerns regarding multicollinearity, a series of diagnostic checks indicated that such concerns are unwarranted. Specifically: (1) From the perspective of concept dimension, these two variables have a clear theoretical distinction and there is no overlap in measurement content. (2) The use of a large sample size (n = 2,340) ensured sufficient statistical power for hypothesis testing. (3) Multicollinearity diagnostics revealed a variance inflation factor (VIF) of 1.068, well below the commonly accepted cutoff value of 10. These results collectively indicate no serious multicollinearity problem exists between peer effect and formal institutions, satisfying the conditions for conducting subsequent regression and path analyses.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of variables

	M	SD	SNBI	PE	SPA	FS
SNBI	4.53	0.573	1
PE	3.53	0.886	0.360***	1
SPA	3.56	0.775	0.224***	0.300***	1
FS	3.68	0.729	0.340***	0.586***	0.478***	1

Note. SNBI = sports normative behavior intention; PE = peer effects; SPA = sports policy attitudes; FS = formal systems. The same notation applies hereinafter; *** p < 0.001

Mediation model test

To examine the mediating role of attitudes toward sports policies in the relationship between peer effects and normative sports behavioral intention, mediation analysis was conducted using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro, with peer effects as the independent variable, sports policy attitudes as the mediator, and normative sports behavioral intention as the dependent variable. The analysis controlled for gender, grade level, urban–rural residency, only-child status, key university status, and class or league cadre membership. 5,000 Bootstrap resamples and a 95% confidence interval were selected to test the mediation effect. Results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Test of the mediating effect of sports policy attitude between peer effect and intention to regulate sports behavior

	SNBI			SPA			SNBI
	β	T	95%CI	β	t	95%CI	β	t	95%CI
Control Variables
Gender	-0.063	-1.606	[0.140,0.014]	0.022	0.708	[-0.039,0.083]	-0.067	-1.709	[-0.143,0.010]
Grade Level	-0.034	-1.946	[-0.069,0.000]	-0.068	-4.898***	[-0.096,-0.041]	-0.023	-1.330	[-0.058,0.011]
City or urban	0.022	0.503	[-0.064,0.108]	0.086	2.481*	[0.018,0.153]	0.008	0.191	[-0.077,0.093]
Only Child	0.087	1.992*	[0.001,0.173]	-0.031	-0.891	[-0.100,0.037]	0.092	2.121*	[0.007,0.177]
Key University	0.070	1.765	[-0.008,0.147]	0.009	0.300	[-0.052,0.071]	0.068	1.741	[-0.009,0.145]
Class or League Cadre Status	0.061	1.536	[-0.017,0.138]	0.027	0.867	[-0.034,0.088]	0.056	1.438	[-0.021,0.133]
Independent Variable
PE	0.345	17.390***	[0.306,0.384]	0.216	13.782***	[0.185,0.247]	0.310	15.161***	[0.270,0.350]
SPA							0.160	6.158***	[0.109,0.211]
R²	0.137			0.103			0.388
F	52.833***			38.034***			51.701***

Note: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001

Peer effects significantly and positively predicted normative sports behavioral intention (β = 0.345, t = 17.390, p < 0.001), with a Bootstrap 95% CI of [0.306, 0.384], supporting Hypothesis H1. Among the control variables, gender and only-child status showed significant effects on normative sports behavioral intention. Peer effects also had a significant positive effect on attitudes toward sports policies (β = 0.216, t = 13.783, p < 0.001), with a Bootstrap 95% CI of [0.185, 0.247]. Within this path, the urban–rural variable significantly influenced policy attitudes. Furthermore, attitudes toward sports policies significantly and positively predicted normative sports behavioral intention (β = 0.160, t = 6.158, p < 0.001), with a Bootstrap 95% CI of [0.109, 0.211]. In this relationship, only-child status again emerged as a significant control variable. Therefore, Hypotheses H2a and H2b were both supported. On the influence path “peer effect → attitudes toward sports policies → normative sports behavior intention”, the direct effect of peer effect on normative sports behavior intention was significant (β = 0.310, t = 15.161, P < 0.001), with a Bootstrap 95% confidence interval of [0.270, 0.350], indicating that attitudes toward sports policies partially mediated the relationship between peer effect and normative sports behavior intention, thus validating Hypothesis H2.

Moderated mediation effect test

The study examined the moderated mediating effect of peer effects on sports norm behavioral intention, with attitudes towards sports policy as the mediator and formal institution as the moderator, while controlling for gender, grade level, urban/rural residence, only-child status, key university status, and class/cadre membership. Following variable standardization, analysis was conducted using PROCESS Model 59. As shown in Table 3 and Fig. 2, the direct relationship between peer effects and normative sports behavioral intention was significantly moderated by formal institution (β = − 0.047, p < 0.01, Bootstrap 95% CI: [–0.082, − 0.012]). This negative coefficient implies that in regulating university students’ sports-related deviant behaviors, formal and informal institutions may exhibit functional integration and complementarity [52]. In regulating students, there may be functional overlap in this situation, further manifesting as a substitution relationship. Moreover, formal institutional support significantly moderated the relationship between peer effects and sports policy attitudes (β = 0.080, p < 0.001, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.056, 0.104]), representing the first stage of the mediated pathway. It also moderated the relationship between sports policy attitudes and normative behavioral intention (β = 0.077, p < 0.01, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.031, 0.123]), reflecting the second stage of mediation.

Table 3.

Moderated mediation model of peer effects on sports normative behavior intention

Predictor Variables	Model 1(SPA)			Model 2(SNBI)
	β	t	95%CI	β	t	95%CI
Gender	0.017	0.597	[-0.039,0.073]	-0.069	-1.802	[-0.145,0.006]
Grade Level	-0.025	-1.952	[-0.051,0.000]	-0.008	-0.482	[-0.043,0.026]
City or urban	0.036	1.119	[-0.027,0.098]	-0.001	-0.022	[-0.085,0.083]
Only Child	-0.042	-1.326	[-0.104,0.020]	0.084	1.946	[-0.001,0.168]
Key University	-0.004	-0.130	[-0.060,0.053]	0.057	1.457	[-0.020,0.133]
Class or League Cadre Status	0.038	1.316	[-0.018,0.094]	0.065	1.670	[-0.011,0.141]
PE	0.029	1.685	[-0.005,0.063]	0.222	9.329***	[0.176,0.269]
SPA				0.123	4.259***	[0.066,0.179]
FS	0.341	19.381***	[0.307,0.376]	-0.122	-1.372	[-0.296,0.052]
PE*FS	0.080	6.493***	[0.056,0.104]	-0.047	-2.629**	[-0.082,-0.012]
SPA*FS				0.077	3.294**	[0.031,0.123]
R2	0.496			0.169
F	84.330***			42.989***

Note: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001

Fig. 2.

Moderated Mediation Model of the Impact of Peer Effects on Sports Normative Behavior Intention

To further observe the variation trend of these moderation effects, simple slope analyses were conducted. As shown in Fig. 3, when the level of the formal institution was low (one standard deviation below the mean), peer effects negatively predicted sports policy attitudes (β simple= − 0.051, p < 0.05, Bootstrap 95% CI: [–0.091, − 0.010]). When the level of the formal institution was high (one standard deviation above the mean), peer effects positively predicted policy attitudes (β simple = 0.109, p < 0.001, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.066, 0.153]). As shown in Fig. 4, under low levels of formal institution (one standard deviation below the mean), the predictive effect of policy attitudes on behavioral intention was non-significant (β simple = 0.046, p > 0.05, Bootstrap 95% CI: [–0.019, 0.110]). However, under high levels of formal institution(one standard deviation above the mean), the relationship was significant and positive (β simple = 0.200, p < 0.001, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.119, 0.280]). As shown in Fig. 5, when the formal institutional level was low (one standard deviation below the mean), the peer effect significantly positively predicted the intention to engage in sports normative behaviors (β simple = 0.269, P < 0.001, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.214, 0.324]). When the formal institutional level was high (one standard deviation above the mean), the peer effect significantly positively predicted the intention to engage in sports normative behaviors (β simple = 0.176, P < 0.001, Bootstrap 95% CI: [0.114, 0.237]).

Fig. 3.

Interaction Effect of Peer Effects and Formal Systems on Sports Policy Attitudes

Fig. 4.

Interaction Effect of Sports Policy Attitudes and Formal Systems on Sports Normative Behavior Intention

Fig. 5.

Interaction Effect of Peer Effects and Formal Systems on Sports Normative Behavior Intention

Slope analysis further revealed a significant enhancement of peer effects under conditions of low formal institutional strength. This indicates that when formal institutional control weakens, informal institutions (e.g., peer effects), while capable of partially filling the institutional void and promoting behavioral consistency, are susceptible to erosion by peers’ negative behaviors due to their inherent fragility and enforcement deficiencies. Consequently, this diminishes individuals’ adherence intentions towards normative conduct. Furthermore, after controlling for students’ attitudes towards sports policies and formal institutional variables, the slope between peer effects and normative sports behavioral intention remained significant and of substantial magnitude. This suggests the potential explanatory power of unobserved mediating variables (e.g., self-efficacy, sports identity) regarding the residual variance.

Discussion

Direct impact of peer effects on college students’ sports normative behavior intention

This study found that peer effects positively predict college students’ sports normative behavior intention, confirming Hypothesis H1. This is consistent with prior research. The mechanism of peer effects can be summarized as positive and negative. Positive peer effects provide social support to individuals, encouraging and assisting them in overcoming negative emotions, increasing their willingness to comply with sports norms [53]. Additionally, the role model of peers can guide individuals to form positive intentions towards sports normative behaviors [54]. The enhancement of group identification also plays a key role. When individuals perceive a close connection with their peer group, they are more likely to consciously adhere to the norms and requirements advocated by the group. Moreover, peers’ support and encouragement act as catalysts, effectively enhancing individuals’ exercise self-efficacy and significantly improving their sports normative behavior intentions [55]. However, peer effects do not always exert positive influences. In the negative pattern, if a peer group exhibits undesirable sports behaviors or attitudes, such as laziness or non-compliance with rules, these negative factors may spread like a virus, subtly influencing individuals and disrupting their otherwise positive sports normative behavior intentions. More seriously, when a peer group develops incorrect sports normative concepts, individuals may unconsciously be misled by these erroneous notions, thereby deviating from the correct sports behavior trajectory [53].

The study found that athletes who perceived teammates as more likely to engage in deception and harmful behaviors were more likely to make antisocial behavioral judgments of teammates [56]. In sports activities, excessive peer comparison and competition can be a double-edged sword. Sometimes, instead of motivating individuals, it may negatively impact their sports normative behavior intentions, causing them to overlook the importance of sports norms in pursuing competitive victory [57]. Therefore, establishing positive peer effects and avoiding the influence of negative peer effects is crucial for enhancing college students’ sports normative behavior intentions.

Mediating role of sports policy attitudes among college students

The mediation analysis further confirmed that attitudes toward sports policies mediate the influence of peer effects on college students’ intentions to engage in normative sports behavior, thus supporting Hypothesis H2. Specifically, peer effects are more likely to enhance students’ behavioral intentions by fostering more favorable attitudes toward sports policies.

The first stage of the mediation model revealed a significant positive association between peer effects and students’ attitudes toward sports policies. In the student interview data on attitudes to school sports policies, students generally believed that their classmates and friends’ attitudes toward school sports policies were one of the important external influences. For instance, one student noted, “Motivated by the enthusiastic promotion and encouragement from senior students, I actively signed up for the Sunshine Sports initiative [14]”. This finding can be further interpreted through the lens of social compliance theory, which posits when a group of peers develops a consistent and positive health perspective and behavior, which is reinforced and consolidated into shared values through a close peer network, individual members often actively adopt and internalize these healthy perspectives and behaviors to gain a sense of belonging and integrate into this intimate peer group, thereby achieving identity recognition within the peer network. Conversely, nonconformity may result in peer exclusion or even sanctions [58]. In the qualitative analysis of college students’ attitudes toward the National Student Physical Health Standard policy, students reported: “The testing sites are sometimes disorderly, with many classmates not taking the tests seriously, and incidents of proxy test-taking occur frequently.” Such deviant behaviors directly shaped students’ attitudes toward the policy [14]. This study explored the influence of peer effects from a positive perspective. When surrounded by peers who consistently demonstrate normative sports behaviors, individuals were more likely to adopt positive health values and behavioral patterns. Close peer relationships provided strong social support, facilitating consensus on behavioral norms and encouraging active participation in physical exercise. This consensus not only helped them fully experience the fun and good physical experience brought by physical exercise, but also encouraged them to more willing change their own behavior, attitude or decision, and thus hold a more positive attitude towards sports policy.

The latter stage of the mediation model indicated that favorable attitudes toward sports policies positively predict students’ intentions to engage in normative sports behavior. This finding aligns with prior studies suggesting that positive perceptions of fitness policy standards are associated with increased participation in and adherence to physical activity routine [59]. This further confirms that attitudes toward sports policies function as a key mediating variable and are a fundamental driver of students’ behavioral compliance. In sum, peer effects positively shape college students’ sports policy attitudes and effectively enhance their sports normative behavior intentions. Therefore, creating a positive peer effect environment and fostering a positive attitude towards sports policies are crucial in enhancing college students’ sports normative behavior intentions. They are important tools for promoting the normalization and routinization of college students’ sports activities. Furthermore, the study’s mediation model revealed significant effects of gender, only-child status, and urban-rural differences on relevant variables. Gender disparities may stem from socio-cultural contexts and gender role expectations, as traditional perceptions suggest males exhibit greater propensity for sports participation while females face socio-cultural constraints [60]. Only-children demonstrated heightened engagement in physical activities and more positive perceptions and attitudes toward sports policies due to heightened familial attention and resource allocation [61]. Significant urban-rural differences emerged in sports policy attitudes. Urban locales boasted abundant sports resources, advanced facilities, and robust sporting cultures, while rural settings suffered resource scarcity, inadequate infrastructure, and underdeveloped athletic cultures. These factors collectively constrained rural residents’ policy comprehension and engagement.

Moderating role of formal institutions

The moderated mediation analysis revealed formal institutions amplify the positive influence of peer effects on both attitudes toward sports policies and intentions to engage in normative sports behaviors, which support hypotheses H3a, H3b, and H3c. This study found that formal institutions moderate the relationship between peer effects and attitudes toward sports policies. Among students with a high level of perceived formal institution, peer effects significantly and positively predicted favorable attitudes toward sports policies. In contrast, for students with low perceived institutional support, peer effects negatively predicted such attitudes. In other words, weak formal institutional perception undermined the positive influence of peer effects on policy attitudes. Drawing on new institutionalism theory, formal and informal institutions (peer effects) may exhibit both substitutive and complementary relationships, that is, overlapping functions [62, 63]. The regulatory power of formal institutions can reinforce the effectiveness of informal influences. When students highly identify with the formal system, they are more likely to comply with institutional norms. In turn, this fosters positive peer dynamics, and strengthens their endorsement of sports policies. Conversely, students with low institutional identification may witness deviant peer behaviors being rewarded, creating perceptions of unfairness and increases susceptibility to negative peer effects, weakening their support for the policy.

The findings also showed that formal institutions moderate the link between attitudes toward sports policies and students’ intentions to engage in normative sports behaviors. Among students with high levels of perceived formal institution, positive policy attitudes significantly predicted normative behavioral intentions. However, this predictive effect was statistically insignificant among those with low levels of institutional perception. This result is consistent with expectations. A robust and well-functioning formal institution can effectively improve college students’ positive attitude towards sports policy, which in turn strengthens their intention to comply with normative behavior standards.

Finally, the study found that formal institutions also moderate the relationship between peer effects and normative sports behavior intentions. Regardless of the level of formal institutional perception, the peer effect on the intention to perform normative sports behaviors has a strong positive predictive effect. Peer effect on the intention to perform normative sports behaviors is stronger when the level of formal institutional perception is low. According to new institutionalism theory, the power of formal institutions to influence informal mechanisms is widely acknowledged. Effective institutional frameworks offer a stable foundation for behavior regulation, enhance compliance, and increase the likelihood of students adopting normative practices in sports [7]. Prior research suggests that the effectiveness of formal institutions is maximized when they are integrated with complementary informal mechanisms [53]. Thus, the peer effect of college students with a low sense of identity in a formal system makes up for the deficiency of a formal institution and also enhances the influence on the intention to behave following sports norms, even more significantly.

In summary, peer effects serve as a crucial mechanism for enhancing students’ attitudes toward sports policies and, in turn, fostering normative sports behaviors. Formal institutions attenuated the direct pathway of peer effects through substitution effects, while simultaneously enhancing the indirect pathway of peer effects via complementary effects, social learning mechanisms, and the reinforcement of group norms. Therefore, in efforts to improve college students’ normative sports behavior, we must not focus on peer effect influence and also prioritize refining and strengthening formal institutions. This approach amplifies peer effects and vigorously enhances students’ attitudes toward sports policies. Only through a combined internal and external collaborative approach can more significant intervention effects be achieved, thereby more effectively promoting the development and cultivation of sports normative behaviors among college students.

Conclusions and limitations

This study reveals statistical associations between university students’ normative sports behavioral intention and several key variables, providing empirical evidence for subsequent exploration of mechanisms and optimization of university sports management strategies. Conclusions: (1) Peer effects show a significant positive correlation with normative sports behavioral intention, suggesting a positive covariation between peers’ positive behaviors/attitudes and individual endorsement/implementation willingness of sports norms within the university student group. (2) Attitudes toward sports policies mediate the association path between peer effects and normative sports behavioral intention, indicating peer effects may indirectly relate to enhanced normative behavioral intention through improving university students’ positivity toward sports policies. (3) Formal institutions moderate the association strength between peer effects and outcome variables: Among university students with higher formal institutional endorsement, peer effects demonstrate significantly stronger positive correlations with sports policy attitudes and normative behavioral intention, suggesting this group may be more susceptible to peer influence.

Recommendations: (1) Construct a “Peer Modeling Network for Sports Norms”: Organize 4-8-member peer-led training groups by dormitory, class, or department, selecting students with exemplary sports behavior as demonstrators. Demonstrators and members upload exercise frequency in real-time via a “fitness-tracking mini-program,” with data synchronized to counselors and sports departments for immediate feedback and dynamic intervention. University sports departments provide unified training for demonstrators to ensure positive, visible diffusion of peer effects. (2) Implement “Policy-Peer” Dual-Channel Micro-Interventions: Deconstruct sports policies into concise information cards. Demonstrators interpret and share personal experiences simultaneously in dormitories, classrooms, and new media platforms (e.g., WeChat groups, Xiaohongshu, TikTok, official accounts). Encourage secondary dissemination among group members to amplify policy visibility and enhance university students’ attitudes toward sports policies. (3) Adopt a “Stratification- Reinforcement” Strategy: Using the Formal Institution Perception Scale, precisely categorize students into high-score and low-score groups. Reward high-score peer-led training groups to incentivize sustained amplification of peer effects. For low-score groups: Through course instruction, intensively analyze sports policy content and fairness to enhance trust and endorsement of formal institutions; subsequently integrate them into peer networks to strengthen moderating effects, achieving a weak-to-strong transition.

This study has several limitations. Methodologically, the cross-sectional design limits causal inferences between variables. Future research should adopt longitudinal designs or survey experiments for rigorous causal identification of peer effects when data permit. Secondly, data collection in this study relied solely on self-report measures, which may be susceptible to social desirability bias. Future research could enhance the reliability of findings by incorporating multiple data sources. Thirdly, while the peer effect scale adapted from prior research on sports-related deviant behavior demonstrates contextual suitability within its original framework, improving scale generalizability and specificity, subsequent studies might design neutral or positive items tailored to specific research questions. For example, the questionnaire could explicitly mention “peer encouragement” to enhance the adaptability of the scale and the accuracy of measurement. Finally, the cross-sectional design cannot preclude two potential alternative explanations: (1) Selection effects: Students with stronger normative sports tendencies may preferentially associate with similarly inclined peers, thereby introducing homophily that potentially conflates peer effects with self-selection processes. (2) Reverse causality: Students exhibiting stronger normative behavioral intentions may proactively seek or cultivate a positive peer sports atmosphere, thus the observed correlation direction is contrary to the theoretical hypothesis. Future investigations might employ longitudinal tracking designs, peer-based intervention trials, or instrumental variable approaches (e.g., leveraging random dormitory assignments for freshmen as exogenous variation sources) to isolate and test the above mechanisms and more precisely establish temporal sequencing and causal pathways among variables.

Research Prospects: Within Chinese culture, where collectivist values predominate, significant emphasis is placed on group harmony and individuals’ senseof belonging, which is in distinct contrast to Western individualistic cultural.

paradigms. Under this collectivist framework, the interdependence between individuals and groups is highly valued, with individual behaviors and attitudes being substantially influenced by the group, particularly the impact of peer groups. In the educational domain, peer effects play a critical role in shaping university students’ attitudes and behaviors and also extensively influence adolescent populations such as secondary and primary school students, molding their learning attitudes, values, and behavioral norms. Furthermore, peer effects extend into the ideological and political education system, fostering students’ identification with and engagement in mainstream values, thereby enhancing educational efficacy. Collectively, peer effects exert a profound influence on individual attitude and behavioral formation within the Chinese cultural context, permeating diverse educational stages and serving significant functions across multiple educational systems.

Although this study focuses on university students within the Chinese cultural context, certain findings may generalize to more individualistic cultural settings, particularly regarding the universal mechanisms of peer effects. Firstly, as a mechanism of social influence, peer effects fundamentally operate through individuals’ observational learning and interactions with peers to shape specific behaviors and attitudes. This mechanism persists in individualistic cultures, though its manifestations and intensity may differ. For instance, individuals in individualistic cultures may prioritize personal interests and autonomous choice in peer interactions, yet peers’ positive behaviors and attitudes can still exert influence through imitation and identification processes. Secondly, this study identified attitudes toward sports policies as mediating the relationship between peer effects and normative sports behavioral intention. This mediating mechanism likely retains relevance in individualistic cultures. While individuals in such cultures may base policy attitudes more on personal interests and value assessments, peers’ positive attitudes could still enhance policy acceptance through social comparison and identity mechanisms, subsequently influencing behavioral intentions. Finally, the moderating effect of formal institutional endorsement on peer effects proved significant in this study. In individualistic cultures, this moderation may manifest through individuals’ autonomous endorsement of rules and institutions rather than group-based belongingness. For example, individuals in individualistic cultures may emphasize institutional rationality and fairness over group-affiliative significance. Consequently, the operational mechanisms of moderating variables may require contextual adaptation across cultural frameworks.

Future research should further investigate the specific manifestations and operational mechanisms of peer effects across diverse cultural contexts. For instance, cross-cultural comparative studies could analyze distinctions and commonalities in peer effects between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Through such comparative analysis, a more comprehensive understanding of both the universality and cultural specificity of peer effects may be achieved, thus providing contextually tailored recommendations for intercultural education initiatives and policy formulation.

Author contributions

Formal analysis and writing—original draft preparation, L.L.and S.C.; investigation, writing—review and editing, and supervision, L.L. and Y.Y; data curation, Y.Y., H.L. and C.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The National Social Science Foundation of China (17BTY001) supported this study.

Data availability

The data and materials of this study were collected and collated by the authors and used to support the conclusions of this paper, and the authors have no undue reservations.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and has obtained official ethical approval from the Biomedical Ethics Committee of Xi’an Jiaotong University Health Science Center (Approval ID: 2024-10). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study.

Consent for publication

All participants were informed that the results of the study, including any anonymized data, might be published in a scientific journal or presented at a conference.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.