Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 2002 Aug;110(Suppl 4):505–526. doi: 10.1289/ehp.02110s4505

Hazardous air pollutants and asthma.

George D Leikauf 1
PMCID: PMC1241200  PMID: 12194881

Abstract

Asthma has a high prevalence in the United States, and persons with asthma may be at added risk from the adverse effects of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Complex mixtures (fine particulate matter and tobacco smoke) have been associated with respiratory symptoms and hospital admissions for asthma. The toxic ingredients of these mixtures are HAPs, but whether ambient HAP exposures can induce asthma remains unclear. Certain HAPs are occupational asthmagens, whereas others may act as adjuncts during sensitization. HAPs may exacerbate asthma because, once sensitized, individuals can respond to remarkably low concentrations, and irritants lower the bronchoconstrictive threshold to respiratory antigens. Adverse responses after ambient exposures to complex mixtures often occur at concentrations below those producing effects in controlled human exposures to a single compound. In addition, certain HAPs that have been associated with asthma in occupational settings may interact with criteria pollutants in ambient air to exacerbate asthma. Based on these observations and past experience with 188 HAPs, a list of 19 compounds that could have the highest impact on the induction or exacerbation of asthma was developed. Nine additional compounds were identified that might exacerbate asthma based on their irritancy, respirability, or ability to react with biological macromolecules. Although the ambient levels of these 28 compounds are largely unknown, estimated exposures from emissions inventories and limited air monitoring suggest that aldehydes (especially acrolein and formaldehyde) and metals (especially nickel and chromium compounds) may have possible health risk indices sufficient for additional attention. Recommendations for research are presented regarding exposure monitoring and evaluation of biologic mechanisms controlling how these substances induce and exacerbate asthma.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (644.1 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Abe Y., Ogino S., Irifune M., Imamura I., Liu Y. Q., Fukui H., Matsunaga T. Histamine content, synthesis and degradation in nasal mucosa and lung of guinea-pigs treated with toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Clin Exp Allergy. 1993 Jun;23(6):512–517. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1993.tb03239.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adgate J. L., Clayton C. A., Quackenboss J. J., Thomas K. W., Whitmore R. W., Pellizzari E. D., Lioy P. J., Shubat P., Stroebel C., Freeman N. C. Measurement of multi-pollutant and multi-pathway exposures in a probability-based sample of children: practical strategies for effective field studies. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2000 Nov-Dec;10(6 Pt 2):650–661. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500126. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Agius R. M., Elton R. A., Sawyer L., Taylor P. Occupational asthma and the chemical properties of low molecular weight organic substances. Occup Med (Lond) 1994 Feb;44(1):34–36. doi: 10.1093/occmed/44.1.34. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Agius R. M., Nee J., McGovern B., Robertson A. Structure activity hypotheses in occupational asthma caused by low molecular weight substances. Ann Occup Hyg. 1991 Apr;35(2):129–137. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/35.2.129. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Agius R. M. Why are some low-molecular-weight agents asthmagenic. Occup Med. 2000 Apr-Jun;15(2):369–384. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Akbar-Khanzadeh F., Mlynek J. S. Changes in respiratory function after one and three hours of exposure to formaldehyde in non-smoking subjects. Occup Environ Med. 1997 May;54(5):296–300. doi: 10.1136/oem.54.5.296. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Albert R. E., Pasternack B. S., Shore R. E., Lippmann M., Nelson N., Ferris B. Mortality patterns among workers exposed to chloromethyl ethers--a preliminary report. Environ Health Perspect. 1975 Jun;11:209–214. doi: 10.1289/ehp.7511209. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Alberts W. M., Brooks S. M. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1996 Mar;2(2):104–110. doi: 10.1097/00063198-199603000-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Albright J. F., Goldstein R. A. Airborne pollutants and the immune system. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1996 Feb;114(2):232–238. doi: 10.1016/S0194-59989670173-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Alexandersson R., Hedenstierna G. Pulmonary function after long-term exposure to trichlorophenol. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1982 Feb;49(3-4):275–280. doi: 10.1007/BF00377936. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Altmüller J., Palmer L. J., Fischer G., Scherb H., Wjst M. Genomewide scans of complex human diseases: true linkage is hard to find. Am J Hum Genet. 2001 Sep 14;69(5):936–950. doi: 10.1086/324069. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Altshuller A. P. Assessment of the contribution of chemical species to the eye irritation potential of photochemical smog. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1978 Jun;28(6):594–598. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1978.10470634. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Altshuller A. P., Bufalini J. J. Photochemical aspects of air pollution: a review. Photochem Photobiol. 1966 Mar;4(2):97–146. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1965.tb05731.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Amdur M. O., McCarthy J. F., Gill M. W. Effect of mixing conditions on irritant potency of zinc oxide and sulfur dioxide. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1983 Jan;44(1):7–13. doi: 10.1080/15298668391404284. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Andersen L. I., Schmidt A., Bundgaard A. Pulmonary function and acid application in the esophagus. Chest. 1986 Sep;90(3):358–363. doi: 10.1378/chest.90.3.358. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Anderson H. R., Ponce de Leon A., Bland J. M., Bower J. S., Strachan D. P. Air pollution and daily mortality in London: 1987-92. BMJ. 1996 Mar 16;312(7032):665–669. doi: 10.1136/bmj.312.7032.665. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Anderson L. M., Logsdon D., Ruskie S., Fox S. D., Issaq H. J., Kovatch R. M., Riggs C. M. Promotion by polychlorinated biphenyls of lung and liver tumors in mice. Carcinogenesis. 1994 Oct;15(10):2245–2248. doi: 10.1093/carcin/15.10.2245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Anderson M. J., Miller S. L., Milford J. B. Source apportionment of exposure to toxic volatile organic compounds using positive matrix factorization. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2001 Jul-Aug;11(4):295–307. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500168. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Anderson M. W., Maronpot R. R. Methylene chloride-induced tumorigenesis. Carcinogenesis. 1993 May;14(5):787–788. doi: 10.1093/carcin/14.5.787. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Andrews F. J., Halliday G. M., Narkowicz C. K., Muller H. K. Indomethacin inhibits the chemical carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene but not dimethylbenz(a)anthracene from altering Langerhans cell distribution and morphology. Br J Dermatol. 1991 Jan;124(1):29–36. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1991.tb03278.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Antó J. M., Sunyer J., Reed C. E., Sabrià J., Martínez F., Morell F., Codina R., Rodríguez-Roisín R., Rodrigo M. J., Roca J. Preventing asthma epidemics due to soybeans by dust-control measures. N Engl J Med. 1993 Dec 9;329(24):1760–1763. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199312093292402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Aris R., Christian D., Sheppard D., Balmes J. R. Acid fog-induced bronchoconstriction. The role of hydroxymethanesulfonic acid. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Mar;141(3):546–551. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/141.3.546. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Asano S., Eto K., Kurisaki E., Gunji H., Hiraiwa K., Sato M., Sato H., Hasuike M., Hagiwara N., Wakasa H. Review article: acute inorganic mercury vapor inhalation poisoning. Pathol Int. 2000 Mar;50(3):169–174. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1827.2000.01032.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Ashby J., Hilton J., Dearman R. J., Callander R. D., Kimber I. Mechanistic relationship among mutagenicity, skin sensitization, and skin carcinogenicity. Environ Health Perspect. 1993 Apr 22;101(1):62–67. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9310162. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Asherson G. L., Ptak W. Contact and delayed hypersensitivity in the mouse. I. Active sensitization and passive transfer. Immunology. 1968 Sep;15(3):405–416. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Aylin P., Bottle A., Wakefield J., Jarup L., Elliott P. Proximity to coke works and hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular disease in England and Wales. Thorax. 2001 Mar;56(3):228–233. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.3.228. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Babiuk C., Steinhagen W. H., Barrow C. S. Sensory irritation response to inhaled aldehydes after formaldehyde pretreatment. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1985 Jun 15;79(1):143–149. doi: 10.1016/0041-008x(85)90376-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Baik J. J., Yoon Y. B., Park H. S. Cobalt-induced occupational asthma associated with systemic illness. J Korean Med Sci. 1995 Jun;10(3):200–204. doi: 10.3346/jkms.1995.10.3.200. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Bar-Sela S., Levy M., Westin J. B., Laster R., Richter E. D. Medical findings in nickel-cadmium battery workers. Isr J Med Sci. 1992 Aug-Sep;28(8-9):578–583. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Barceloux D. G. Cobalt. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1999;37(2):201–206. doi: 10.1081/clt-100102420. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Barnes P. J. A new approach to the treatment of asthma. N Engl J Med. 1989 Nov 30;321(22):1517–1527. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198911303212206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Barnes P. J. Anti-inflammatory therapy for asthma. Annu Rev Med. 1993;44:229–242. doi: 10.1146/annurev.me.44.020193.001305. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Bates D. V., Baker-Anderson M., Sizto R. Asthma attack periodicity: a study of hospital emergency visits in Vancouver. Environ Res. 1990 Feb;51(1):51–70. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80182-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Bates D. V., Sizto R. Air pollution and hospital admissions in Southern Ontario: the acid summer haze effect. Environ Res. 1987 Aug;43(2):317–331. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(87)80032-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Bates M. N., Smith A. H., Hopenhayn-Rich C. Arsenic ingestion and internal cancers: a review. Am J Epidemiol. 1992 Mar 1;135(5):462–476. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Bauer M. A., Utell M. J., Morrow P. E., Speers D. M., Gibb F. R. Inhalation of 0.30 ppm nitrogen dioxide potentiates exercise-induced bronchospasm in asthmatics. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Dec;134(6):1203–1208. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1986.134.6.1203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Baur X., Chen Z., Liebers V. Exposure-response relationships of occupational inhalative allergens. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998 May;28(5):537–544. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00276.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Beach J. R., Raven J., Ingram C., Bailey M., Johns D., Walters E. H., Abramson M. The effects on asthmatics of exposure to a conventional water-based and a volatile organic compound-free paint. Eur Respir J. 1997 Mar;10(3):563–566. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Bernstein D. I. Allergic reactions to workplace allergens. JAMA. 1997 Dec 10;278(22):1907–1913. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Bernstein I. L. Isocyanate-induced pulmonary diseases: a current perspective. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1982 Jul;70(1):24–31. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(82)90197-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Bertazzi P. A., Consonni D., Bachetti S., Rubagotti M., Baccarelli A., Zocchetti C., Pesatori A. C. Health effects of dioxin exposure: a 20-year mortality study. Am J Epidemiol. 2001 Jun 1;153(11):1031–1044. doi: 10.1093/aje/153.11.1031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Blair A., Kazerouni N. Reactive chemicals and cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 1997 May;8(3):473–490. doi: 10.1023/a:1018417623867. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Bobak M., Leon D. A. Air pollution and infant mortality in the Czech Republic, 1986-88. Lancet. 1992 Oct 24;340(8826):1010–1014. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(92)93017-h. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Bogdanffy M. S., Sarangapani R., Plowchalk D. R., Jarabek A., Andersen M. E. A biologically based risk assessment for vinyl acetate-induced cancer and noncancer inhalation toxicity. Toxicol Sci. 1999 Sep;51(1):19–35. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/51.1.19. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Boorman G. A., Uraih L. C., Gupta B. N., Bucher J. R. Two-hour methyl isocyanate inhalation and 90-day recovery study in B6C3F1 mice. Environ Health Perspect. 1987 Jun;72:63–69. doi: 10.1289/ehp.877263. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Borchers M. T., Carty M. P., Leikauf G. D. Regulation of human airway mucins by acrolein and inflammatory mediators. Am J Physiol. 1999 Apr;276(4 Pt 1):L549–L555. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.1999.276.4.L549. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Borchers M. T., Wesselkamper S., Wert S. E., Shapiro S. D., Leikauf G. D. Monocyte inflammation augments acrolein-induced Muc5ac expression in mouse lung. Am J Physiol. 1999 Sep;277(3 Pt 1):L489–L497. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.1999.277.3.L489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Boulet L. P. Increases in airway responsiveness following acute exposure to respiratory irritants. Reactive airway dysfunction syndrome or occupational asthma? Chest. 1988 Sep;94(3):476–481. doi: 10.1378/chest.94.3.476. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Boushey H. A., Holtzman M. J., Sheller J. R., Nadel J. A. Bronchial hyperreactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980 Feb;121(2):389–413. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1980.121.2.389. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Braun J., Stöss H., Zober A. Intoxication following the inhalation of hydrogen fluoride. Arch Toxicol. 1984 Nov;56(1):50–54. doi: 10.1007/BF00316353. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Bright P., Burge P. S., O'Hickey S. P., Gannon P. F., Robertson A. S., Boran A. Occupational asthma due to chrome and nickel electroplating. Thorax. 1997 Jan;52(1):28–32. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.1.28. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Brooks S. M., Hammad Y., Richards I., Giovinco-Barbas J., Jenkins K. The spectrum of irritant-induced asthma: sudden and not-so-sudden onset and the role of allergy. Chest. 1998 Jan;113(1):42–49. doi: 10.1378/chest.113.1.42. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Brooks S. M., Weiss M. A., Bernstein I. L. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS). Persistent asthma syndrome after high level irritant exposures. Chest. 1985 Sep;88(3):376–384. doi: 10.1378/chest.88.3.376. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Buick J. B., Lowry R. C., Magee T. R. Is a reduction in residual volume a sub-clinical manifestation of hydrogen sulfide intoxication? Am J Ind Med. 2000 Mar;37(3):296–299. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(200003)37:3<296::aid-ajim8>3.0.co;2-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Burg J. R., Gist G. L. The National Exposure Registry: analyses of health outcomes from the benzene subregistry. Toxicol Ind Health. 1998 May-Jun;14(3):367–387. doi: 10.1177/074823379801400301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Burge P. S., Wieland A., Robertson A. S., Weir D. Occupational asthma due to unheated colophony. Br J Ind Med. 1986 Aug;43(8):559–560. doi: 10.1136/oem.43.8.559. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Burgess J. L. Phosphine exposure from a methamphetamine laboratory investigation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2001;39(2):165–168. doi: 10.1081/clt-100103833. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Burns L. A., Bradley S. G., White K. L., Jr, McCay J. A., Fuchs B. A., Stern M., Brown R. D., Musgrove D. L., Holsapple M. P., Luster M. I. Immunotoxicity of nitrobenzene in female B6C3F1 mice. Drug Chem Toxicol. 1994;17(3):271–315. doi: 10.3109/01480549409017862. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Burrows B., Martinez F. D., Halonen M., Barbee R. A., Cline M. G. Association of asthma with serum IgE levels and skin-test reactivity to allergens. N Engl J Med. 1989 Feb 2;320(5):271–277. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198902023200502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Butcher B. T., Karr R. M., O'Neil C. E., Wilson M. R., Dharmarajan V., Salvaggio J. E., Weill H. Inhalation challenge and pharmacologic studies of toluene diisocyanate (TDI)-sensitive workers. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1979 Aug;64(2):146–152. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(79)90049-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Butterworth B. E., Bogdanffy M. S. A comprehensive approach for integration of toxicity and cancer risk assessments. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1999 Feb;29(1):23–36. doi: 10.1006/rtph.1998.1273. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Byrd D. M., Roegner M. L., Griffiths J. C., Lamm S. H., Grumski K. S., Wilson R., Lai S. Carcinogenic risks of inorganic arsenic in perspective. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1996;68(6):484–494. doi: 10.1007/BF00377874. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. CREECH H. J. Chemical and immunological properties of carcinogen-protein conjugates. Cancer Res. 1952 Aug;12(8):557–564. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Cassee F. R., Arts J. H., Groten J. P., Feron V. J. Sensory irritation to mixtures of formaldehyde, acrolein, and acetaldehyde in rats. Arch Toxicol. 1996;70(6):329–337. doi: 10.1007/s002040050282. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Celli B., Khan M. A. Mercury embolization of the lung. N Engl J Med. 1976 Oct 14;295(16):883–885. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197610142951609. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Charan N. B., Myers C. G., Lakshminarayan S., Spencer T. M. Pulmonary injuries associated with acute sulfur dioxide inhalation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1979 Apr;119(4):555–560. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1979.119.4.555. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Chen L. C., Miller P. D., Amdur M. O., Gordon T. Airway hyperresponsiveness in guinea pigs exposed to acid-coated ultrafine particles. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1992 Mar;35(3):165–174. doi: 10.1080/15287399209531606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Chestnut L. G., Schwartz J., Savitz D. A., Burchfiel C. M. Pulmonary function and ambient particulate matter: epidemiological evidence from NHANES I. Arch Environ Health. 1991 May-Jun;46(3):135–144. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1991.9937440. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Chilmonczyk B. A., Salmun L. M., Megathlin K. N., Neveux L. M., Palomaki G. E., Knight G. J., Pulkkinen A. J., Haddow J. E. Association between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and exacerbations of asthma in children. N Engl J Med. 1993 Jun 10;328(23):1665–1669. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199306103282303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Christie D., Spencer L., Senthilselvan A. Air quality and respiratory disease in Newcastle, New South Wales. Med J Aust. 1992 Jun 15;156(12):841–844. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1992.tb136996.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Cirla A. M. Cobalt-related asthma: clinical and immunological aspects. Sci Total Environ. 1994 Jun 30;150(1-3):85–94. doi: 10.1016/0048-9697(94)90133-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Cody R. P., Weisel C. P., Birnbaum G., Lioy P. J. The effect of ozone associated with summertime photochemical smog on the frequency of asthma visits to hospital emergency departments. Environ Res. 1992 Aug;58(2):184–194. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80214-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Cohn L., Homer R. J., Marinov A., Rankin J., Bottomly K. Induction of airway mucus production By T helper 2 (Th2) cells: a critical role for interleukin 4 in cell recruitment but not mucus production. J Exp Med. 1997 Nov 17;186(10):1737–1747. doi: 10.1084/jem.186.10.1737. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Colilla S., Tsalenko A., Pluznikov A., Cox N. J. Genome-wide approaches for identifying interacting susceptibility regions for asthma. Genet Epidemiol. 2001;21 (Suppl 1):S266–S271. doi: 10.1002/gepi.2001.21.s1.s266. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Cookson W. O., Moffatt M. F. Genetics of asthma and allergic disease. Hum Mol Genet. 2000 Oct;9(16):2359–2364. doi: 10.1093/hmg/9.16.2359. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Cookson W. O., Sharp P. A., Faux J. A., Hopkin J. M. Linkage between immunoglobulin E responses underlying asthma and rhinitis and chromosome 11q. Lancet. 1989 Jun 10;1(8650):1292–1295. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(89)92687-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Corbo G. M., Forastiere F., Dell'Orco V., Pistelli R., Agabiti N., De Stefanis B., Ciappi G., Perucci C. A. Effects of environment on atopic status and respiratory disorders in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993 Oct;92(4):616–623. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(93)90086-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Corhay J. L., Bury T., Louis R., Delavignette J. P., Kayembe J. M., Weber G., Albert A., Radermecker M. F. Bronchial responsiveness in active steelworkers. Eur Respir J. 1998 Feb;11(2):272–277. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.11020272. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Courteau J. P., Cushman R., Bouchard F., Quévillon M., Chartrand A., Bhérer L. Survey of construction workers repeatedly exposed to chlorine over a three to six month period in a pulpmill: I. Exposure and symptomatology. Occup Environ Med. 1994 Apr;51(4):219–224. doi: 10.1136/oem.51.4.219. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. D'Alessandro A., Kuschner W., Wong H., Boushey H. A., Blanc P. D. Exaggerated responses to chlorine inhalation among persons with nonspecific airway hyperreactivity. Chest. 1996 Feb;109(2):331–337. doi: 10.1378/chest.109.2.331. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Daisey J. M., Mahanama K. R., Hodgson A. T. Toxic volatile organic compounds in simulated environmental tobacco smoke: emission factors for exposure assessment. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1998 Jul-Sep;8(3):313–334. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Daniels S. E., Bhattacharrya S., James A., Leaves N. I., Young A., Hill M. R., Faux J. A., Ryan G. F., le Söuef P. N., Lathrop G. M. A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci underlying asthma. Nature. 1996 Sep 19;383(6597):247–250. doi: 10.1038/383247a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Daniels S. E., Bhattacharrya S., James A., Leaves N. I., Young A., Hill M. R., Faux J. A., Ryan G. F., le Söuef P. N., Lathrop G. M. A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci underlying asthma. Nature. 1996 Sep 19;383(6597):247–250. doi: 10.1038/383247a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Davies J. E. Occupational asthma caused by nickel salts. J Soc Occup Med. 1986 Spring;36(1):29–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Dawson S. V., Alexeeff G. V. Multi-stage model estimates of lung cancer risk from exposure to diesel exhaust, based on a U.S. railroad worker cohort. Risk Anal. 2001 Feb;21(1):1–18. doi: 10.1111/0272-4332.211085. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. De Flora S., Petruzzelli S., Camoirano A., Bennicelli C., Romano M., Rindi M., Ghelarducci L., Giuntini C. Pulmonary metabolism of mutagens and its relationship with lung cancer and smoking habits. Cancer Res. 1987 Sep 1;47(17):4740–4745. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. De Raeve H., Vandecasteele C., Demedts M., Nemery B. Dermal and respiratory sensitization to chromate in a cement floorer. Am J Ind Med. 1998 Aug;34(2):169–176. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199808)34:2<169::aid-ajim10>3.0.co;2-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. De Sanctis G. T., Daheshia M., Daser A. Genetics of airway hyperresponsiveness. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Jul;108(1):11–20. doi: 10.1067/mai.2001.116429. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. De Sanctis G. T., Merchant M., Beier D. R., Dredge R. D., Grobholz J. K., Martin T. R., Lander E. S., Drazen J. M. Quantitative locus analysis of airway hyperresponsiveness in A/J and C57BL/6J mice. Nat Genet. 1995 Oct;11(2):150–154. doi: 10.1038/ng1095-150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. De Sanctis G. T., Singer J. B., Jiao A., Yandava C. N., Lee Y. H., Haynes T. C., Lander E. S., Beier D. R., Drazen J. M. Quantitative trait locus mapping of airway responsiveness to chromosomes 6 and 7 in inbred mice. Am J Physiol. 1999 Dec;277(6 Pt 1):L1118–L1123. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.1999.277.6.L1118. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. De Zotti R., Muran A., Zambon F. Two cases of paraoccupational asthma due to toluene diisocyanate (TDI). Occup Environ Med. 2000 Dec;57(12):837–839. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.12.837. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Dearman R. J., Cumberbatch M., Hilton J., Clowes H. M., Fielding I., Heylings J. R., Kimber I. Influence of dibutyl phthalate on dermal sensitization to fluorescein isothiocyanate. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1996 Sep;33(1):24–30. doi: 10.1006/faat.1996.0139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Dearman R. J., Warbrick E. V., Humphreys I. R., Kimber I. Characterization in mice of the immunological properties of five allergenic acid anhydrides. J Appl Toxicol. 2000 May-Jun;20(3):221–230. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1263(200005/06)20:3<221::aid-jat651>3.0.co;2-#. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Demeter S. L., Cordasco E. W. Reactive airway disease after chlorine gas exposure. Chest. 1992 Sep;102(3):984–984. doi: 10.1378/chest.102.3.984b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Demnati R., Fraser R., Ghezzo H., Martin J. G., Plaa G., Malo J. L. Time-course of functional and pathological changes after a single high acute inhalation of chlorine in rats. Eur Respir J. 1998 Apr;11(4):922–928. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.11040922. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Deschamps D., Rosenberg N., Soler P., Maillard G., Fournier E., Salson D., Gervais P. Persistent asthma after accidental exposure to ethylene oxide. Br J Ind Med. 1992 Jul;49(7):523–525. doi: 10.1136/oem.49.7.523. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Deschamps D., Soler P., Rosenberg N., Baud F., Gervais P. Persistent asthma after inhalation of a mixture of sodium hypochlorite and hydrochloric acid. Chest. 1994 Jun;105(6):1895–1896. doi: 10.1378/chest.105.6.1895. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Desjardins R., Fournier M., Denizeau F., Krzystyniak K. Immunosuppression by chronic exposure to N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in mice. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1992 Nov;37(3):351–361. doi: 10.1080/15287399209531676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Devalia J. L., Bayram H., Abdelaziz M. M., Sapsford R. J., Davies R. J. Differences between cytokine release from bronchial epithelial cells of asthmatic patients and non-asthmatic subjects: effect of exposure to diesel exhaust particles. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 1999 Feb-Apr;118(2-4):437–439. doi: 10.1159/000024157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Dezateux C., Stocks J., Dundas I., Fletcher M. E. Impaired airway function and wheezing in infancy: the influence of maternal smoking and a genetic predisposition to asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Feb;159(2):403–410. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.2.9712029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Dezateux C., Stocks J., Wade A. M., Dundas I., Fletcher M. E. Airway function at one year: association with premorbid airway function, wheezing, and maternal smoking. Thorax. 2001 Sep;56(9):680–686. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.9.680. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Diamond M. L., Priemer D. A., Law N. L. Developing a multimedia model of chemical dynamics in an urban area. Chemosphere. 2001 Sep;44(7):1655–1667. doi: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00509-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Diaz-Sanchez D., Penichet-Garcia M., Saxon A. Diesel exhaust particles directly induce activated mast cells to degranulate and increase histamine levels and symptom severity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Dec;106(6):1140–1146. doi: 10.1067/mai.2000.111144. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Diaz-Sanchez D. The role of diesel exhaust particles and their associated polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the induction of allergic airway disease. Allergy. 1997;52(38 Suppl):52–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb04871.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Diller W. F. Pathogenesis of phosgene poisoning. Toxicol Ind Health. 1985 Oct;1(2):7–15. doi: 10.1177/074823378500100202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Doak S. M., Simpson B. J., Hunt P. F., Stevenson D. E. The carcinogenic response in mice to the topical application of propane sultone to the skin. Toxicology. 1976 Aug-Sep;6(2):139–154. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(76)90016-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Dockery D. W., Pope C. A., 3rd, Xu X., Spengler J. D., Ware J. H., Fay M. E., Ferris B. G., Jr, Speizer F. E. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. N Engl J Med. 1993 Dec 9;329(24):1753–1759. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199312093292401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Dockery D. W., Schwartz J., Spengler J. D. Air pollution and daily mortality: associations with particulates and acid aerosols. Environ Res. 1992 Dec;59(2):362–373. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80042-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Dockery D. W., Speizer F. E., Stram D. O., Ware J. H., Spengler J. D., Ferris B. G., Jr Effects of inhalable particles on respiratory health of children. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 Mar;139(3):587–594. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/139.3.587. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Dockery D. W., Ware J. H., Ferris B. G., Jr, Speizer F. E., Cook N. R., Herman S. M. Change in pulmonary function in children associated with air pollution episodes. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1982 Sep;32(9):937–942. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1982.10465494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Dodge R. The respiratory health of school children in smelter communities. Am J Ind Med. 1980;1(3-4):359–364. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700010312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Doe J. E., Hoffmann H. D. Toluene diisocyanate: an assessment of carcinogenic risk following oral and inhalation exposure. Toxicol Ind Health. 1995 Jan-Feb;11(1):13–32. doi: 10.1177/074823379501100102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Doelman C. J., Borm P. J., Bast A. Plasticisers, another burden for asthmatics? Agents Actions Suppl. 1990;31:81–84. doi: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7379-6_10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Dolovich J., Evans S. L., Nieboer E. Occupational asthma from nickel sensitivity: I. Human serum albumin in the antigenic determinant. Br J Ind Med. 1984 Feb;41(1):51–55. doi: 10.1136/oem.41.1.51. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Dong W., Gilmour M. I., Lambert A. L., Selgrade M. K. Enhanced allergic responses to house dust mite by oral exposure to carbaryl in rats. Toxicol Sci. 1998 Jul;44(1):63–69. doi: 10.1006/toxs.1998.2475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Dooms-Goossens A., Degreef H. Contact allergy to petrolatums. (II). Attempts to identify the nature of the allergens. Contact Dermatitis. 1983 Jul;9(4):247–256. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1983.tb04385.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Drazen J. M., Yandava C. N., Dubé L., Szczerback N., Hippensteel R., Pillari A., Israel E., Schork N., Silverman E. S., Katz D. A. Pharmacogenetic association between ALOX5 promoter genotype and the response to anti-asthma treatment. Nat Genet. 1999 Jun;22(2):168–170. doi: 10.1038/9680. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Dye J. A., Lehmann J. R., McGee J. K., Winsett D. W., Ledbetter A. D., Everitt J. I., Ghio A. J., Costa D. L. Acute pulmonary toxicity of particulate matter filter extracts in rats: coherence with epidemiologic studies in Utah Valley residents. Environ Health Perspect. 2001 Jun;109 (Suppl 3):395–403. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109s3395. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Dykewicz M. S., Patterson R., Cugell D. W., Harris K. E., Wu A. F. Serum IgE and IgG to formaldehyde-human serum albumin: lack of relation to gaseous formaldehyde exposure and symptoms. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991 Jan;87(1 Pt 1):48–57. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(91)90212-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Englyst V., Lundström N. G., Gerhardsson L., Rylander L., Nordberg G. Lung cancer risks among lead smelter workers also exposed to arsenic. Sci Total Environ. 2001 Jun 12;273(1-3):77–82. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(00)00843-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Euler G. L., Abbey D. E., Magie A. R., Hodgkin J. E. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptom effects of long-term cumulative exposure to ambient levels of total suspended particulates and sulfur dioxide in California Seventh-Day Adventist residents. Arch Environ Health. 1987 Jul-Aug;42(4):213–222. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Ewart S. L., Kuperman D., Schadt E., Tankersley C., Grupe A., Shubitowski D. M., Peltz G., Wills-Karp M. Quantitative trait loci controlling allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in inbred mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2000 Oct;23(4):537–545. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.23.4.4199. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Ewart S. L., Mitzner W., DiSilvestre D. A., Meyers D. A., Levitt R. C. Airway hyperresponsiveness to acetylcholine: segregation analysis and evidence for linkage to murine chromosome 6. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1996 May;14(5):487–495. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.14.5.8624254. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Fairley D. The relationship of daily mortality to suspended particulates in Santa Clara County, 1980-1986. Environ Health Perspect. 1990 Nov;89:159–168. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9089159. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Ferguson J. S., Alarie Y. Long term pulmonary impairment following a single exposure to methyl isocyanate. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1991 Feb;107(2):253–268. doi: 10.1016/0041-008x(91)90207-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Ferris B. G., Jr, Speizer F. E., Spengler J. D., Dockery D., Bishop Y. M., Wolfson M., Humble C. Effects of sulfur oxides and respirable particles on human health. Methodology and demography of populations in study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1979 Oct;120(4):767–779. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1979.120.4.767. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Fiala E. S., Czerniak R., Castonguay A., Conaway C. C., Rivenson A. Assay of 1-nitropropane, 2-nitropropane, 1-azoxypropane and 2-azoxypropane for carcinogenicity by gavage in Sprague-Dawley rats. Carcinogenesis. 1987 Dec;8(12):1947–1949. doi: 10.1093/carcin/8.12.1947. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Fingerhut M. A., Halperin W. E., Marlow D. A., Piacitelli L. A., Honchar P. A., Sweeney M. H., Greife A. L., Dill P. A., Steenland K., Suruda A. J. Cancer mortality in workers exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. N Engl J Med. 1991 Jan 24;324(4):212–218. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199101243240402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Finnegan M. J., Hodson M. E. Prolonged hypoxaemia following inhalation of hydrogen chloride vapour. Thorax. 1989 Mar;44(3):238–239. doi: 10.1136/thx.44.3.238. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Flury K. E., Dines D. E., Rodarte J. R., Rodgers R. Airway obstruction due to inhalation of ammonia. Mayo Clin Proc. 1983 Jun;58(6):389–393. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Forsberg B., Stjernberg N., Falk M., Lundbäck B., Wall S. Air pollution levels, meteorological conditions and asthma symptoms. Eur Respir J. 1993 Sep;6(8):1109–1115. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Friedman M. S., Powell K. E., Hutwagner L., Graham L. M., Teague W. G. Impact of changes in transportation and commuting behaviors during the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta on air quality and childhood asthma. JAMA. 2001 Feb 21;285(7):897–905. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.7.897. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Fujimaki H., Ushio H., Nohara K., Ui N. Induction of the imbalance of helper T-cell functions in mice exposed to diesel exhaust. Sci Total Environ. 2001 Apr 10;270(1-3):113–121. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(00)00789-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Gavett S. H., Koren H. S. The role of particulate matter in exacerbation of atopic asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol. 2001 Jan-Mar;124(1-3):109–112. doi: 10.1159/000053685. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Gebel T. Arsenic and antimony: comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology. Chem Biol Interact. 1997 Nov 28;107(3):131–144. doi: 10.1016/s0009-2797(97)00087-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Ghilarducci D. P., Tjeerdema R. S. Fate and effects of acrolein. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 1995;144:95–146. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4612-2550-8_2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Gilliland F. D., Berhane K., Rappaport E. B., Thomas D. C., Avol E., Gauderman W. J., London S. J., Margolis H. G., McConnell R., Islam K. T. The effects of ambient air pollution on school absenteeism due to respiratory illnesses. Epidemiology. 2001 Jan;12(1):43–54. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200101000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Godnić-Cvar J., Gomzi M. Reaktivnost bronha u toku kontinuirane ekspozicije respiratornim iritansima i izvan nje. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol. 1990 Sep;41(3):257–265. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Gold D. R. Indoor air pollution. Clin Chest Med. 1992 Jun;13(2):215–229. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Golden J. A., Nadel J. A., Boushey H. A. Bronchial hyperirritability in healthy subjects after exposure to ozone. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978 Aug;118(2):287–294. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1978.118.2.287. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Goodman G., Wilson R. Quantitative prediction of human cancer risk from rodent carcinogenic potencies: a closer look at the epidemiological evidence for some chemicals not definitively carcinogenic in humans. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1991 Oct;14(2):118–146. doi: 10.1016/0273-2300(91)90002-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Gram T. E. Chemically reactive intermediates and pulmonary xenobiotic toxicity. Pharmacol Rev. 1997 Dec;49(4):297–341. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Graves P. E., Kabesch M., Halonen M., Holberg C. J., Baldini M., Fritzsch C., Weiland S. K., Erickson R. P., von Mutius E., Martinez F. D. A cluster of seven tightly linked polymorphisms in the IL-13 gene is associated with total serum IgE levels in three populations of white children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Mar;105(3):506–513. doi: 10.1067/mai.2000.104940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Green F. H. Pulmonary responses to inhaled poorly soluble particulate in the human. Inhal Toxicol. 2000 Jan-Feb;12(1-2):59–95. doi: 10.1080/089583700196545. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Green F. H., Schürch S., De Sanctis G. T., Wallace J. A., Cheng S., Prior M. Effects of hydrogen sulfide exposure on surface properties of lung surfactant. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1991 May;70(5):1943–1949. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1991.70.5.1943. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Green M. A., Egle J. L., Jr Effects of intravenous acetaldehyde, acrolein, formaldehyde and propionaldehyde on arterial blood pressure following acute guanethidine treatment. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1983 May;40(2):337–340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Groth D. H., Stettler L. E., Burg J. R., Busey W. M., Grant G. C., Wong L. Carcinogenic effects of antimony trioxide and antimony ore concentrate in rats. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1986;18(4):607–626. doi: 10.1080/15287398609530898. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Hallee T. J. Diffuse lung disease caused by inhalation of mercury vapor. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1969 Mar;99(3):430–436. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1969.99.3.430. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Halliday G. M., Muller H. K. Induction of tolerance via skin depleted of Langerhans cells by a chemical carcinogen. Cell Immunol. 1986 Apr 15;99(1):220–227. doi: 10.1016/0008-8749(86)90230-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Halliday G. M., Wood R. C., Muller H. K. Presentation of antigen to suppressor cells by a dimethylbenz (a) anthracene-resistant, Ia-positive, Thy-1-negative, I-J-restricted epidermal cell. Immunology. 1990 Jan;69(1):97–103. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Hargreave F. E., Dolovich J., Newhouse M. T. The assessment and treatment of asthma: a conference report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1990 Jun;85(6):1098–1111. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(90)90056-a. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Harving H., Dahl R., Mølhave L. Lung function and bronchial reactivity in asthmatics during exposure to volatile organic compounds. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Apr;143(4 Pt 1):751–754. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/143.4_Pt_1.751. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Hasan F. M., Gehshan A., Fuleihan F. J. Resolution of pulmonary dysfunction following acute chlorine exposure. Arch Environ Health. 1983 Mar-Apr;38(2):76–80. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1983.10543984. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Haseman J. K., Hailey J. R. An update of the National Toxicology Program database on nasal carcinogens. Mutat Res. 1997 Oct 31;380(1-2):3–11. doi: 10.1016/s0027-5107(97)00121-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Hatch G. E., Slade R., Stead A. G., Graham J. A. Species comparison of acute inhalation toxicity of ozone and phosgene. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1986;19(1):43–53. doi: 10.1080/15287398609530905. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Hayes J. P., Daniel R., Tee R. D., Barnes P. J., Taylor A. J., Chung K. F. Bronchial hyperreactivity after inhalation of trimellitic anhydride dust in guinea pigs after intradermal sensitization to the free hapten. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Nov;146(5 Pt 1):1311–1314. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/146.5_Pt_1.1311. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Hayes J. P., Lambourn L., Hopkirk J. A., Durham S. R., Taylor A. J. Occupational asthma due to styrene. Thorax. 1991 May;46(5):396–397. doi: 10.1136/thx.46.5.396. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Hecht S. S., Lijinsky W., Kovatch R. M., Chung F. L., Saavedra J. E. Comparative tumorigenicity of N-nitroso-2-hydroxymorpholine, N-nitrosodiethanolamine and N-nitrosomorpholine in A/J mice and F344 rats. Carcinogenesis. 1989 Aug;10(8):1475–1477. doi: 10.1093/carcin/10.8.1475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Henry R. L., Abramson R., Adler J. A., Wlodarcyzk J., Hensley M. J. Asthma in the vicinity of power stations: I. A prevalence study. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1991;11(2):127–133. doi: 10.1002/ppul.1950110209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Herrström P., Högstedt B., Holthuis N., Schütz A., Råstam L. Allergic disease, immunoglobulins, exposure to mercury and dental amalgam in Swedish adolescents. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1997;69(5):339–342. doi: 10.1007/s004200050157. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Hertwich E. G. Fugacity superposition: a new approach to dynamic multimedia fate modeling. Chemosphere. 2001 Aug;44(4):843–853. doi: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00517-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Hertwich E. G., Mateles S. F., Pease W. S., McKone T. E. Human toxicity potentials for life-cycle assessment and toxics release inventory risk screening. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2001 Apr;20(4):928–939. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. Hertwich E. G., McKone T. E. Pollutant-specific scale of multimedia models and its implications for the potential dose. Environ Sci Technol. 2001 Jan 1;35(1):142–148. doi: 10.1021/es9911061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  164. Hessel P. A., Herbert F. A., Melenka L. S., Yoshida K., Nakaza M. Lung health in relation to hydrogen sulfide exposure in oil and gas workers in Alberta, Canada. Am J Ind Med. 1997 May;31(5):554–557. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199705)31:5<554::aid-ajim9>3.0.co;2-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  165. Heussen G. A., Schefferlie G. J., Talsma M. J., van Til H., Dohmen M. J., Brouwer A., Alink G. M. Effects on thyroid hormone metabolism and depletion of lung vitamin A in rats by airborne particulate matter. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1993 Apr;38(4):419–434. doi: 10.1080/15287399309531729. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  166. Hirsch T., Weiland S. K., von Mutius E., Safeca A. F., Gräfe H., Csaplovics E., Duhme H., Keil U., Leupold W. Inner city air pollution and respiratory health and atopy in children. Eur Respir J. 1999 Sep;14(3):669–677. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.1999.14c29.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  167. Hobbesland A., Kjuus H., Thelle D. S. Mortality from nonmalignant respiratory diseases among male workers in Norwegian ferroalloy plants. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1997 Oct;23(5):342–350. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.230. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  168. Holberg C. J., Halonen M., Solomon S., Graves P. E., Baldini M., Erickson R. P., Martinez F. D. Factor analysis of asthma and atopy traits shows 2 major components, one of which is linked to markers on chromosome 5q. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Nov;108(5):772–780. doi: 10.1067/mai.2001.119158. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  169. Holder J. W. Nitrobenzene carcinogenicity in animals and human hazard evaluation. Toxicol Ind Health. 1999 Aug;15(5):445–457. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  170. Holder J. W. Nitrobenzene potential human cancer risk based on animal studies. Toxicol Ind Health. 1999 Aug;15(5):458–463. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  171. Holz O., Jörres R. A., Timm P., Mücke M., Richter K., Koschyk S., Magnussen H. Ozone-induced airway inflammatory changes differ between individuals and are reproducible. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Mar;159(3):776–784. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.3.9806098. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  172. Hong C. B., Winston J. M., Thornburg L. P., Lee C. C., WSoods J. S. Follow-up study on the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride in rats and mice: tumor incidence and mortality subsequent to exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1981 Jun;7(6):909–924. doi: 10.1080/15287398109530034. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  173. Hoppenbrouwers T. Airways and air pollution in childhood: state of the art. Lung. 1990;168 (Suppl):335–346. doi: 10.1007/BF02718150. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  174. Howard Timothy D., Koppelman Gerard H., Xu Jianfeng, Zheng Siqun L., Postma Dirkje S., Meyers Deborah A., Bleecker Eugene R. Gene-gene interaction in asthma: IL4RA and IL13 in a Dutch population with asthma. Am J Hum Genet. 2001 Nov 14;70(1):230–236. doi: 10.1086/338242. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  175. Hsu C., Han B., Liu M., Yeh C., Casida J. E. Phosphine-induced oxidative damage in rats: attenuation by melatonin. Free Radic Biol Med. 2000 Feb 15;28(4):636–642. doi: 10.1016/s0891-5849(99)00277-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  176. Hu F. B., Persky V., Flay B. R., Zelli A., Cooksey J., Richardson J. Prevalence of asthma and wheezing in public schoolchildren: association with maternal smoking during pregnancy. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1997 Jul;79(1):80–84. doi: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63090-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  177. Huang J. L., Wang S. Y., Hsieh K. H. Effect of short-term exposure to low levels of SO2 and NOx on pulmonary function and methacholine and allergen bronchial sensitivities in asthmatic children. Arch Environ Health. 1991 Sep-Oct;46(5):296–299. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1991.9934390. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  178. Hyvelin J. M., Roux E., Prévost M. C., Savineau J. P., Marthan R. Cellular mechanisms of acrolein-induced alteration in calcium signaling in airway smooth muscle. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2000 Apr 15;164(2):176–183. doi: 10.1006/taap.1999.8879. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  179. Ip M., Wong K. L., Wong K. F., So S. Y. Lung injury in dimethyl sulfate poisoning. J Occup Med. 1989 Feb;31(2):141–143. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  180. Jenkins H. S., Devalia J. L., Mister R. L., Bevan A. M., Rusznak C., Davies R. J. The effect of exposure to ozone and nitrogen dioxide on the airway response of atopic asthmatics to inhaled allergen: dose- and time-dependent effects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Jul;160(1):33–39. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.1.9808119. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  181. Johnson E. S. Human exposure to 2,3,7,8-TCDD and risk of cancer. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1991;21(6):451–463. doi: 10.3109/10408449209089883. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  182. Jörres R., Nowak D., Magnussen H. The effect of ozone exposure on allergen responsiveness in subjects with asthma or rhinitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Jan;153(1):56–64. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.1.8542163. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  183. Kafoury R. M., Pryor W. A., Squadrito G. L., Salgo M. G., Zou X., Friedman M. Induction of inflammatory mediators in human airway epithelial cells by lipid ozonation products. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Dec;160(6):1934–1942. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.6.9902025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  184. Kamat S. R., Patel M. H., Pradhan P. V., Taskar S. P., Vaidya P. R., Kolhatkar V. P., Gopalani J. P., Chandarana J. P., Dalal N., Naik M. Sequential respiratory, psychologic, and immunologic studies in relation to methyl isocyanate exposure over two years with model development. Environ Health Perspect. 1992 Jul;97:241–253. doi: 10.1289/ehp.9297241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  185. Kanerva L., Keskinen H., Autio P., Estlander T., Tuppurainen M., Jolanki R. Occupational respiratory and skin sensitization caused by polyfunctional aziridine hardener. Clin Exp Allergy. 1995 May;25(5):432–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1995.tb01074.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  186. Kaufman J., Burkons D. Clinical, roentgenologic, and physiologic effects of acute chlorine exposure. Arch Environ Health. 1971 Jul;23(1):29–34. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1971.10665950. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  187. Kelman G. R. Effects of human exposure to atmospheric epsilon-caprolactam. Hum Toxicol. 1986 Jan;5(1):57–59. doi: 10.1177/096032718600500113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  188. Kennedy S. M., Enarson D. A., Janssen R. G., Chan-Yeung M. Lung health consequences of reported accidental chlorine gas exposures among pulpmill workers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Jan;143(1):74–79. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/143.1.74. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  189. Kesten S., Szalai J., Dzyngel B. Air quality and the frequency of emergency room visits for asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1995 Mar;74(3):269–273. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  190. Kielhorn J., Melber C., Wahnschaffe U., Aitio A., Mangelsdorf I. Vinyl chloride: still a cause for concern. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Jul;108(7):579–588. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108579. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  191. Kim C. W., Song J. S., Ahn Y. S., Park S. H., Park J. W., Noh J. H., Hong C. S. Occupational asthma due to formaldehyde. Yonsei Med J. 2001 Aug;42(4):440–445. doi: 10.3349/ymj.2001.42.4.440. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  192. Kinney P. L., Ozkaynak H. Associations of daily mortality and air pollution in Los Angeles County. Environ Res. 1991 Apr;54(2):99–120. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80094-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  193. Kinoshita M., Kawaguchi S., Higuchi E., Ichikawa Y., Oizumi K. [A case of dimethyl sulfate intoxication manifested by persistent dyspnea]. Nihon Kyobu Shikkan Gakkai Zasshi. 1992 May;30(5):959–963. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  194. Kleinman M. T., Bailey R. M., Linn W. S., Anderson K. R., Whynot J. D., Shamoo D. A., Hackney J. D. Effects of 0.2 ppm nitrogen dioxide on pulmonary function and response to bronchoprovocation in asthmatics. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1983 Oct-Dec;12(4-6):815–826. doi: 10.1080/15287398309530472. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  195. Klemme J. C., Mukhtar H., Elmets C. A. Induction of contact hypersensitivity to dimethylbenz(a)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene in C3H/HeN mice. Cancer Res. 1987 Nov 15;47(22):6074–6078. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  196. Klepeis N. E., Nelson W. C., Ott W. R., Robinson J. P., Tsang A. M., Switzer P., Behar J. V., Hern S. C., Engelmann W. H. The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2001 May-Jun;11(3):231–252. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500165. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  197. Koenig J. Q., Larson T. V., Hanley Q. S., Rebolledo V., Dumler K., Checkoway H., Wang S. Z., Lin D., Pierson W. E. Pulmonary function changes in children associated with fine particulate matter. Environ Res. 1993 Oct;63(1):26–38. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1993.1123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  198. Koenig J. Q., Pierson W. E., Horike M. The effects of inhaled sulfuric acid on pulmonary function in adolescent asthmatics. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1983 Aug;128(2):221–225. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1983.128.2.221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  199. Koren H. S., Devlin R. B. Human upper respiratory tract responses to inhaled pollutants with emphasis on nasal lavage. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1992 Apr 30;641:215–224. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1992.tb16545.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  200. Kriebel D., Myers D., Cheng M., Woskie S., Cocanour B. Short-term effects of formaldehyde on peak expiratory flow and irritant symptoms. Arch Environ Health. 2001 Jan-Feb;56(1):11–18. doi: 10.1080/00039890109604049. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  201. Krzyzanowski M., Quackenboss J. J., Lebowitz M. D. Chronic respiratory effects of indoor formaldehyde exposure. Environ Res. 1990 Aug;52(2):117–125. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80247-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  202. Kyle A. D., Wright C. C., Caldwell J. C., Buffler P. A., Woodruff T. J. Evaluating the health significance of hazardous air pollutants using monitoring data. Public Health Rep. 2001 Jan-Feb;116(1):32–44. doi: 10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50020-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  203. LOGAN W. P. D. Mortality in the London fog incident, 1952. Lancet. 1953 Feb 14;1(6755):336–338. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(53)91012-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  204. Laden F., Neas L. M., Dockery D. W., Schwartz J. Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Oct;108(10):941–947. doi: 10.1289/ehp.00108941. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  205. Langård S., Rosenberg J., Andersen A., Heldaas S. S. Incidence of cancer among workers exposed to vinyl chloride in polyvinyl chloride manufacture. Occup Environ Med. 2000 Jan;57(1):65–68. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.1.65. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  206. Latendresse J. R., Marit G. B., Vernot E. H., Haun C. C., Flemming C. D. Oncogenic potential of inhaled hydrazine in the nose of rats and hamsters after 1 or 10 1-hr exposures. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1995 Aug;27(1):33–48. doi: 10.1006/faat.1995.1106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  207. Leaderer B. P. Assessing exposures to environmental tobacco smoke. Risk Anal. 1990 Mar;10(1):19–26. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1990.tb01016.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  208. Leaderer B. P., Beckett W. S. Epidemiologic evidence of an association between air quality and asthma. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1997 May;49 (Suppl 3):39–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  209. Lee B. M., Strickland P. T. Antibodies to carcinogen-DNA adducts in mice chronically exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Immunol Lett. 1993 May;36(2):117–123. doi: 10.1016/0165-2478(93)90042-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  210. Lee C. C., Bhandari J. C., Winston J. M., House W. B., Peters P. J., Dixon R. L., Woods J. S. Inhalation toxicity of vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride. Environ Health Perspect. 1977 Dec;21:25–32. doi: 10.1289/ehp.772125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  211. Lee H. S., Wang Y. T., Cheong T. H., Tan K. T., Chee B. E., Narendran K. Occupational asthma due to maleic anhydride. Br J Ind Med. 1991 Apr;48(4):283–285. doi: 10.1136/oem.48.4.283. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  212. Lee J. J., McGarry M. P., Farmer S. C., Denzler K. L., Larson K. A., Carrigan P. E., Brenneise I. E., Horton M. A., Haczku A., Gelfand E. W. Interleukin-5 expression in the lung epithelium of transgenic mice leads to pulmonary changes pathognomonic of asthma. J Exp Med. 1997 Jun 16;185(12):2143–2156. doi: 10.1084/jem.185.12.2143. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  213. Lee K. P., Trochimowicz H. J. Induction of nasal tumors in rats exposed to hexamethylphosphoramide by inhalation. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1982 Jan;68(1):157–171. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  214. Leffler C. T., Milton D. K. Occupational asthma and contact dermatitis in a spray painter after introduction of an aziridine cross-linker. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jul;107(7):599–601. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107599. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  215. Leggett R. W., Munro N. B., Eckerman K. F. Proposed revision of the ICRP model for inhaled mercury vapor. Health Phys. 2001 Oct;81(4):450–455. doi: 10.1097/00004032-200110000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  216. Leikauf G. D., Kline S., Albert R. E., Baxter C. S., Bernstein D. I., Bernstein J., Buncher C. R. Evaluation of a possible association of urban air toxics and asthma. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Sep;103 (Suppl 6):253–271. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103s6253. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  217. Leikauf G. D., Leming L. M., O'Donnell J. R., Doupnik C. A. Bronchial responsiveness and inflammation in guinea pigs exposed to acrolein. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1989 Jan;66(1):171–178. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.66.1.171. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  218. Leikauf G. D., Zhao Q., Zhou S., Santrock J. Ozonolysis products of membrane fatty acids activate eicosanoid metabolism in human airway epithelial cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1993 Dec;9(6):594–602. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb/9.6.594. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  219. Lemus R., Abdelghani A. A., Akers T. G., Horner W. E. Potential health risks from exposure to indoor formaldehyde. Rev Environ Health. 1998 Jan-Jun;13(1-2):91–98. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  220. Leong B. K., Lund J. E., Groehn J. A., Coombs J. K., Sabaitis C. P., Weaver R. J., Griffin R. L. Retinopathy from inhaling 4,4'-methylenedianiline aerosols. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1987 Nov;9(4):645–658. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  221. Lerman S., Kipen H. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 1988 Dec;38(6):135–138. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  222. Leroyer C., Dewitte J. D., Bassanets A., Boutoux M., Daniel C., Clavier J. Occupational asthma due to chromium. Respiration. 1998;65(5):403–405. doi: 10.1159/000029303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  223. Leroyer C., Malo J. L., Girard D., Dufour J. G., Gautrin D. Chronic rhinitis in workers at risk of reactive airways dysfunction syndrome due to exposure to chlorine. Occup Environ Med. 1999 May;56(5):334–338. doi: 10.1136/oem.56.5.334. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  224. Leroyer C., Malo J. L., Infante-Rivard C., Dufour J. G., Gautrin D. Changes in airway function and bronchial responsiveness after acute occupational exposure to chlorine leading to treatment in a first aid unit. Occup Environ Med. 1998 May;55(5):356–359. doi: 10.1136/oem.55.5.356. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  225. Lilis R. Review of pulmonary effects of poly(vinyl chloride) and vinyl chloride exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 1981 Oct;41:167–169. doi: 10.1289/ehp.8141167. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  226. Lim H. E., Shim J. J., Lee S. Y., Lee S. H., Kang S. Y., Jo J. Y., In K. H., Kim H. G., Yoo S. H., Kang K. H. Mercury inhalation poisoning and acute lung injury. Korean J Intern Med. 1998 Jul;13(2):127–130. doi: 10.3904/kjim.1998.13.2.127. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  227. Lim S. C., Yang J. Y., Jang A. S., Park Y. U., Kim Y. C., Choi I. S., Park K. O. Acute lung injury after phosgene inhalation. Korean J Intern Med. 1996 Jan;11(1):87–92. doi: 10.3904/kjim.1996.11.1.87. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  228. Lipsett M., Campleman S. Occupational exposure to diesel exhaust and lung cancer: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 1999 Jul;89(7):1009–1017. doi: 10.2105/ajph.89.7.1009. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  229. Luebke R. W., Copeland C. B., Daniels M., Lambert A. L., Gilmour M. I. Suppression of allergic immune responses to house dust mite (HDM) in rats exposed to 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Toxicol Sci. 2001 Jul;62(1):71–79. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/62.1.71. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  230. Lushniak B. D., Reh C. M., Bernstein D. I., Gallagher J. S. Indirect assessment of 4,4'-diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI) exposure by evaluation of specific humoral immune responses to MDI conjugated to human serum albumin. Am J Ind Med. 1998 May;33(5):471–477. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199805)33:5<471::aid-ajim6>3.0.co;2-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  231. Maddalena R. L., McKone T. E., Layton D. W., Hsieh D. P. Comparison of multi-media transport and transformation models: regional fugacity model vs. CalTOX. Chemosphere. 1995 Mar;30(5):869–889. doi: 10.1016/0045-6535(94)00447-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  232. Malo J. L., Cartier A., Boulet L. P., L'Archeveque J., Saint-Denis F., Bherer L., Courteau J. P. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness can improve while spirometry plateaus two to three years after repeated exposure to chlorine causing respiratory symptoms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Oct;150(4):1142–1145. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.4.7921449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  233. Malo J. L., Cartier A., Doepner M., Nieboer E., Evans S., Dolovich J. Occupational asthma caused by nickel sulfate. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1982 Jan;69(1 Pt 1):55–59. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(82)90088-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  234. Malo J. L., Ghezzo H., Elie R. Occupational asthma caused by isocyanates: patterns of asthmatic reactions to increasing day-to-day doses. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Jun;159(6):1879–1883. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.6.9806159. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  235. Maltoni C. Occupational chemical carcinogenesis: new facts, priorities and perspectives. IARC Sci Publ. 1976;(13):127–149. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  236. Manfreda J., Becklake M. R., Sears M. R., Chan-Yeung M., Dimich-Ward H., Siersted H. C., Ernst P., Sweet L., Van Til L., Bowie D. M. Prevalence of asthma symptoms among adults aged 20-44 years in Canada. CMAJ. 2001 Apr 3;164(7):995–1001. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  237. Mapp C. E., Boschetto P., Dal Vecchio L., Maestrelli P., Fabbri L. M. Occupational asthma due to isocyanates. Eur Respir J. 1988 Mar;1(3):273–279. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  238. Marth E., Barth S., Jelovcan S. Influence of cadmium on the immune system. Description of stimulating reactions. Cent Eur J Public Health. 2000 Feb;8(1):40–44. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  239. Martinez F. D., Cline M., Burrows B. Increased incidence of asthma in children of smoking mothers. Pediatrics. 1992 Jan;89(1):21–26. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  240. Mathias R. A., Freidhoff L. R., Blumenthal M. N., Meyers D. A., Lester L., King R., Xu J. F., Solway J., Barnes K. C., Pierce J. Genome-wide linkage analyses of total serum IgE using variance components analysis in asthmatic families. Genet Epidemiol. 2001 Apr;20(3):340–355. doi: 10.1002/gepi.5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  241. Mathison B. H., Taylor M. L., Bogdanffy M. S. Dimethyl sulfate uptake and methylation of DNA in rat respiratory tissues following acute inhalation. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1995 Dec;28(2):255–263. doi: 10.1006/faat.1995.1166. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  242. Mauderly J. L., Banas D. A., Griffith W. C., Hahn F. F., Henderson R. F., McClellan R. O. Diesel exhaust is not a pulmonary carcinogen in CD-1 mice exposed under conditions carcinogenic to F344 rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1996 Apr;30(2):233–242. doi: 10.1006/faat.1996.0061. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  243. Mauderly J. L. Diesel emissions: is more health research still needed? Toxicol Sci. 2001 Jul;62(1):6–9. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/62.1.6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  244. Mauderly J. L., Jones R. K., Griffith W. C., Henderson R. F., McClellan R. O. Diesel exhaust is a pulmonary carcinogen in rats exposed chronically by inhalation. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1987 Aug;9(2):208–221. doi: 10.1016/0272-0590(87)90044-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  245. Mauderly J. L. Toxicological and epidemiological evidence for health risks from inhaled engine emissions. Environ Health Perspect. 1994 Oct;102 (Suppl 4):165–171. doi: 10.1289/ehp.94102s4165. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  246. McCallum R. I., Woolley V., Petrie A. Lung cancer associated with chloromethyl methyl ether manufacture: an investigation at two factories in the United Kingdom. Br J Ind Med. 1983 Nov;40(4):384–389. doi: 10.1136/oem.40.4.384. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  247. McDowell S. A., Gammon K., Bachurski C. J., Wiest J. S., Leikauf J. E., Prows D. R., Leikauf G. D. Differential gene expression in the initiation and progression of nickel-induced acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2000 Oct;23(4):466–474. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.23.4.4087. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  248. McLane M. P., Haczku A., van de Rijn M., Weiss C., Ferrante V., MacDonald D., Renauld J. C., Nicolaides N. C., Holroyd K. J., Levitt R. C. Interleukin-9 promotes allergen-induced eosinophilic inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in transgenic mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1998 Nov;19(5):713–720. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.19.5.3457. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  249. Meredith S. K., Bugler J., Clark R. L. Isocyanate exposure and occupational asthma: a case-referent study. Occup Environ Med. 2000 Dec;57(12):830–836. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.12.830. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  250. Meyers D. A., Wjst M., Ober C. Description of three data sets: Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Asthma (CSGA), the German Affected-Sib-Pair Study, and the Hutterites of South Dakota. Genet Epidemiol. 2001;21 (Suppl 1):S4–S8. doi: 10.1002/gepi.2001.21.s1.s4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  251. Milo G. E., Li D., Casto B. C., Theil K., Shuler C., Noyes I., Chen J. Malignant conversion of chemically transformed normal human cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 May 28;93(11):5229–5234. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.11.5229. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  252. Mirvish S. S., Nickols J., Weisenburger D. D., Johnson D., Joshi S. S., Kaplan P., Gross M., Tong H. Y. Effects of 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, pentachlorophenol, methylprednisolone, and Freund's adjuvant on 2-hydroxyethylnitrosourea carcinogenesis in MRC-Wistar rats. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1991 Jan;32(1):59–74. doi: 10.1080/15287399109531465. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  253. Moffatt M. F., Sharp P. A., Faux J. A., Young R. P., Cookson W. O., Hopkin J. M. Factors confounding genetic linkage between atopy and chromosome 11q. Clin Exp Allergy. 1992 Dec;22(12):1046–1051. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1992.tb00128.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  254. Molfino N. A., Slutsky A. S., Zamel N. The effects of air pollution on allergic bronchial responsiveness. Clin Exp Allergy. 1992 Jul;22(7):667–672. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1992.tb00189.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  255. Molfino N. A., Wright S. C., Katz I., Tarlo S., Silverman F., McClean P. A., Szalai J. P., Raizenne M., Slutsky A. S., Zamel N. Effect of low concentrations of ozone on inhaled allergen responses in asthmatic subjects. Lancet. 1991 Jul 27;338(8761):199–203. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)90346-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  256. Moller D. R., McKay R. T., Bernstein I. L., Brooks S. M. Persistent airways disease caused by toluene diisocyanate. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 Jul;134(1):175–176. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1986.134.1.175. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  257. Moolgavkar S. H., Luebeck E. G. Incorporating cell proliferation kinetics into models for cancer risk assessment. Toxicology. 1995 Sep 1;102(1-2):141–147. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(95)03043-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  258. Moore B. B., Sherman M. Chronic reactive airway disease following acute chlorine gas exposure in an asymptomatic atopic patient. Chest. 1991 Sep;100(3):855–856. doi: 10.1378/chest.100.3.855. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  259. Morello-Frosch R. A., Woodruff T. J., Axelrad D. A., Caldwell J. C. Air toxics and health risks in California: the public health implications of outdoor concentrations. Risk Anal. 2000 Apr;20(2):273–291. doi: 10.1111/0272-4332.202026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  260. Moscato G., Biscaldi G., Cottica D., Pugliese F., Candura S., Candura F. Occupational asthma due to styrene: two case reports. J Occup Med. 1987 Dec;29(12):957–960. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  261. Moscato G., Marraccini P., Dellabianca A., Vinci G., Candura S. M. Asma e rinite professionali da stirene. G Ital Med Lav. 1988 Nov;10(6):253–259. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  262. Muller H. K., Bucana C., Kripke M. L. Antigen presentation in the skin: modulation by u.v. radiation and chemical carcinogens. Semin Immunol. 1992 Aug;4(4):205–215. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  263. Muller H. K., Halliday G. M., Knight B. A. Carcinogen-induced depletion of cutaneous Langerhans cells. Br J Cancer. 1985 Jul;52(1):81–85. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1985.152. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  264. Myou S., Fujimura M., Nishi K., Ohka T., Matsuda T. Aerosolized acetaldehyde induces histamine-mediated bronchoconstriction in asthmatics. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Oct;148(4 Pt 1):940–943. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.4_Pt_1.940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  265. Mølhave L. Indoor climate, air pollution, and human comfort. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1991 Jan;1(1):63–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  266. Nel A. E., Diaz-Sanchez D., Ng D., Hiura T., Saxon A. Enhancement of allergic inflammation by the interaction between diesel exhaust particles and the immune system. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1998 Oct;102(4 Pt 1):539–554. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(98)70269-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  267. Nemery B. Metal toxicity and the respiratory tract. Eur Respir J. 1990 Feb;3(2):202–219. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  268. Nesnow S., Triplett L. L., Slaga T. J. Studies on the tumor initiating, tumor promoting, and tumor co-initiating properties of respiratory carcinogens. Carcinog Compr Surv. 1985;8:257–277. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  269. Neuspiel D. R., Rush D., Butler N. R., Golding J., Bijur P. E., Kurzon M. Parental smoking and post-infancy wheezing in children: a prospective cohort study. Am J Public Health. 1989 Feb;79(2):168–171. doi: 10.2105/ajph.79.2.168. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  270. Newton P. E., Bolte H. F., Daly I. W., Pillsbury B. D., Terrill J. B., Drew R. T., Ben-Dyke R., Sheldon A. W., Rubin L. F. Subchronic and chronic inhalation toxicity of antimony trioxide in the rat. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1994 May;22(4):561–576. doi: 10.1006/faat.1994.1063. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  271. Nielsen J., Bensryd I., Almquist H., Dahlqvist M., Welinder H., Alexandersson R., Skerfving S. Serum IgE and lung function in workers exposed to phthalic anhydride. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1991;63(3):199–204. doi: 10.1007/BF00381569. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  272. Nikula K. J., Avila K. J., Griffith W. C., Mauderly J. L. Lung tissue responses and sites of particle retention differ between rats and cynomolgus monkeys exposed chronically to diesel exhaust and coal dust. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1997 May;37(1):37–53. doi: 10.1006/faat.1997.2297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  273. Nordenhäll C., Pourazar J., Ledin M. C., Levin J. O., Sandström T., Adelroth E. Diesel exhaust enhances airway responsiveness in asthmatic subjects. Eur Respir J. 2001 May;17(5):909–915. doi: 10.1183/09031936.01.17509090. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  274. Norris G., YoungPong S. N., Koenig J. Q., Larson T. V., Sheppard L., Stout J. W. An association between fine particles and asthma emergency department visits for children in Seattle. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Jun;107(6):489–493. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107489. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  275. Novey H. S., Habib M., Wells I. D. Asthma and IgE antibodies induced by chromium and nickel salts. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1983 Oct;72(4):407–412. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(83)90507-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  276. Novey H. S., Martel S. H. Asthma, arsenic, and cancer. J Allergy. 1969 Nov;44(5):315–319. doi: 10.1016/0021-8707(69)90036-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  277. O'Hollaren M. T., Yunginger J. W., Offord K. P., Somers M. J., O'Connell E. J., Ballard D. J., Sachs M. I. Exposure to an aeroallergen as a possible precipitating factor in respiratory arrest in young patients with asthma. N Engl J Med. 1991 Feb 7;324(6):359–363. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199102073240602. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  278. OLD L. J., BENACERRAF B., CARSWELL E. Contact reactivity to carcinogenic polycyclic hydrocarbons. Nature. 1963 Jun 22;198:1215–1216. doi: 10.1038/1981215a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  279. Ober C., Cox N. J., Abney M., Di Rienzo A., Lander E. S., Changyaleket B., Gidley H., Kurtz B., Lee J., Nance M. Genome-wide search for asthma susceptibility loci in a founder population. The Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Asthma. Hum Mol Genet. 1998 Sep;7(9):1393–1398. doi: 10.1093/hmg/7.9.1393. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  280. Oberdörster G. Airborne cadmium and carcinogenesis of the respiratory tract. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1986 Dec;12(6):523–537. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  281. Obtułowicz K., Kołarzyk E., Łaczkowska T., Porebski G., Zapolska I., Hudzik A. Alergiczne choroby zawodowe w hutnictwie. Badania populacyjne. Przegl Lek. 2000;57(9):446–450. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  282. Ohta K., Yamashita N., Tajima M., Miyasaka T., Nakano J., Nakajima M., Ishii A., Horiuchi T., Mano K., Miyamoto T. Diesel exhaust particulate induces airway hyperresponsiveness in a murine model: essential role of GM-CSF. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1999 Nov;104(5):1024–1030. doi: 10.1016/s0091-6749(99)70084-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  283. Oie L., Hersoug L. G., Madsen J. O. Residential exposure to plasticizers and its possible role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Sep;105(9):972–978. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105972. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  284. Olaguibel J. M., Basomba A. Occupational asthma induced by chromium salts. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 1989 May-Jun;17(3):133–136. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  285. Orehek J., Massari J. P., Gayrard P., Grimaud C., Charpin J. Effect of short-term, low-level nitrogen dioxide exposure on bronchial sensitivity of asthmatic patients. J Clin Invest. 1976 Feb;57(2):301–307. doi: 10.1172/JCI108281. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  286. Orloff K. G., Batts-Osborne D., Kilgus T., Metcalf S., Cooper M. Antibodies to toluene diisocyanate in an environmentally exposed population. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Oct;106(10):665–666. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106665. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  287. Ormstad H., Johansen B. V., Gaarder P. I. Airborne house dust particles and diesel exhaust particles as allergen carriers. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998 Jun;28(6):702–708. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00302.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  288. Ostro B. D. Associations between morbidity and alternative measures of particulate matter. Risk Anal. 1990 Sep;10(3):421–427. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1990.tb00525.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  289. Ostro B. D., Lipsett M. J., Wiener M. B., Selner J. C. Asthmatic responses to airborne acid aerosols. Am J Public Health. 1991 Jun;81(6):694–702. doi: 10.2105/ajph.81.6.694. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  290. Ostro B. D., Rothschild S. Air pollution and acute respiratory morbidity: an observational study of multiple pollutants. Environ Res. 1989 Dec;50(2):238–247. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(89)80004-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  291. Ostro B., Lipsett M., Mann J., Braxton-Owens H., White M. Air pollution and exacerbation of asthma in African-American children in Los Angeles. Epidemiology. 2001 Mar;12(2):200–208. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200103000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  292. Ostro B. The association of air pollution and mortality: examining the case for inference. Arch Environ Health. 1993 Sep-Oct;48(5):336–342. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1993.9936722. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  293. Ott M. G., Klees J. E., Poche S. L. Respiratory health surveillance in a toluene di-isocyanate production unit, 1967-97: clinical observations and lung function analyses. Occup Environ Med. 2000 Jan;57(1):43–52. doi: 10.1136/oem.57.1.43. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  294. Ozkaynak H., Spengler J. D. Analysis of health effects resulting from population exposures to acid precipitation precursors. Environ Health Perspect. 1985 Nov;63:45–55. doi: 10.1289/ehp.856345. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  295. Ozkaynak H., Thurston G. D. Associations between 1980 U.S. mortality rates and alternative measures of airborne particle concentration. Risk Anal. 1987 Dec;7(4):449–461. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1987.tb00482.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  296. Palmer L. J., Rye P. J., Gibson N. A., Moffatt M. F., Goldblatt J., Burton P. R., Cookson W. O., Lesouëf P. N. Association of FcepsilonR1-beta polymorphisms with asthma and associated traits in Australian asthmatic families. Clin Exp Allergy. 1999 Nov;29(11):1555–1562. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1999.00718.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  297. Pappas G. P., Herbert R. J., Henderson W., Koenig J., Stover B., Barnhart S. The respiratory effects of volatile organic compounds. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2000 Jan-Mar;6(1):1–8. doi: 10.1179/oeh.2000.6.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  298. Park H. S., Yu H. J., Jung K. S. Occupational asthma caused by chromium. Clin Exp Allergy. 1994 Jul;24(7):676–681. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1994.tb00972.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  299. Pauluhn J., Mohr U. Assessment of respiratory hypersensitivity in guinea-pigs sensitized to diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate (MDI) and challenged with MDI, acetylcholine or MDI-albumin conjugate. Toxicology. 1994 Sep 6;92(1-3):53–74. doi: 10.1016/0300-483x(94)90167-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  300. Pauluhn J., Thiel A., Emura M., Mohr U. Respiratory sensitization to diphenyl-methane-4,4'-diisocyanate (MDI) in guinea pigs: impact of particle size on induction and elicitation of response. Toxicol Sci. 2000 Jul;56(1):105–113. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/56.1.105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  301. Pepelko W. E., Chen C. Quantitative assessment of cancer risk from exposure to diesel engine emissions. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1993 Feb;17(1):52–65. doi: 10.1006/rtph.1993.1006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  302. Pesatori A. C., Zocchetti C., Guercilena S., Consonni D., Turrini D., Bertazzi P. A. Dioxin exposure and non-malignant health effects: a mortality study. Occup Environ Med. 1998 Feb;55(2):126–131. doi: 10.1136/oem.55.2.126. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  303. Peters A., Dockery D. W., Muller J. E., Mittleman M. A. Increased particulate air pollution and the triggering of myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2001 Jun 12;103(23):2810–2815. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.103.23.2810. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  304. Peters J. M., Avol E., Navidi W., London S. J., Gauderman W. J., Lurmann F., Linn W. S., Margolis H., Rappaport E., Gong H. A study of twelve Southern California communities with differing levels and types of air pollution. I. Prevalence of respiratory morbidity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Mar;159(3):760–767. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.159.3.9804143. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  305. Phillips M. L., Hall T. A., Esmen N. A., Lynch R., Johnson D. L. Use of global positioning system technology to track subject's location during environmental exposure sampling. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 2001 May-Jun;11(3):207–215. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500161. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  306. Pickering C. A., Bainbridge D., Birtwistle I. H., Griffiths D. L. Occupational asthma due to methyl methacrylate in an orthopaedic theatre sister. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986 May 24;292(6532):1362–1363. doi: 10.1136/bmj.292.6532.1362. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  307. Piipari R., Tuppurainen M., Tuomi T., Mäntylä L., Henriks-Eckerman M. L., Keskinen H., Nordman H. Diethanolamine-induced occupational asthma, a case report. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998 Mar;28(3):358–362. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00232.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  308. Piirilä P. L., Nordman H., Keskinen H. M., Luukkonen R., Salo S. P., Tuomi T. O., Tuppurainen M. Long-term follow-up of hexamethylene diisocyanate-, diphenylmethane diisocyanate-, and toluene diisocyanate-induced asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000 Aug;162(2 Pt 1):516–522. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9909026. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  309. Pope C. A., 3rd, Dockery D. W. Acute health effects of PM10 pollution on symptomatic and asymptomatic children. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 May;145(5):1123–1128. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.5.1123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  310. Pope C. A., 3rd, Dockery D. W., Spengler J. D., Raizenne M. E. Respiratory health and PM10 pollution. A daily time series analysis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Sep;144(3 Pt 1):668–674. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.3_Pt_1.668. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  311. Pope C. A., 3rd, Kanner R. E. Acute effects of PM10 pollution on pulmonary function of smokers with mild to moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Jun;147(6 Pt 1):1336–1340. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/147.6_Pt_1.1336. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  312. Pope C. A., 3rd Respiratory hospital admissions associated with PM10 pollution in Utah, Salt Lake, and Cache Valleys. Arch Environ Health. 1991 Mar-Apr;46(2):90–97. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1991.9937434. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  313. Pope C. A., 3rd, Schwartz J., Ransom M. R. Daily mortality and PM10 pollution in Utah Valley. Arch Environ Health. 1992 May-Jun;47(3):211–217. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1992.9938351. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  314. Pope C. Arden, 3rd, Burnett Richard T., Thun Michael J., Calle Eugenia E., Krewski Daniel, Ito Kazuhiko, Thurston George D. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA. 2002 Mar 6;287(9):1132–1141. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.9.1132. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  315. Postma D. S., Bleecker E. R., Amelung P. J., Holroyd K. J., Xu J., Panhuysen C. I., Meyers D. A., Levitt R. C. Genetic susceptibility to asthma--bronchial hyperresponsiveness coinherited with a major gene for atopy. N Engl J Med. 1995 Oct 5;333(14):894–900. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199510053331402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  316. Prieto L., Sánchez-Toril F., Brotons B., Soriano S., Casañ R., Belenguer J. L. Airway responsiveness to acetaldehyde in patients with asthma: relationship to methacholine responsiveness and peak expiratory flow variation. Clin Exp Allergy. 2000 Jan;30(1):71–78. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00672.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  317. Prows D. R., Leikauf G. D. Quantitative trait analysis of nickel-induced acute lung injury in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2001 Jun;24(6):740–746. doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.24.6.4303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  318. Pryor W. A. How far does ozone penetrate into the pulmonary air/tissue boundary before it reacts? Free Radic Biol Med. 1992;12(1):83–88. doi: 10.1016/0891-5849(92)90060-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  319. Pönkä A. Asthma and low level air pollution in Helsinki. Arch Environ Health. 1991 Sep-Oct;46(5):262–270. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1991.9934386. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  320. Queirós M., Bonito-Vitor A., Costa-Pereira A., Maia J. C. Childhood asthma and outdoor air pollution in Oporto area. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 1990 Sep-Oct;18(5):291–295. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  321. Rajan K. G., Davies B. H. Reversible airways obstruction and interstitial pneumonitis due to acetic acid. Br J Ind Med. 1989 Jan;46(1):67–68. doi: 10.1136/oem.46.1.67. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  322. Ransom M. R., Pope C. A., 3rd Elementary school absences and PM10 pollution in Utah Valley. Environ Res. 1992 Aug;58(2):204–219. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80216-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  323. Rassokhin V. M., Tuzulukov A. P. Lechenie khloristym margantsem bol'nykh bronkhial'noi astmoi. Vrach Delo. 1968 Nov;11:125–127. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  324. Redlich C. A., Stowe M. H., Wisnewski A. V., Eisen E. A., Karol M. H., Lemus R., Holm C. T., Chung J. S., Sparer J., Liu Y. Subclinical immunologic and physiologic responses in hexamethylene diisocyanate-exposed auto body shop workers. Am J Ind Med. 2001 Jun;39(6):587–597. doi: 10.1002/ajim.1058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  325. Reinhold R. W., Hoffman G. M., Bolte H. F., Rinehart W. E., Rusch G. M., Parod R. J., Kayser M. Subchronic inhalation toxicity study of caprolactam (with a 4-week recovery) in the rat via whole-body exposures. Toxicol Sci. 1998 Aug;44(2):197–205. doi: 10.1006/toxs.1998.2482. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  326. Rennick G. J., Jarman F. C. Are children with asthma affected by smog? Med J Aust. 1992 Jun 15;156(12):837–841. doi: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1992.tb136995.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  327. Richards W. Effects of air pollution on asthma. Ann Allergy. 1990 Nov;65(5):345–347. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  328. Richardson D. B. Respiratory effects of chronic hydrogen sulfide exposure. Am J Ind Med. 1995 Jul;28(1):99–108. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700280109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  329. Robertson G. L., Lebowitz M. D., O'Rourke M. K., Gordon S., Moschandreas D. The National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) study in Arizona--introduction and preliminary results. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Sep-Oct;9(5):427–434. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  330. Robinson J. C., Paxman D. G. The role of threshold limit values in U.S. air pollution policy. Am J Ind Med. 1992;21(3):383–396. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700210311. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  331. Romieu I., Meneses F., Ruiz S., Sienra J. J., Huerta J., White M. C., Etzel R. A. Effects of air pollution on the respiratory health of asthmatic children living in Mexico City. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Aug;154(2 Pt 1):300–307. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.2.8756798. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  332. Rosenbaum A. S., Axelrad D. A., Woodruff T. J., Wei Y. H., Ligocki M. P., Cohen J. P. National estimates of outdoor air toxics concentrations. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 1999 Oct;49(10):1138–1152. doi: 10.1080/10473289.1999.10463919. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  333. Rossi O. V., Kinnula V. L., Tienari J., Huhti E. Association of severe asthma attacks with weather, pollen, and air pollutants. Thorax. 1993 Mar;48(3):244–248. doi: 10.1136/thx.48.3.244. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  334. Rothery S. P. Hazards of chlorine to asthmatic patients. Br J Gen Pract. 1991 Jan;41(342):39–39. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  335. Rowens B., Guerrero-Betancourt D., Gottlieb C. A., Boyes R. J., Eichenhorn M. S. Respiratory failure and death following acute inhalation of mercury vapor. A clinical and histologic perspective. Chest. 1991 Jan;99(1):185–190. doi: 10.1378/chest.99.1.185. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  336. Royce S., Wald P., Sheppard D., Balmes J. Occupational asthma in a pesticides manufacturing worker. Chest. 1993 Jan;103(1):295–296. doi: 10.1378/chest.103.1.295. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  337. Rutishauser M., Ackermann U., Braun C., Gnehm H. P., Wanner H. U. Significant association between outdoor NO2 and respiratory symptoms in preschool children. Lung. 1990;168 (Suppl):347–352. doi: 10.1007/BF02718151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  338. Ríos-Blanco M. N., Faller T. H., Nakamura J., Kessler W., Kreuzer P. E., Ranasinghe A., Filser J. G., Swenberg J. A. Quantitation of DNA and hemoglobin adducts and apurinic/apyrimidinic sites in tissues of F344 rats exposed to propylene oxide by inhalation. Carcinogenesis. 2000 Nov;21(11):2011–2018. doi: 10.1093/carcin/21.11.2011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  339. Sakano K., Oikawa S., Murata M., Hiraku Y., Kojima N., Kawanishi S. Mechanism of metal-mediated DNA damage induced by metabolites of carcinogenic 2-nitropropane. Mutat Res. 2001 Aug 8;479(1-2):101–111. doi: 10.1016/s0027-5107(01)00158-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  340. Salnikow K., An W. G., Melillo G., Blagosklonny M. V., Costa M. Nickel-induced transformation shifts the balance between HIF-1 and p53 transcription factors. Carcinogenesis. 1999 Sep;20(9):1819–1823. doi: 10.1093/carcin/20.9.1819. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  341. Salnikow K., Su W., Blagosklonny M. V., Costa M. Carcinogenic metals induce hypoxia-inducible factor-stimulated transcription by reactive oxygen species-independent mechanism. Cancer Res. 2000 Jul 1;60(13):3375–3378. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  342. Salome C. M., Marks G. B., Savides P., Xuan W., Woolcock A. J. The effect of insecticide aerosols on lung function, airway responsiveness and symptoms in asthmatic subjects. Eur Respir J. 2000 Jul;16(1):38–43. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.16a07.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  343. Samet J. M., Bishop Y., Speizer F. E., Spengler J. D., Ferris B. G., Jr The relationship between air pollution and emergency room visits in an industrial community. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1981 Mar;31(3):236–240. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1981.10465214. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  344. Samet J. M., Dominici F., Curriero F. C., Coursac I., Zeger S. L. Fine particulate air pollution and mortality in 20 U.S. cities, 1987-1994. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 14;343(24):1742–1749. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200012143432401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  345. Santrock J., Gorski R. A., O'Gara J. F. Products and mechanism of the reaction of ozone with phospholipids in unilamellar phospholipid vesicles. Chem Res Toxicol. 1992 Jan-Feb;5(1):134–141. doi: 10.1021/tx00025a023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  346. Sastre J., Fernández-Nieto M., Marañn F., Fernandez-Caldas E., Pelta R., Quirce S. Allergenic cross-reactivity between nickel and chromium salts in electroplating-induced asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Oct;108(4):650–651. doi: 10.1067/mai.2001.118294. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  347. Saxena A. K., Singh K. P., Dutta K. K., Gupta G. S., Nagale S. L., Mishra A., Zaidi S. I., Ray P. K. Inhalation toxicity studies of methyl isocyanate (MIC) in rats: Part V--Immunologic response of rats two weeks after exposure: phagocytic response, endotoxin susceptibility, local lung immunity, mitogenic and DTH response. Indian J Exp Biol. 1988 Mar;26(3):195–200. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  348. Saxon A., Diaz-Sanchez D. Diesel exhaust as a model xenobiotic in allergic inflammation. Immunopharmacology. 2000 Jul 25;48(3):325–327. doi: 10.1016/s0162-3109(00)00234-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  349. Schenker M. B., Gold E. B., Lopez R. L., Beaumont J. J. Asthma mortality in California, 1960-1989. Demographic patterns and occupational associations. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Jun;147(6 Pt 1):1454–1460. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/147.6_Pt_1.1454. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  350. Schins R. P., Emmen H., Hoogendijk L., Borm P. J. Nasal inflammatory and respiratory parameters in human volunteers during and after repeated exposure to chlorine. Eur Respir J. 2000 Oct;16(4):626–632. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.16d10.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  351. Schneider P., Gebefügi I., Richter K., Wölke G. W., Schneille J., Wichmann H. E., Heinrich J., INGA Study Group. INdoor exposure and Genetics in Asthma Indoor and outdoor BTX levels in German cities. Sci Total Environ. 2001 Feb 21;267(1-3):41–51. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(00)00766-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  352. Schneider P., Lörinci G., Gebefügi I. L., Heinrich J., Kettrup A., Wichmann H. E. Vertical and horizontal variability of volatile organic compounds in homes in Eastern Germany. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Jul-Aug;9(4):282–292. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  353. Schnitzer J. E., Oh P. Aquaporin-1 in plasma membrane and caveolae provides mercury-sensitive water channels across lung endothelium. Am J Physiol. 1996 Jan;270(1 Pt 2):H416–H422. doi: 10.1152/ajpheart.1996.270.1.H416. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  354. Schwartz J., Dockery D. W. Increased mortality in Philadelphia associated with daily air pollution concentrations. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Mar;145(3):600–604. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.3.600. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  355. Schwartz J., Dockery D. W., Neas L. M., Wypij D., Ware J. H., Spengler J. D., Koutrakis P., Speizer F. E., Ferris B. G., Jr Acute effects of summer air pollution on respiratory symptom reporting in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Nov;150(5 Pt 1):1234–1242. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.150.5.7952546. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  356. Schwartz J., Dockery D. W. Particulate air pollution and daily mortality in Steubenville, Ohio. Am J Epidemiol. 1992 Jan 1;135(1):12–25. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  357. Schwartz J., Gold D., Dockery D. W., Weiss S. T., Speizer F. E. Predictors of asthma and persistent wheeze in a national sample of children in the United States. Association with social class, perinatal events, and race. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990 Sep;142(3):555–562. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/142.3.555. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  358. Schwartz J. Lung function and chronic exposure to air pollution: a cross-sectional analysis of NHANES II. Environ Res. 1989 Dec;50(2):309–321. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(89)80012-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  359. Schwartz J., Marcus A. Mortality and air pollution in London: a time series analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 1990 Jan;131(1):185–194. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115473. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  360. Schwartz J. Particulate air pollution and daily mortality in Detroit. Environ Res. 1991 Dec;56(2):204–213. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(05)80009-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  361. Schwartz J. Particulate air pollution and daily mortality: a synthesis. Public Health Rev. 1991;19(1-4):39–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  362. Schwartz J., Slater D., Larson T. V., Pierson W. E., Koenig J. Q. Particulate air pollution and hospital emergency room visits for asthma in Seattle. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Apr;147(4):826–831. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/147.4.826. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  363. Schönhofer B., Voshaar T., Köhler D. Long-term lung sequelae following accidental chlorine gas exposure. Respiration. 1996;63(3):155–159. doi: 10.1159/000196536. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  364. Segerbäck D., Plná K., Faller T., Kreuzer P. E., Hakansson K., Filser J. G., Nilsson R. Tissue distribution of DNA adducts in male Fischer rats exposed to 500 ppm of propylene oxide: quantitative analysis of 7-(2-hydroxypropyl)guanine by 32P-postlabelling. Chem Biol Interact. 1998 Oct 2;115(3):229–246. doi: 10.1016/s0009-2797(98)00076-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  365. Seltzer J., Bigby B. G., Stulbarg M., Holtzman M. J., Nadel J. A., Ueki I. F., Leikauf G. D., Goetzl E. J., Boushey H. A. O3-induced change in bronchial reactivity to methacholine and airway inflammation in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1986 Apr;60(4):1321–1326. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.60.4.1321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  366. Senthilselvan A., McDuffie H. H., Dosman J. A. Association of asthma with use of pesticides. Results of a cross-sectional survey of farmers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Oct;146(4):884–887. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/146.4.884. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  367. Senthilselvan A., McDuffie H. H., Dosman J. A. Association of asthma with use of pesticides. Results of a cross-sectional survey of farmers. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Oct;146(4):884–887. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/146.4.884. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  368. Sheikh S., Goldsmith L. J., Howell L., Parry L., Eid N. Comparison of lung function in infants exposed to maternal smoking and in infants with a family history of asthma. Chest. 1999 Jul;116(1):52–58. doi: 10.1378/chest.116.1.52. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  369. Sheppard D., Wong W. S., Uehara C. F., Nadel J. A., Boushey H. A. Lower threshold and greater bronchomotor responsiveness of asthmatic subjects to sulfur dioxide. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980 Dec;122(6):873–878. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1980.122.6.873. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  370. Sheppard L., Levy D., Norris G., Larson T. V., Koenig J. Q. Effects of ambient air pollution on nonelderly asthma hospital admissions in Seattle, Washington, 1987-1994. Epidemiology. 1999 Jan;10(1):23–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  371. Smith J. S., Mendeloff J. M. A quantitative analysis of factors affecting PELs and TLVs for carcinogens. Risk Anal. 1999 Dec;19(6):1223–1234. doi: 10.1023/a:1007051215650. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  372. Spektor D. M., Leikauf G. D., Albert R. E., Lippmann M. Effects of submicrometer sulfuric acid aerosols on mucociliary transport and respiratory mechanics in asymptomatic asthmatics. Environ Res. 1985 Jun;37(1):174–191. doi: 10.1016/0013-9351(85)90056-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  373. Spitzer W. O., Suissa S., Ernst P., Horwitz R. I., Habbick B., Cockcroft D., Boivin J. F., McNutt M., Buist A. S., Rebuck A. S. The use of beta-agonists and the risk of death and near death from asthma. N Engl J Med. 1992 Feb 20;326(8):501–506. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199202203260801. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  374. Srivastava R. K., Vijayaraghavan R., Kumar P., Pant S. C., Sharma S. K., Sachan A. S., Kaushik M. P. Effects of inhaled sublethal concentration of methyl isocyanate on lung mechanics in rats. Indian J Exp Biol. 1987 Aug;25(8):535–538. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  375. Stain J. P., Nouvet G., Morere P. Intoxication par inhalation de diazométhane. Toxicol Eur Res. 1983 Sep;5(5):217–219. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  376. Stavert D. M., Archuleta D. C., Behr M. J., Lehnert B. E. Relative acute toxicities of hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen bromide in nose- and pseudo-mouth-breathing rats. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1991 May;16(4):636–655. doi: 10.1016/0272-0590(91)90152-t. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  377. Steenland K., Deddens J., Stayner L. Diesel exhaust and lung cancer in the trucking industry: exposure-response analyses and risk assessment. Am J Ind Med. 1998 Sep;34(3):220–228. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199809)34:3<220::aid-ajim3>3.0.co;2-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  378. Stein R. T., Holberg C. J., Sherrill D., Wright A. L., Morgan W. J., Taussig L., Martinez F. D. Influence of parental smoking on respiratory symptoms during the first decade of life: the Tucson Children's Respiratory Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1999 Jun 1;149(11):1030–1037. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009748. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  379. Stephens E. A., Taylor J. A., Kaplan N., Yang C. H., Hsieh L. L., Lucier G. W., Bell D. A. Ethnic variation in the CYP2E1 gene: polymorphism analysis of 695 African-Americans, European-Americans and Taiwanese. Pharmacogenetics. 1994 Aug;4(4):185–192. doi: 10.1097/00008571-199408000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  380. Stick S. M., Burton P. R., Gurrin L., Sly P. D., LeSouëf P. N. Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and a family history of asthma on respiratory function in newborn infants. Lancet. 1996 Oct 19;348(9034):1060–1064. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(96)04446-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  381. Strachan D. P., Cook D. G. Health effects of passive smoking. 1. Parental smoking and lower respiratory illness in infancy and early childhood. Thorax. 1997 Oct;52(10):905–914. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.10.905. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  382. Strand V., Svartengren M., Rak S., Barck C., Bylin G. Repeated exposure to an ambient level of NO2 enhances asthmatic response to a nonsymptomatic allergen dose. Eur Respir J. 1998 Jul;12(1):6–12. doi: 10.1183/09031936.98.12010006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  383. Swaminathan S., Hatcher J. F. Xanthine oxidase-mediated mutagenicity of the bladder carcinogen 4-nitrobiphenyl. Mutat Res. 1986 Oct;172(1):37–45. doi: 10.1016/0165-1218(86)90103-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  384. Swiecichowski A. L., Long K. J., Miller M. L., Leikauf G. D. Formaldehyde-induced airway hyperreactivity in vivo and ex vivo in guinea pigs. Environ Res. 1993 May;61(2):185–199. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1993.1063. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  385. Symula D. J., Frazer K. A., Ueda Y., Denefle P., Stevens M. E., Wang Z. E., Locksley R., Rubin E. M. Functional screening of an asthma QTL in YAC transgenic mice. Nat Genet. 1999 Oct;23(2):241–244. doi: 10.1038/13880. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  386. Søyseth V., Kongerud J. Prevalence of respiratory disorders among aluminium potroom workers in relation to exposure to fluoride. Br J Ind Med. 1992 Feb;49(2):125–130. doi: 10.1136/oem.49.2.125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  387. Tager I. B., Ngo L., Hanrahan J. P. Maternal smoking during pregnancy. Effects on lung function during the first 18 months of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Sep;152(3):977–983. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.3.7663813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  388. Takano H., Yoshikawa T., Ichinose T., Miyabara Y., Imaoka K., Sagai M. Diesel exhaust particles enhance antigen-induced airway inflammation and local cytokine expression in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Jul;156(1):36–42. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.156.1.9610054. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  389. Tan W., Chen G. F., Xing D. Y., Song C. Y., Kadlubar F. F., Lin D. X. Frequency of CYP2A6 gene deletion and its relation to risk of lung and esophageal cancer in the Chinese population. Int J Cancer. 2001 Mar 20;95(2):96–101. doi: 10.1002/1097-0215(20010320)95:2<96::aid-ijc1017>3.0.co;2-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  390. Tarlo S. M., Broder I. Irritant-induced occupational asthma. Chest. 1989 Aug;96(2):297–300. doi: 10.1378/chest.96.2.297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  391. Taub S. J. The role of arsenic in chronic asthma and cancer. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon. 1970 Feb;49(2):80–81. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  392. Taylor A. J. Acid anhydrides. Clin Exp Allergy. 1991 Jan;21 (Suppl 1):234–240. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1991.tb01734.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  393. Teitelbaum D. T. The toxicology of 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP): a brief review. Int J Occup Environ Health. 1999 Apr-Jun;5(2):122–126. doi: 10.1179/oeh.1999.5.2.122. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  394. Terracini B., Testa M. C., Cabral J. R., Rossi L. The roles of age at treatment and dose in carcinogenesis in C3Hf/Dp mice with a single administration of N-nitroso-N-methylurea. Br J Cancer. 1976 Apr;33(4):427–439. doi: 10.1038/bjc.1976.68. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  395. Theiss J. C., Stoner G. D., Shimkin M. B., Weisburger E. K. Test for carcinogenicity of organic contaminants of United States drinking waters by pulmonary tumor response in strain A mice. Cancer Res. 1977 Aug;37(8 Pt 1):2717–2720. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  396. Thompson A. J., Shields M. D., Patterson C. C. Acute asthma exacerbations and air pollutants in children living in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Arch Environ Health. 2001 May-Jun;56(3):234–241. doi: 10.1080/00039890109604447. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  397. Timmer S., Rosenman K. Occurrence of occupational asthma. Chest. 1993 Sep;104(3):816–820. doi: 10.1378/chest.104.3.816. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  398. Torén K., Hagberg S., Westberg H. Health effects of working in pulp and paper mills: exposure, obstructive airways diseases, hypersensitivity reactions, and cardiovascular diseases. Am J Ind Med. 1996 Feb;29(2):111–122. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0274(199602)29:2<111::AID-AJIM1>3.0.CO;2-V. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  399. Triolo A. J., Lang W. R., Coon J. M., Lindstrom D., Herr D. L. Effect of the insecticides toxaphene and carbaryl on induction of lung tumors by benzo[a]pyrene in the mouse. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1982 Apr;9(4):637–649. doi: 10.1080/15287398209530192. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  400. Tseng R. Y., Li C. K. Low level atmospheric sulfur dioxide pollution and childhood asthma. Ann Allergy. 1990 Nov;65(5):379–383. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  401. Tuma S. N., Orson F., Fossella F. V., Waidhofer W. Seizures and dermatitis after exposure to caprolactam. Arch Intern Med. 1981 Oct;141(11):1544–1545. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  402. Turato G., Saetta M. Why does airway obstruction persist in asthma due to low-molecular-weight agents? A Pathologistís view. Occup Med. 2000 Apr-Jun;15(2):445–454. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  403. Utell M. J., Morrow P. E., Hyde R. W. Airway reactivity to sulfate and sulfuric acid aerosols in normal and asthmatic subjects. J Air Pollut Control Assoc. 1984 Sep;34(9):931–935. doi: 10.1080/00022470.1984.10465838. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  404. Valberg P. A., Crouch E. A. Meta-analysis of rat lung tumors from lifetime inhalation of diesel exhaust. Environ Health Perspect. 1999 Sep;107(9):693–699. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107693. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  405. Vallieres M., Cockcroft D. W., Taylor D. M., Dolovich J., Hargreave F. E. Dimethyl ethanolamine-induced asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1977 May;115(5):867–871. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1977.115.5.867. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  406. Van Duuren B. L., Goldschmidt B. M., Loewengart G., Smith A. C., Melchionne S., Seldman I., Roth D. Carcinogenicity of halogenated olefinic and aliphatic hydrocarbons in mice. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1979 Dec;63(6):1433–1439. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  407. Vandenplas O., Cartier A., Lesage J., Cloutier Y., Perreault G., Grammer L. C., Shaughnessy M. A., Malo J. L. Prepolymers of hexamethylene diisocyanate as a cause of occupational asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1993 Apr;91(4):850–861. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(93)90342-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  408. Vernot E. H., MacEwen J. D., Bruner R. H., Haun C. C., Kinkead E. R., Prentice D. E., Hall A., 3rd, Schmidt R. E., Eason R. L., Hubbard G. B. Long-term inhalation toxicity of hydrazine. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1985 Dec;5(6 Pt 1):1050–1064. doi: 10.1016/0272-0590(85)90141-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  409. Verraes S., Michel O. Occupational asthma induced by ethylene oxide. Lancet. 1995 Nov 25;346(8987):1434–1435. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(95)92454-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  410. Vijayan V. K., Sankaran K. Relationship between lung inflammation, changes in lung function and severity of exposure in victims of the Bhopal tragedy. Eur Respir J. 1996 Oct;9(10):1977–1982. doi: 10.1183/09031936.96.09101977. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  411. Villar R. N., Johnston F. G., Scott P. M. Occupational asthma due to methyl methacrylate bone cement. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986 Jun 14;292(6535):1597–1597. doi: 10.1136/bmj.292.6535.1597-b. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  412. Wallace L. A., Pellizzari E. D., Hartwell T. D., Sparacino C., Whitmore R., Sheldon L., Zelon H., Perritt R. The TEAM (Total Exposure Assessment Methodology) Study: personal exposures to toxic substances in air, drinking water, and breath of 400 residents of New Jersey, North Carolina, and North Dakota. Environ Res. 1987 Aug;43(2):290–307. doi: 10.1016/s0013-9351(87)80030-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  413. Walseth F., Toftgård R., Nilsen O. G. Phthalate esters I: Effects on cytochrome P-450 mediated metabolism in rat liver and lung, serum enzymatic activities and serum protein levels. Arch Toxicol. 1982 May;50(1):1–10. doi: 10.1007/BF00569231. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  414. Wantke F., Demmer C. M., Tappler P., Götz M., Jarisch R. Exposure to gaseous formaldehyde induces IgE-mediated sensitization to formaldehyde in school-children. Clin Exp Allergy. 1996 Mar;26(3):276–280. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  415. Wardlaw A. J. The role of air pollution in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 1993 Feb;23(2):81–96. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.1993.tb00303.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  416. Ware J. H., Ferris B. G., Jr, Dockery D. W., Spengler J. D., Stram D. O., Speizer F. E. Effects of ambient sulfur oxides and suspended particles on respiratory health of preadolescent children. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1986 May;133(5):834–842. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  417. Ware J. H., Spengler J. D., Neas L. M., Samet J. M., Wagner G. R., Coultas D., Ozkaynak H., Schwab M. Respiratory and irritant health effects of ambient volatile organic compounds. The Kanawha County Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Jun 15;137(12):1287–1301. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116639. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  418. Weisel C. P., Cody R. P., Lioy P. J. Relationship between summertime ambient ozone levels and emergency department visits for asthma in central New Jersey. Environ Health Perspect. 1995 Mar;103 (Suppl 2):97–102. doi: 10.1289/ehp.95103s297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  419. Weisglas-Kuperus N., Sas T. C., Koopman-Esseboom C., van der Zwan C. W., De Ridder M. A., Beishuizen A., Hooijkaas H., Sauer P. J. Immunologic effects of background prenatal and postnatal exposure to dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in Dutch infants. Pediatr Res. 1995 Sep;38(3):404–410. doi: 10.1203/00006450-199509000-00022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  420. Weiss W., Boucot K. R. The respiratory effects of chloromethyl methyl ether. JAMA. 1975 Dec 15;234(11):1139–1142. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  421. Weissman D. N., Lewis D. M. Is specific antibody determination diagnostic for asthma attributable to low-molecular-weight agents? Occup Med. 2000 Apr-Jun;15(2):385–398. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  422. Weitzman M., Gortmaker S., Sobol A. Racial, social, and environmental risks for childhood asthma. Am J Dis Child. 1990 Nov;144(11):1189–1194. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.1990.02150350021016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  423. Weitzman M., Gortmaker S., Walker D. K., Sobol A. Maternal smoking and childhood asthma. Pediatrics. 1990 Apr;85(4):505–511. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  424. Wernfors M., Nielsen J., Schütz A., Skerfving S. Phthalic anhydride-induced occupational asthma. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol. 1986;79(1):77–82. doi: 10.1159/000233946. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  425. Wesselkamper S. C., Prows D. R., Biswas P., Willeke K., Bingham E., Leikauf G. D. Genetic susceptibility to irritant-induced acute lung injury in mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2000 Sep;279(3):L575–L582. doi: 10.1152/ajplung.2000.279.3.L575. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  426. White M. C., Etzel R. A., Wilcox W. D., Lloyd C. Exacerbations of childhood asthma and ozone pollution in Atlanta. Environ Res. 1994 Apr;65(1):56–68. doi: 10.1006/enrs.1994.1021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  427. Whitemore R. W., Immerman F. W., Camann D. E., Bond A. E., Lewis R. G., Schaum J. L. Non-occupational exposures to pesticides for residents of two U.S. cities. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 1994 Jan;26(1):47–59. doi: 10.1007/BF00212793. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  428. Whitmore R. W., Byron M. Z., Clayton C. A., Thomas K. W., Zelon H. S., Pellizzari E. D., Lioy P. J., Quackenboss J. J. Sampling design, response rates, and analysis weights for the National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS) in EPA region 5. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 1999 Sep-Oct;9(5):369–380. doi: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500054. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  429. Wieslander G., Norbäck D., Björnsson E., Janson C., Boman G. Asthma and the indoor environment: the significance of emission of formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds from newly painted indoor surfaces. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1997;69(2):115–124. doi: 10.1007/s004200050125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  430. Wieslander G., Norbäck D., Wålinder R., Erwall C., Venge P. Inflammation markers in nasal lavage, and nasal symptoms in relation to relocation to a newly painted building: a longitudinal study. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1999 Nov;72(8):507–515. doi: 10.1007/s004200050408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  431. Williams M. D., Sandler A. B. The epidemiology of lung cancer. Cancer Treat Res. 2001;105:31–52. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-1589-0_2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  432. Wills-Karp M., Luyimbazi J., Xu X., Schofield B., Neben T. Y., Karp C. L., Donaldson D. D. Interleukin-13: central mediator of allergic asthma. Science. 1998 Dec 18;282(5397):2258–2261. doi: 10.1126/science.282.5397.2258. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  433. Windmill K. F., Gaedigk A., Hall P. M., Samaratunga H., Grant D. M., McManus M. E. Localization of N-acetyltransferases NAT1 and NAT2 in human tissues. Toxicol Sci. 2000 Mar;54(1):19–29. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/54.1.19. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  434. Winship K. A. Toxicity of antimony and its compounds. Adverse Drug React Acute Poisoning Rev. 1987 Summer;6(2):67–90. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  435. Wolkoff P., Schneider T., Kildesø J., Degerth R., Jaroszewski M., Schunk H. Risk in cleaning: chemical and physical exposure. Sci Total Environ. 1998 Apr 23;215(1-2):135–156. doi: 10.1016/s0048-9697(98)00110-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  436. Woodruff T. J., Axelrad D. A., Caldwell J., Morello-Frosch R., Rosenbaum A. Public health implications of 1990 air toxics concentrations across the United States. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 May;106(5):245–251. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106245. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  437. Woods G. M., Doherty K. V., Malley R. C., Rist M. J., Muller H. K. Carcinogen-modified dendritic cells induce immunosuppression by incomplete T-cell activation resulting from impaired antigen uptake and reduced CD86 expression. Immunology. 2000 Jan;99(1):16–22. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.2000.00928.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  438. Woods G. M., Qu M., Ragg S. J., Muller H. K. Chemical carcinogens and antigens induce immune suppression via Langerhans' cell depletion. Immunology. 1996 May;88(1):134–139. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1996.d01-645.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  439. Wu C. Y., Pratt G. C. Analysis of air toxics emission inventory: inhalation toxicity-based ranking. J Air Waste Manag Assoc. 2001 Aug;51(8):1129–1141. doi: 10.1080/10473289.2001.10464341. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  440. Wu D. N., Tanifuji Y., Kobayashi H., Yamauchi K., Kato C., Suzuki K., Inoue H. Effects of esophageal acid perfusion on airway hyperresponsiveness in patients with bronchial asthma. Chest. 2000 Dec;118(6):1553–1556. doi: 10.1378/chest.118.6.1553. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  441. Wu W., Steenland K., Brown D., Wells V., Jones J., Schulte P., Halperin W. Cohort and case-control analyses of workers exposed to vinyl chloride: an update. J Occup Med. 1989 Jun;31(6):518–523. doi: 10.1097/00043764-198906000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  442. Xu J., Meyers D. A., Ober C., Blumenthal M. N., Mellen B., Barnes K. C., King R. A., Lester L. A., Howard T. D., Solway J. Genomewide screen and identification of gene-gene interactions for asthma-susceptibility loci in three U.S. populations: collaborative study on the genetics of asthma. Am J Hum Genet. 2001 May 10;68(6):1437–1446. doi: 10.1086/320589. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  443. Yarnell J. W., St Leger A. S. Respiratory illness, maternal smoking habit and lung function in children. Br J Dis Chest. 1979 Jul;73(3):230–236. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  444. Young S., Arnott J., O'Keeffe P. T., Le Souef P. N., Landau L. I. The association between early life lung function and wheezing during the first 2 yrs of life. Eur Respir J. 2000 Jan;15(1):151–157. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00.15115100. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  445. Zanobetti A., Schwartz J., Dockery D. W. Airborne particles are a risk factor for hospital admissions for heart and lung disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2000 Nov;108(11):1071–1077. doi: 10.1289/ehp.001081071. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  446. Zhang Y., Lefort J., Kearsey V., Lapa e Silva J. R., Cookson W. O., Vargaftig B. B. A genome-wide screen for asthma-associated quantitative trait loci in a mouse model of allergic asthma. Hum Mol Genet. 1999 Apr;8(4):601–605. doi: 10.1093/hmg/8.4.601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  447. Zhong B. Z., Siegel P. D. Induction of micronuclei following exposure to methylene di-phenyl diisocyanate: potential genotoxic metabolites. Toxicol Sci. 2000 Nov;58(1):102–108. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/58.1.102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  448. Zhou D., Salnikow K., Costa M. Cap43, a novel gene specifically induced by Ni2+ compounds. Cancer Res. 1998 May 15;58(10):2182–2189. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  449. de Kort W. L., Sangster B. Acute intoxications during work. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1988 Feb;30(1):9–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  450. de la Hoz R. E., Young R. O., Pedersen D. H. Exposure to potential occupational asthmogens: prevalence data from the National Occupational Exposure Survey. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Feb;31(2):195–201. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199702)31:2<195::aid-ajim9>3.0.co;2-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  451. van Zijverden M., van der Pijl A., Bol M., van Pinxteren F. A., de Haar C., Penninks A. H., van Loveren H., Pieters R. Diesel exhaust, carbon black, and silica particles display distinct Th1/Th2 modulating activity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2000 Oct 15;168(2):131–139. doi: 10.1006/taap.2000.9013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  452. van der Zee S., Hoek G., Boezen H. M., Schouten J. P., van Wijnen J. H., Brunekreef B. Acute effects of urban air pollution on respiratory health of children with and without chronic respiratory symptoms. Occup Environ Med. 1999 Dec;56(12):802–812. doi: 10.1136/oem.56.12.802. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES