Abstract
模拟禁食饮食(fasting-mimicking diet, FMD)作为一种新兴的周期性低热量膳食干预策略,通过重塑机体代谢与免疫微环境,在肿瘤治疗领域引起了广泛关注。研究表明,FMD不仅能够延长健康个体的寿命,降低癌症及其他疾病的发病率,还能增强对正常细胞的保护作用,同时提高肿瘤细胞对多种治疗手段的敏感性。FMD通过降低血糖、胰岛素及胰岛素样生长因子-1水平,激活正常细胞的保护性通路,同时诱导肿瘤细胞的差异应激敏化,从而增强癌细胞对肿瘤治疗的敏感性,为个体化治疗提供新靶点。本文系统综述了FMD的基本概念、作用机制及其在肿瘤治疗中的潜在应用,重点探讨了FMD与化疗、免疫治疗等传统疗法的协同效应。此外,本文还分析了FMD在临床转化中的挑战,并展望了其未来的应用前景。
Keywords: 模拟禁食饮食, 肿瘤治疗, 营养, 综述
Abstract
The fasting-mimicking diet (FMD), an emerging cyclic low-calorie dietary intervention strategy, has garnered significant attention in the field of tumor therapy with its ability to remodelthe body's metabolic and immune microenvironment. Studies have shown that FMD not only extends the lifespan and reduces the incidence of cancer and other diseases in healthy individuals, but also enhances the protective effects on normal cells. Furthermore, FMD increases the sensitivity of tumor cells to multiple therapeutic treatments. FMD activates the protective pathways of normal cells by lowering the levels of blood glucose, insulin, and insulin-like growth factor-1, while it induces differential stress sensitization of tumor cells, thereby enhancing the sensitivity of cancer cells to tumor therapy and providing new targets for individualized therapy. Herein, we provide a brief overview of the fundamental concept of FMD, the underlying mechanisms, and its potential application in cancer treatment, highlighting the synergistic effects of FMD applied in combination with conventional cancer therapies, such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Moreover, the challenges encountered in translating FMD into clinical practice are discussed, along with the promising future applications of this dietary regimen.
Keywords: Fasting-mimicking diet, Nutrition, Cancer therapy, Review
1. 引言
癌症是全球公共卫生领域的重大挑战[1]。近年来肿瘤治疗手段不断进步,传统的治疗方法如手术、化疗、放疗和免疫治疗取得了一定成效[2-3],但其死亡率仍居高不下,且传统疗法存在毒副作用大、疗效有限的问题[1, 4-8]。因此,亟需探索能够提升癌症治疗效果并减轻其副作用的新策略和新方法[3, 9]。
饮食干预作为一种非药物手段,近年来在肿瘤治疗中的应用逐渐受到关注。饮食干预形式多样,主要分为热量限制(calorie restriction, CR)和禁食(fasting)两大类[10]。热量限制通过将总热量摄入限制为自由进食的15%~40%(不会引起营养不良),而禁食则通过进食频率与延长禁食时长(从数小时至数天)发挥作用[11]。早在一个世纪前,科学家便发现禁食与热量限制在动物模型中具有抗肿瘤的作用[12]。临床试验也表明,禁食可改善健康指标且不影响生活质量[13]。然而,长期禁食可能导致特定病理状态下死亡率的升高(如癌症患者与循环系统疾病患者)[14-15]。为解决这一问题,美国南加州大学Valter D. Longo教授设计了模拟禁食饮食(fasting-mimicking diets, FMD),他的团队在模拟禁食饮食的生物学机制与临床转化研究中贡献卓著。现有证据表明,模拟禁食饮食与化疗和免疫治疗等疗法联用可提升抗肿瘤治疗的疗效[16-17]。
本文综述了模拟禁食的基本概念、代谢调控与细胞响应机制,并且总结了FMD对肿瘤治疗的潜在影响,以及FMD在肿瘤治疗中临床前与临床研究的进展,同时探讨了当前面临的挑战与未来应用前景。
2. FMD的基本概念
FMD是一种周期性模拟禁食方案,最初是用于评估动物模型中的热量限制与禁食效果,后来拓展应用于人类。FMD要求每月连续4-5 d摄入低热量、低碳水化合物、低蛋白、高脂肪饮食,其余时间正常进食[10, 18-19],可以起到与普通禁食方法的同等生物学效应[20]。
表1总结了不同的FMD方案。经典的FMD方案每个月包含至少2个周期(每个周期4 d),平均随访时间为1个月[21]。在临床试验中,商业化的FMD方案采用预包装植物基膳食,第1天1090千卡〔1千卡=4.184千焦耳(kJ)〕,第2~5天725千卡[22-23];另一项研究则采用第1天1100千卡,第2~5天717千卡的方案[24]。虽然每一项临床试验中所使用的具体方案都略有不同,但总体上均为每月连续5 d摄入正常热量的34%~54%,宏量营养素的比例为蛋白质9%~10%、碳水化合物34%~47%、脂肪44%~56%[21]。
表 1. Different types of FMD regimens applied in animal models.
动物模型所应用的FMD方案
| Study | Cycles of FMD | Duration of FMD | Follow-up | Comparison | The fist day | The remaining days |
| BRANDHORST, et al. 2015[22] | 2/month | 4 d | 24 months |
The diet on day 1 consists of a mix of various low-calorie broth powders, a vegetable medley powder, extra virgin olive oil, and essential fatty acids; the diet on day 2-4 consists of low-calorie broth powders and glycerol. |
Day 1 diet contains 7.67 kJ/g (provided at about 50% of normal daily intake; 0.46 kJ/g protein, 2.2 kJ/g carbohydrate, 5.00 kJ/g fat). |
The day 2-4 diet is identical on all feeding days and contains 1.48 kJ/g (provided at about 10% of normal daily intake; 0.01 kJ/g protein/fat and 1.47 kJ/g carbohydrates). |
| Di BIASE, et al. 2016[25] | 2/month | 4 d | 42 d |
Contains 3.75 kcal/g of digestible energy with calories supplied by protein, carbohydrate, and fat in a percent ratio of 25:58:17. |
The day 1 diet contains 1.88 kcal/g. |
The day 2-4 diet is identical on all feeding days and contains 0.36 kcal/g. |
| CHOI, et al. 2016[26] | 1/week | 3 d | 30 d |
Contains 15.69 kJ/g digestible energy (animal-based protein at 3.92 kJ/g, carbohydrate at 9.1 kJ/g, and fat at 2.67 kJ/g) |
Mice consume about 50% of their normal caloric intake (7.87 kJ/g). |
Mice consume about 10% of their normal caloric intake (1.51 kJ/g). |
| CHENG, et al. 2017[27] | 3/month | 4 d | 3 months |
Comprises proprietary formulations of vegetable-based soups, energy bars, energy drinks, chip snacks, tea, and a supplement providing high levels of minerals, vitamins, and essential fatty acids |
50% of the standard daily calorie intake |
10% of normal daily calorie intake |
| RANGAN, et al. 2019[28] | 2 cycles | 4 d | 8 weeks |
A combination of flavored broth mixes, extra virgin olive oil, essential fatty acids, vegetable powders, vitamins, and minerals were thoroughly mixed and bound together with heated hydrogel on day 1. On days 2-4, a combination of flavored broth mixes, glycerol, and hydrogel was fed to mice. |
About 50% of their normal caloric intake (8.08 kJ/g; 0.56 kJ fat, 0.68 kJ carbohydrates, and 0.11 kJ protein). |
About 10% of their normal caloric intake (1.10 kJ/g; 0.27 kJ carbohydrates). |
3. FMD对正常细胞与肿瘤细胞产生的效应
在食物匮乏的情况下,多数生物会增强抗压能力(如冷、热、紫外线)[29]。临床前研究表明,FMD不仅能延缓肿瘤生长,还可通过差异应激抵抗(differential stress resistance, DSR)保护小鼠免受化疗药物毒性的影响[30]。哺乳动物在FMD期间,血糖降低会引起胰岛素水平下降,蛋白质与特定氨基酸减少则会引起胰岛素样生长因子-1(IGF-1)水平的降低[30]。正常细胞可通过下调蛋白激酶B(AKT)、哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)、RAS信号通路,上调叉头框蛋白O(FOXO)、核因子E2相关因子2(NRF-2)和早期生长反应因子1(Egr1)等保护性转录因子,激活p53并诱导细胞周期停滞[31-33]。FMD通过调节AMPK-mTOR信号通路抑制细胞生长。这是通过激活能量代谢传感器AMPK来实现的,AMPK随后会抑制mTOR,从而导致细胞生长减慢[29-30, 34-35]。
DSR机制表明,FMD会优先保护正常细胞而非肿瘤细胞,其关键的介质为血糖、胰岛素与IGF-1的降低。在一项研究中,胰岛素样生长因子-1基因缺失(LID)小鼠对化疗毒性具有抵抗力,而注射IGF-1会逆转部分保护效应[32]。同样,胰岛素可降低未进行FMD的小鼠血糖,且能够减轻化疗药物的毒性,而禁食小鼠的血糖升高则部分逆转了FMD的保护作用[35-38]。
DSR表明的是FMD能够保护正常细胞而非肿瘤细胞,而差异应激敏化(differential stress sensitization, DSS)则描述肿瘤细胞在饥饿条件下对治疗敏感性的增加[30,39]。目前研究发现,禁食会诱导肿瘤细胞对抗肿瘤治疗敏感,如Warburg效应减弱、易受氧化应激影响、抑制有丝分裂原活化蛋白(MAP)激酶和AKT-mTOR信号传导、增强p53活性,以及增强肿瘤细胞的免疫原性间接效应[25, 39-41]。肿瘤细胞因为广泛的DNA与染色体变异而变得脆弱,但其突变的有害效应可能仅在特定条件下显现[42]。Warburg效应是肿瘤细胞的常见特征,而FMD通过减少葡萄糖的供应、增加脂肪酸的β-氧化,促使癌细胞从有氧糖酵解转向氧化磷酸化[39-40, 43],导致线粒体呼吸活性增加,从而使ROS生成增加[39, 43]。单独饮食干预所能达到的抗癌效果有限,但根据DSS理论,FMD联合其他疗法可显著提升疗效[30, 39]。图1总结了FMD对正常细胞和肿瘤细胞所产生的不同效应。
图 1.

The different responses to FMD from normal and tumor cells
FMD对正常细胞与肿瘤细胞产生的不同效应
IGF-1:insulin-like growth factor 1; GFs:growth factors; ROS: reactive oxygen species; OxPhos:oxidative phosphorylation; AKT:protein kinase B; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; HO1: heme oxygenase 1; FTH: ferritin heavy chain; S6K: S6 kinase; FOXO: forkhead box O.
4. FMD联合其他肿瘤治疗疗法的临床前与临床研究
近年来,很多研究发现FMD可以促进免疫系统恢复并且可以增强抗肿瘤应答,促使FMD与化疗、免疫治疗、放疗等治疗方法的联用被广泛探索[22, 24, 30, 39, 44-47]。尽管FMD在人体的安全性和可行性已经得到证实,但作为肿瘤辅助疗法的临床试验仍然有限。根据ClinicalTrials.gov网站显示,部分注册的临床试验尚未完成或提前终止,已完成的临床试验结果也未完全公开。表2总结了目前正在进行的临床试验。 当前注册的12项FMD临床试验中,乳腺癌(4项)和肺癌(2项)为主要研究对象,其中乳腺癌试验聚焦HER2阴性或三阴性亚型(如NCT02126449、NCT05503108),联合方案以化疗为基础(7项)。泛癌种试验(4项)多探索FMD与标准治疗的协同效应,试验地区集中于欧洲、美国及中国。值得注意的是,目前所进行的临床试验多为单中心设计,仅2项为多中心试验(NCT05384444、NCT03709147)。不同试验的FMD方案存在显著差异,5 d/m方案(如NCT03340935)显著降低血糖/IGF-1(P<0.001),而3 d/m方案(NCT04292041)仅改善代谢指标(体质量、血压)。采用商业化预包装膳食的试验(NCT03595540)患者依从性>90%,显著高于自制膳食方案(<70%)。
表 2. Clinical trials related to FMD in cancer therapy.
FMD在肿瘤治疗中的临床试验
| Trial number | Therapeutic interventions | Cancer type | Number of participants | Status | Primary endpoints | Main study findings |
|
Chemo-immunotherapy + FMD |
Non-small cell lung cancer |
12 |
Completed |
Feasibility and compliance |
No results available |
|
|
Standard antitumour treatment + FMD |
Different tumour types |
101 |
Completed |
G3/4 AE rate |
Safety and feasibility of FMD; reduced glucose and growth factor levels after FMD; favorable reshaping of systemic and intratumor immunity after FMD |
|
|
Standard antitumor treatment + FMD |
Prostate cancer |
40 |
Completed |
Body weight, abdominal circumference, and blood pressure |
Weight loss, abdominal circumference reduction, and blood pressure reduction |
|
|
Active medical treatment + FMD |
Different tumour types |
90 |
Completed |
Feasibility and safety |
Safety and feasibility of FMD; reduced fat mass and plasma insulin, and IGF-1 and leptin levels after FMD |
|
|
Standard neoadjuvant chemotherapy + FMD |
HER2-negative breast cancer |
131 |
Completed |
pCR rate |
No pCR differences among groups; higher radiological response rates in FMD patients; higher Miller & Payne4/5 pathological responses in FMD patients; reduced DNA damage in T lymphocytes of FMD patients |
|
|
Chemotherapy + FMD |
Prostate cancer |
49 |
Completed |
Quality of life changes |
No results available |
|
|
Platinum salt + pemetrexed + pembrolizumab in association to metformin + FMD |
Lung Adenocarcinoma |
64 |
Recruiting |
PFS |
No results available |
|
|
Chemotherapy + FMD |
HER2-negative Breast Cancer |
240 |
Recruiting |
Pathologic and radiologic response rate |
No results available |
|
|
Preoperative chemotherapy + Metformin + FMD |
Triple-negative Breast Cancer |
30 |
Active, not recruiting |
pCR rate |
No results available |
|
|
Radical surgery + FMD |
Colorectal Cancer |
602 |
Recruitment has not started |
DFS |
No results available |
|
|
Chemotherapy + FMD |
Different tumour types |
39 |
Unknown status |
Nausea grade |
No results available |
|
|
Surgery + FMD |
Breast cancer and melanoma |
100 |
Completed |
Absolute/relative changes in PBMCs |
No results available |
4.1. 免疫治疗
免疫调节药物,如靶向PD-1、PD-L1和CTLA-4的拮抗抗体,以及针对OX40的激动抗体,虽然在某些种类的肿瘤中效果显著,但受肿瘤免疫抑制微环境(如肿瘤相关巨噬细胞、髓系来源的抑制性细胞)的影响,其疗效仍受到了很大的限制[48-55]。并且免疫疗法的联合使用增加了不良事件的风险,这也限制了其临床应用[44]。模拟禁食饮食与免疫治疗的整合具有广阔的前景。免疫治疗通过激活机体自身的免疫系统来攻击肿瘤细胞,而模拟禁食饮食可调节免疫系统,为免疫治疗提供更好的基础。
一些研究者认为,FMD可能会增强免疫治疗的抗肿瘤疗效。在对结直肠癌小鼠模型的研究中, FMD刺激了保护性肠道微生物群的生长,增加了肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞,特别是CD8+ T细胞,与抗PD-1疗法联合使用能更有效地抑制肿瘤进展[56]。有观点认为,CD4+ T 细胞在免疫反应中起着重要的作用,通过促进细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞的激活和增殖来调控抗肿瘤免疫[54, 57]。 Ki67+ FoxP3- CD4+ T细胞和PD-1+ FoxP3- CD4+ T细胞在FMD联合抗OX-40抗体或抗OX40/抗PD-L1抗体治疗时会被激活[54]。与标准饮食相比,尤其是与抗OX40抗体和抗OX40/PD-L1抗体联合使用时,还与更高的增殖率以及更多的OX40+ 调节性T细胞相关[54, 58]。在接受FMD联合免疫治疗的患者的调节性T细胞中,观察到肿瘤坏死因子受体超家族成员4(Tnfrsf4, OX40)的高表达, 通过RNA测序和流式细胞术来评估免疫浸润情况,结果表明FMD联合免疫治疗能够激活CD8+、 CD4+和γδ T细胞 [54, 58]。
在最近的一项临床试验中,将FMD与标准抗肿瘤疗法相结合,以确定其是否安全有效[17]——该研究招募了101例患者,结果表明FMD是安全可行的,并且能够重塑癌症患者的新陈代谢和抗肿瘤免疫;有趣的是,FMD增加了癌症患者和正常受试者体内细胞毒性T淋巴细胞和自然杀伤细胞(NK细胞)的数量,同时减少了单核细胞和其他免疫抑制细胞的数量,FMD还促进了CD8+ T细胞的表型转换,所有这些都与患者更好的临床治疗结果相关。FMD可以促进T细胞的代谢适应性,增强其抗肿瘤能力,并减少免疫相关的不良事件[59-60]。
4.2. 化疗
禁食作为化疗的辅助疗法受到了广泛关注。一份病例报告显示,10例癌症患者(包括前列腺癌、卵巢癌、子宫癌、肺癌、食管癌和乳腺癌患者)在化疗前后禁食140 h,并未出现严重的不良副作用[61]。接受化疗的患者,无论是否采用FMD,都会出现明显的疲劳和虚弱症状,但FMD能够缓解胃肠道不良反应[61]。对于处于肿瘤进展期的患者,FMD并未影响化疗所带来的肿瘤体积缩小或肿瘤标志物水平降低[61]。FMD在乳腺癌治疗方面已有较多研究。有一项针对13例Ⅱ期或Ⅲ期HER2阴性乳腺癌患者的随机研究,这些患者接受化疗,并将其与非禁食患者以及短期禁食患者进行对比[62]。短期禁食患者对化疗的耐受性良好,化疗7 d后,与未禁食组相比,禁食组患者的血液学毒性有所减轻[62]。这项研究表明,禁食与化疗相结合是安全的,且能增强抗肿瘤免疫力[62]。 一项2期临床试验表明,禁食组的乳腺癌患者对化疗更为敏感,这意味着禁食可作为乳腺癌化疗的辅助疗法,切实提高化疗效果以及患者的生活质量[26]。在一项针对接受顺铂和阿糖胞苷化疗患者的研究中,72 h禁食被证明是安全可行的,该研究还表明,禁食与新辅助化疗相结合,对HER2阴性的乳腺癌患者具有抗肿瘤效果[63]。由于患者依从性差,且禁食未能减轻化疗引起的不良反应,该研究提前终止[63]。一项小型随机试验表明,禁食或许能减轻恶性肿瘤患者健康细胞的DNA损伤,这意味着禁食可能有助于患者在化疗期间维持生活质量并缓解疲劳[62]。FMD在卵巢癌的研究中也显示出能够增强化疗药物的效果,改善患者的生存期和生活质量[64]。
因此, FMD能够提高肿瘤细胞对化疗的敏感性,增强正常细胞抵御化疗毒副作用的能力,并显著提升癌症患者的生活质量。然而,禁食并非总能有效地降低所有癌症患者化疗不良反应的发生率,也并非对所有治疗的疗效都有提升作用[65]。尽管禁食已被证明可以减轻与化疗相关的副作用,但癌症患者在化疗方面仍然面临挑战。因此,未来的研究应聚焦于如何降低化疗的毒性作用。
4.3. 其他疗法
迄今为止,大多数探究FMD作为癌症辅助治疗手段的临床试验,主要聚焦于化疗和免疫疗法。然而,临床前研究发现,FMD能使癌细胞对放疗和激素疗法更敏感,同时保护健康细胞免受放疗和激素疗法的有害影响。虽然目前相关研究相对较少,但已有一些研究提示了这种联合治疗的可行性和潜在效果。在对动物模型的研究中发现,饮食因素可能影响放疗的效果。例如,膳食纤维可能通过调节肠道微生物群,对放疗的肿瘤控制产生积极影响。在一项针对膀胱癌小鼠模型的研究中,高纤维饮食联合放疗,显著降低了肿瘤大小,延迟了肿瘤生长,同时增加了肿瘤内CD8+ T细胞的数量[66]。
在激素受体阳性乳腺癌小鼠模型中, FMD可增强他莫昔芬、氟维司群等内分泌药物的治疗效果。该增效作用被认为通过降低循环中的IGF-1、胰岛素和瘦素水平,并抑制AKT-mTOR信号通路实现[57]。将此类饮食策略与氟维司群联合帕博西尼的治疗方案同步实施,可带来持续的肿瘤消退并逆转治疗耐药性[57]。在雌激素治疗期间采用FMD的患者体内观察到的类似代谢指标变化表明,饮食干预有望成为治疗激素受体阳性乳腺癌的辅助手段[57]。
除对激素驱动型癌症的作用外, FMD还被证实能增强酪氨酸激酶抑制剂(TKIs)在多种癌细胞系中的疗效[67]。其作用机制为在营养匮乏状态下,TKIs阻断癌细胞增殖、抑制MAPK信号通路的能力显著增强[67]。另一项研究报道,在肝细胞癌细胞、异种移植瘤及患者来源类器官模型中,禁食通过p53蛋白调控葡萄糖转运蛋白和促凋亡蛋白表达,从而提升索拉非尼的疗效[35]。一项研究发现,FMD在体内和体外均显著抑制TAMs的促肿瘤功能,在缺氧条件下抑制作用更为明显[68]。此外,FMD介导的TAMs抑制与阿帕替尼的结合导致协同抗肿瘤活性,这种作用部分是由mTOR-HIF-1α信号通路下调CCL8表达和分泌介导的[68]。但在临床试验中,将FMD用作放疗和激素疗法辅助治疗的情况较为少见。因此,开展关于FMD作为放疗和激素疗法辅助治疗的临床试验势在必行。
4.4. 潜在的不良反应
近年来,FMD因其潜在的健康益处而备受关注。然而,必须认识到这种饮食干预可能带来的不良反应。
FMD的主要副作用之一,是在低热量摄入阶段出现情绪不佳或感到疲劳[17]。FMD的另一个潜在副作用是身体机能下降,比如力量和耐力减弱,这可能是由于饮食中缺乏蛋白质和其他必需营养素以及热量摄入减少所致[17]。FMD还可能导致一些患者出现便秘的情况[17]。一项研究发现,在使用阿霉素治疗期间,隔日禁食(ADF)会增加转录因子EB(TFEB)的表达,从而增加心脏毒性[69]。这项研究凸显了对于使用阿霉素治疗的癌症患者而言,持续长时间禁食可能存在的危害[69]。虽然目前尚无证据表明FMD会引起严重不良反应,但未来仍需进一步研究。
4.5. 临床挑战
当前经同行评审的文献中,关于评估营养干预对改善癌症患者治疗效果的研究报告数量有限。一系列关于化疗期间禁食的相关研究表明,禁食有助于提升患者主观幸福感,并减轻副作用[61]。一项临床研究表明,对于接受各类癌症治疗的患者而言,在铂类化疗前进行48 h禁食,化疗后进行24 h禁食,这种方式是安全且可行的[63]。 在一项针对妇科癌症患者的研究中,短期禁食(化疗前36 h、化疗后24 h)显著提高了患者的生活质量,并减轻了他们的疲劳感[70]。另一项针对接受多模式化疗的乳腺癌患者的研究发现,48 h的禁食期(从化疗前24 h到化疗后 24 h)降低了血液学毒性,并加速了循环白细胞中DNA损伤的恢复[71]。 然而,目前缺乏关于癌症患者生存的数据,并且针对晚期实体瘤的研究也有限。这为FMD未来的临床应用带来了重大的临床挑战[72-75]。
5. 小结
为了全面了解肿瘤治疗,必须对营养、新陈代谢和人体生理学之间的复杂关系有一个基本认识,其中涵盖了肿瘤细胞与免疫细胞之间发生的错综复杂的相互作用。因此,国际学者积极探索将饮食干预作为一种安全的方式来抑制肿瘤生长或恢复宿主免疫系统对疾病的控制。目前,大量临床前实验已证实, FMD在癌症治疗方面具有重要的研究价值,并且在各类癌症的临床应用中前景广阔[45, 76-82]。然而,针对临床患者的研究成果仍然相对较少。此外,据推测,总体热量摄入以及某些特定的常量营养素的减少,会对抗肿瘤免疫反应产生刺激作用。值得注意的是,在小鼠实验和临床试验中所采用的FMD方案各不相同,这导致了临床试验结果的异质性[57, 83-87]。
综上所述,前文已详细探讨了FMD在肿瘤治疗中可能的机制,为未来的方案提供了理论基础。FMD作为代谢干预手段,在多模态肿瘤治疗中潜力显著,但其临床转化需解决个体化方案设计与生物标志物开发等关键问题。在未来关于FMD临床应用的研究中,确定针对不同类型肿瘤应采用的合适模拟禁食标准,并解决临床研究中的有效性和安全性问题至关重要。此外,还需进一步研究以明确FMD是否能成为临床肿瘤辅助治疗的一种安全且高效的措施。
* * *
作者贡献声明 刘沅鑫负责论文构思、调查研究、初稿写作和可视化,周来燕负责初稿写作和审读与编辑写作,薛建新负责论文构思、经费获取、监督指导和审读与编辑写作。所有作者已经同意将文章提交给本刊,且对将要发表的版本进行最终定稿,并同意对工作的所有方面负责。
Author Contribution LIU Yuanxin is responsible for conceptualization,investigation, writing--original draft,and visualization. ZHOU Laiyan is responsible for writing--original draft and writing--review and editing. XUE Jianxin is responsible for conceptualization, funding acquisition, supervision, and writing--review and editing. All authors consented to the submission of the article to the Journal. All authors approved the final version to be published and agreed to take responsibility for all aspects of the work.
利益冲突 本文作者薛建新是本刊编委会青年编委,该文在编辑评审过程中所有流程严格按照期刊政策进行,且未经其本人经手处理。除此之外,所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
Declaration of Conflicting Interests XUE Jianxin is a member of the Junior Editorial Board of the journal. All processes involved in the editing and reviewing of this article were carried out in strict compliance with the journal's policies and there was no inappropriate personal involvement by the author. Other than this, all authors declare no competing interests.All authors declare no competing interests.
Funding Statement
四川省中央引导地方科技发展专项项目(No. 2024ZYD0181)、四川大学华西医院青年英才支持计划(No. ZYYC23010)和北京市希思科临床肿瘤学研究基金(No. Y-2024AZ(NSCLC)ZD-0267)资助
Contributor Information
沅鑫 刘 (Yuanxin LIU), Email: liuyx9811@163.com.
建新 薛 (Jianxin XUE), Email: radjianxin@163.com.
References
- 1.SIEGEL R L, MILLER K D, FUCHS H E, et al Cancer statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. 2022;72(1):7–33. doi: 10.3322/caac.21708. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.DEVITA V T, Jr., EGGERMONT A M, HELLMAN S, et al Clinical cancer research: the past, present and the future. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2014;11(11):663–669. doi: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2014.153. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.JAFFEE E M, DANG C V, AGUS D B, et al Future cancer research priorities in the USA: a Lancet Oncology Commission. Lancet Oncol. 2017;18(11):e653–e706. doi: 10.1016/s1470-2045(17)30698-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.RAHIB L, WEHNER M R, MATRISIAN L M, et al Estimated projection of US cancer incidence and death to 2040. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(4):e214708. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.4708. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.SUNG H, FERLAY J, SIEGEL R L, et al Global cancer statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2021;71(3):209–249. doi: 10.3322/caac.21660. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.MAOMAO C, HE L, DIANQIN S, et al Current cancer burden in China: epidemiology, etiology, and prevention. Cancer Biol Med. 2022;19(8):1121–1138. doi: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2022.0231. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.MILLER K D, NOGUEIRA L, DEVASIA T, et al Cancer treatment and survivorship statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. 2022;72(5):409–436. doi: 10.3322/caac.21731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.XIA C, DONG X, LI H, et al Cancer statistics in China and United States, 2022: profiles, trends, and determinants. Chin Med J (Engl) 2022;135(5):584–590. doi: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000002108. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.CLEELAND C S, ALLEN J D, ROBERTS S A, et al Reducing the toxicity of cancer therapy: recognizing needs, taking action. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2012;9(8):471–478. doi: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2012.99. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.GONCALVES M D, MADDOCKS O D Engineered diets to improve cancer outcomes. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2021;70:29–35. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2020.10.007. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.DI FRANCESCO A, DI GERMANIO C, BERNIER M, et al A time to fast. Science. 2018;362(6416):770–775. doi: 10.1126/science.aau2095. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.De CABO R, MATTSON M P Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(26):2541–2551. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1905136. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.FONTANA L, PARTRIDGE L Promoting health and longevity through diet: from model organisms to humans. Cell. 2015;161(1):106–118. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.020. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.YOKOYAMA Y, ONISHI K, HOSODA T, et al Skipping breakfast and risk of mortality from cancer, circulatory diseases and all causes: findings from the Japan collaborative cohort study. Yonago Acta Med. 2016;59(1):55–60. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.UZHOVA I, FUSTER V, FERNáNDEZ-ORTIZ A, et al The importance of breakfast in atherosclerosis disease: insights from the PESA study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70(15):1833–1842. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.08.027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.BRANDHORST S Fasting and fasting-mimicking diets for chemotherapy augmentation. Geroscience. 2021;43(3):1201–1216. doi: 10.1007/s11357-020-00317-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.VERNIERI C, FUCÀ G, LIGORIO F, et al Fasting-mimicking diet is safe and reshapes metabolism and antitumor immunity in patients with cancer. Cancer Discov. 2022;12(1):90–107. doi: 10.1158/2159-8290.Cd-21-0030. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.LONGO V D, PANDA S Fasting, circadian rhythms, and time-restricted feeding in healthy lifespan. Cell Metab. 2016;23(6):1048–1059. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2016.06.001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.LONGO V D, DI TANO M, MATTSON M P, et al Intermittent and periodic fasting, longevity and disease. Nat Aging. 2021;1(1):47–59. doi: 10.1038/s43587-020-00013-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.NARDON M, VENTURELLI M, RUZZANTE F, et al Fasting-Mimicking-Diet does not reduce skeletal muscle function in healthy young adults: a randomized control trial. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2022;122(3):651–661. doi: 10.1007/s00421-021-04867-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.SOFI F. FASTING-MIMICKING DIET a clarion call for human nutrition research or an additional swan song for a commercial diet? Int J Food Sci Nutr, 2020, 71(8): 921-928. doi:10.1080/09637486.2020.1746959
- 22.BRANDHORST S, CHOI I Y, WEI M, et al A periodic diet that mimics fasting promotes multi-system regeneration, enhanced cognitive performance, and healthspan. Cell Metab. 2015;22(1):86–99. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.012. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.MISHRA A, LONGO V D Fasting and fasting mimicking diets in obesity and cardiometabolic disease prevention and treatment. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2022;33(3):699–717. doi: 10.1016/j.pmr.2022.04.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.WEI M, BRANDHORST S, SHELEHCHI M, et al Fasting-mimicking diet and markers/risk factors for aging, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Sci Transl Med. 2017;9(377):eaai8700. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aai8700. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.DI BIASE S, LEE C, BRANDHORST S, et al Fasting-mimicking diet reduces ho-1 to promote t cell-mediated tumor cytotoxicity. Cancer Cell. 2016;30(1):136–146. doi: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.06.005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.CHOI I Y, PICCIO L, CHILDRESS P, et al A diet mimicking fasting promotes regeneration and reduces autoimmunity and multiple sclerosis symptoms. Cell Rep. 2016;15(10):2136–2146. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.05.009. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.CHENG C W, VILLANI V, BUONO R, et al Fasting-mimicking diet promotes Ngn3-driven β-cell regeneration to reverse diabetes. Cell. 2017;168(5):775–788. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.01.040. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.RANGAN P, CHOI I, WEI M, et al Fasting-mimicking diet modulates microbiota and promotes intestinal regeneration to reduce inflammatory bowel disease pathology. Cell Rep. 2019;26(10):2704–2719. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.02.019. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.HURTADO-CARNEIRO V, SANZ C, RONCERO I, et al Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) can reverse AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and S6 kinase (P70S6K) activities induced by fluctuations in glucose levels in hypothalamic areas involved in feeding behaviour. Mol Neurobiol. 2012;45(2):348–361. doi: 10.1007/s12035-012-8239-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.HATORI M, VOLLMERS C, ZARRINPAR A, et al Time-restricted feeding without reducing caloric intake prevents metabolic diseases in mice fed a high-fat diet. Cell Metab. 2012;15(6):848–860. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2012.04.019. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.LEE C, SAFDIE F M, RAFFAGHELLO L, et al Reduced levels of IGF-I mediate differential protection of normal and cancer cells in response to fasting and improve chemotherapeutic index. Cancer Res. 2010;70(4):1564–1572. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.Can-09-3228. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.LUGTENBERG R T, De GROOT S, KAPTEIN A A, et al Quality of life and illness perceptions in patients with breast cancer using a fasting mimicking diet as an adjunct to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in the phase 2 DIRECT (BOOG 2013-14) trial. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2021;185(3):741–758. doi: 10.1007/s10549-020-05991-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.RAFFAGHELLO L, LEE C, SAFDIE F M, et al Starvation-dependent differential stress resistance protects normal but not cancer cells against high-dose chemotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(24):8215–8220. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0708100105. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.SENGUPTA S, PETERSON T R, LAPLANTE M, et al mTORC1 controls fasting-induced ketogenesis and its modulation by ageing. Nature. 2010;468(7327):1100–1104. doi: 10.1038/nature09584. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.KIM J, GUAN K L mTOR as a central hub of nutrient signalling and cell growth. Nat Cell Biol. 2019;21(1):63–71. doi: 10.1038/s41556-018-0205-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.LONGO V D, LIEBER M R, VIJG J Turning anti-ageing genes against cancer. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2008;9(11):903–910. doi: 10.1038/nrm2526. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.DI BIASE S, SHIM H S, KIM K H, et al Fasting regulates EGR1 and protects from glucose- and dexamethasone-dependent sensitization to chemotherapy. PLoS Biol. 2017;15(3):e2001951. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2001951. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.LONGO V D The Ras and Sch9 pathways regulate stress resistance and longevity. Exp Gerontol. 2003;38(7):807–811. doi: 10.1016/s0531-5565(03)00113-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 39.ORILLION A, DAMAYANTI N P, SHEN L, et al Dietary protein restriction reprograms tumor-associated macrophages and enhances immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res. 2018;24(24):6383–6395. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.Ccr-18-0980. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.D'ARONZO M, VINCIGUERRA M, MAZZA T, et al Fasting cycles potentiate the efficacy of gemcitabine treatment in in vitro and in vivo pancreatic cancer models. Oncotarget. 2015;6(21):18545–18557. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.4186. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.KRSTIC J, REINISCH I, SCHINDLMAIER K, et al Fasting improves therapeutic response in hepatocellular carcinoma through p53-dependent metabolic synergism. Sci Adv. 2022;8(3):eabh2635. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abh2635. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.LEE C, RAFFAGHELLO L, BRANDHORST S, et al Fasting cycles retard growth of tumors and sensitize a range of cancer cell types to chemotherapy. Sci Transl Med. 2012;4(124):124ra27. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3003293. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.BIANCHI G, MARTELLA R, RAVERA S, et al Fasting induces anti-Warburg effect that increases respiration but reduces ATP-synthesis to promote apoptosis in colon cancer models. Oncotarget. 2015;6(14):11806–11819. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.3688. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.MADEO F, CARMONA-GUTIERREZ D, HOFER S J, et al Caloric restriction mimetics against age-associated disease: targets, mechanisms, and therapeutic potential. Cell Metab. 2019;29(3):592–610. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2019.01.018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 45.MARTINCORENA I, CAMPBELL P J Somatic mutation in cancer and normal cells. Science. 2015;349(6255):1483–1489. doi: 10.1126/science.aab4082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.DI TANO M, RAUCCI F, VERNIERI C, et al Synergistic effect of fasting-mimicking diet and vitamin C against KRAS mutated cancers. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2332. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-16243-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.BRAHMER J R, TYKODI S S, CHOW L Q, et al Safety and activity of anti-PD-L1 antibody in patients with advanced cancer. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(26):2455–65. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1200694. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.CHENG C W, ADAMS G B, PERIN L, et al Prolonged fasting reduces IGF-1/PKA to promote hematopoietic-stem-cell-based regeneration and reverse immunosuppression. Cell Stem Cell. 2014;14(6):810–823. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2014.04.014. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 49.NENCIONI A, CAFFA I, CORTELLINO S, et al Fasting and cancer: molecular mechanisms and clinical application. Nat Rev Cancer. 2018;18(11):707–719. doi: 10.1038/s41568-018-0061-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 50.De GROOT S, LUGTENBERG R T, COHEN D, et al Fasting mimicking diet as an adjunct to neoadjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer in the multicentre randomized phase 2 DIRECT trial. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):3083. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-16138-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.HERBST R S, SORIA J C, KOWANETZ M, et al Predictive correlates of response to the anti-PD-L1 antibody MPDL3280A in cancer patients. Nature. 2014;515(7528):563–567. doi: 10.1038/nature14011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 52.KJAERGAARD J, TANAKA J, KIM J A, et al Therapeutic efficacy of OX-40 receptor antibody depends on tumor immunogenicity and anatomic site of tumor growth. Cancer Res. 2000;60(19):5514–5521. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.WEINBERG A D, RIVERA M M, PRELL R, et al Engagement of the OX-40 receptor in vivo enhances antitumor immunity. J Immunol. 2000;164(4):2160–2169. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.4.2160. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.GOUGH M J, RUBY C E, REDMOND W L, et al OX40 agonist therapy enhances CD8 infiltration and decreases immune suppression in the tumor. Cancer Res. 2008;68(13):5206–5215. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.Can-07-6484. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 55.PICONESE S, VALZASINA B, COLOMBO M P OX40 triggering blocks suppression by regulatory T cells and facilitates tumor rejection. J Exp Med. 2008;205(4):825–839. doi: 10.1084/jem.20071341. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.SUNTHARALINGAM G, PERRY M R, WARD S, et al Cytokine storm in a phase 1 trial of the anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody TGN1412. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(10):1018–1028. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa063842. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.CORTELLINO S, RAVEANE A, CHIODONI C, et al Fasting renders immunotherapy effective against low-immunogenic breast cancer while reducing side effects. Cell Rep. 2022;40(8):111256. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111256. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.ZHANG Y, ZHANG Z The history and advances in cancer immunotherapy: understanding the characteristics of tumor-infiltrating immune cells and their therapeutic implications. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17(8):807–821. doi: 10.1038/s41423-020-0488-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 59.LUO M, WANG Q, SUN Y, et al Fasting-mimicking diet remodels gut microbiota and suppresses colorectal cancer progression. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes. 2024;10(1):53. doi: 10.1038/s41522-024-00520-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 60.CAFFA I, SPAGNOLO V, VERNIERI C, et al Fasting-mimicking diet and hormone therapy induce breast cancer regression. Nature. 2020;583(7817):620–624. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2502-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 61.WENG M L, CHEN W K, CHEN X Y, et al Fasting inhibits aerobic glycolysis and proliferation in colorectal cancer via the Fdft1-mediated AKT/mTOR/HIF1α pathway suppression. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):1869. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-15795-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] [Retracted]
- 62.CORTELLINO S, QUAGLIARIELLO V, DELFANTI G, et al Fasting mimicking diet in mice delays cancer growth and reduces immunotherapy-associated cardiovascular and systemic side effects. Nat Commun. 2023;14(1):5529. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-41066-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 63.LIGORIO F, FUCÀ G, PROVENZANO L, et al Exceptional tumour responses to fasting-mimicking diet combined with standard anticancer therapies: a sub-analysis of the NCT03340935 trial. Eur J Cancer. 2022;172:300–310. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2022.05.046. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.SAFDIE F M, DORFF T, QUINN D, et al Fasting and cancer treatment in humans: a case series report. Aging (Albany NY) 2009;1(12):988–1007. doi: 10.18632/aging.100114. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.De GROOT S, VREESWIJK M P, WELTERS M J, et al The effects of short-term fasting on tolerance to (neo) adjuvant chemotherapy in HER2-negative breast cancer patients: a randomized pilot study. BMC Cancer. 2015;15:652. doi: 10.1186/s12885-015-1663-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 66.DORFF T B, GROSHEN S, GARCIA A, et al Safety and feasibility of fasting in combination with platinum-based chemotherapy. BMC Cancer. 2016;16:360. doi: 10.1186/s12885-016-2370-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 67.HUANG W, LI X, SONG H, et al Verification of fasting-mimicking diet to assist monotherapy of human cancer-bearing models. Biochem Pharmacol. 2023;215:115699. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115699. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 68.ZORN S, EHRET J, SCHÄUBLE R, et al Impact of modified short-term fasting and its combination with a fasting supportive diet during chemotherapy on the incidence and severity of chemotherapy-induced toxicities in cancer patients - a controlled cross-over pilot study. BMC Cancer. 2020;20(1):578. doi: 10.1186/s12885-020-07041-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 69.THEN C K, PAILLAS S, MOOMIN A, et al Dietary fibre supplementation enhances radiotherapy tumour control and alleviates intestinal radiation toxicity. Microbiome. 2024;12(1):89. doi: 10.1186/s40168-024-01804-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 70.CAFFA I, D'AGOSTINO V, DAMONTE P, et al Fasting potentiates the anticancer activity of tyrosine kinase inhibitors by strengthening MAPK signaling inhibition. Oncotarget. 2015;6(14):11820–11832. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.3689. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 71.WANG L, WANG Y J, WANG R, et al Fasting mimicking diet inhibits tumor-associated macrophage survival and pro-tumor function in hypoxia: implications for combination therapy with anti-angiogenic agent. J Transl Med. 2023;21(1):754. doi: 10.1186/s12967-023-04577-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 72.OZCAN M, GUO Z, VALENZUELA RIPOLL C, et al. Sustained alternate-day fasting potentiates doxorubicin cardiotoxicity. Cell Metab, 2023,35(6):928-942. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2023.02.006
- 73.BAUERSFELD S P, KESSLER C S, WISCHNEWSKY M, et al The effects of short-term fasting on quality of life and tolerance to chemotherapy in patients with breast and ovarian cancer: a randomized cross-over pilot study. BMC Cancer. 2018;18(1):476. doi: 10.1186/s12885-018-4353-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 74.SEMIGLAZOV V, TSELUIKO A, KUDAYBERGENOVA A, et al Immunology and immunotherapy in breast cancer. Cancer Biol Med. 2022;19(5):609–618. doi: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2021.0597. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 75.LAPEYRE-PROST A, TERME M, PERNOT S, et al Immunomodulatory activity of VEGF in cancer. Int Rev Cell Mol Biol. 2017;330:295–342. doi: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2016.09.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 76.JABEEN S, ZUCKNICK M, NOME M, et al Serum cytokine levels in breast cancer patients during neoadjuvant treatment with bevacizumab. Oncoimmunology. 2018;7(11):e1457598. doi: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1457598. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 77.KASZNICKI J, SLIWINSKA A, DRZEWOSKI J Metformin in cancer prevention and therapy. Ann Transl Med. 2014;2(6):57. doi: 10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2014.06.01. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 78.CHA J H, YANG W H, XIA W, et al. Metformin promotes antitumor immunity via endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation of PD-L1. Mol Cell, 2018, 71(4): 606-620. e7. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2018.07.030
- 79.BAGHERNIYA M, BUTLER A E, BARRETO G E, et al The effect of fasting or calorie restriction on autophagy induction: a review of the literature. Ageing Res Rev. 2018;47:183–197. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2018.08.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 80.YAMAZAKI T, BRAVO-SAN PEDRO J M, GALLUZZI L, et al Autophagy in the cancer-immunity dialogue. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2021;169:40–50. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 81.SHARIFI M N, MOWERS E E, DRAKE L E, et al Autophagy promotes focal adhesion disassembly and cell motility of metastatic tumor cells through the direct interaction of paxillin with lc3. Cell Rep. 2016;15(8):1660–1672. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.04.065. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 82.SUN P, WANG H, HE Z, et al Fasting inhibits colorectal cancer growth by reducing M2 polarization of tumor-associated macrophages. Oncotarget. 2017;8(43):74649–74660. doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.20301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 83.TAKAKUWA T, NAKASHIMA Y, KOH H, et al Short-term fasting induces cell cycle arrest in immature hematopoietic cells and increases the number of naïve t cells in the bone marrow of mice. Acta Haematol. 2019;141(3):189–198. doi: 10.1159/000496096. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 84.COLLINS N, HAN S J, ENAMORADO M, et al. The bone marrow protects and optimizes immunological memory during dietary restriction. Cell, 2019, 178(5): 1088-1101. e15. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.049
- 85.POMATTO-WATSON L C D, BODOGAI M, BOSOMPRA O, et al Daily caloric restriction limits tumor growth more effectively than caloric cycling regardless of dietary composition. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):6201. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-26431-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 86.SPEISER D E, HO P C, VERDEIL G Regulatory circuits of T cell function in cancer. Nat Rev Immunol. 2016;16(10):599–611. doi: 10.1038/nri.2016.80. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 87.CHANG C H, QIU J, O'SULLIVAN D, et al Metabolic competition in the tumor microenvironment is a driver of cancer progression. Cell. 2015;162(6):1229–1241. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.08.016. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
