Skip to main content
PMC home page
The Western Journal of Medicine logoLink to The Western Journal of Medicine
. 1980 May;132(5):430–439.

Antihypertensive Pharmacology

John G Gerber 1, Curt R Freed 1, Alan S Nies 1
PMCID: PMC1272116  PMID: 6992462

Abstract

Although drug treatment of hypertension is associated with improved survival and decreased vascular complications, drug compliance is a major problem in the control of hypertension. All antihypertensive medications are associated with side effects; thus, it is a physician's responsibility to explain to each patient the side effects of the drugs he prescribes to treat hypertension, and to instill in the patient a sense of necessity for the treatment of hypertension. The choice of antihypertensive drug should be made based on each patient's lifestyle, overall health and ability to tolerate the drug. Ideally, the antihypertensive regimen should be simple, effective, convenient to take and have very few side effects.

Full text

PDF

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Alarcón-Segovia D., Wakim K. G., Worthington J. W., Ward L. E. Clinical and experimental studies on the hydralazine syndrome and its relationship to systemic lupus erythematosus. Medicine (Baltimore) 1967 Jan;46(1):1–33. doi: 10.1097/00005792-196701000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Anderson J., Godfrey B. E., Hill D. M., Munro-Faure A. D., Sheldon J. A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and of frusemide in the treatment of hypertensive patients. Q J Med. 1971 Oct;40(160):541–560. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Araoye M. A., Chang M. Y., Khatri I. M., Freis E. D. Furosemide compared with hydrochlorothiazide. Long-term treatment of hypertension. JAMA. 1978 Oct 20;240(17):1863–1866. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Aronow W. S., Van Herick R., Greenfield R., Alimadadian H., Burwell D., Mann W. Effect of timolol plus hydrochlorothiazide plus hydralazine on essential hypertension. Circulation. 1978 May;57(5):1017–1021. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.57.5.1017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Au W. Y., Dring L. G., Grahame-Smith D. G., Isaac P., Williams R. T. The metabolism of 14 C-labelled -methyldopa in normal and hypertensive human subjects. Biochem J. 1972 Aug;129(1):1–10. doi: 10.1042/bj1290001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Berglund G., Andersson O., Hansson L., Olander R. Propranolol given twice daily in hypertension. Acta Med Scand. 1973 Dec;194(6):513–515. doi: 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1973.tb19483.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Boerth R. C., Long W. R. Dose-response relation of diazoxide in children with hypertension. Circulation. 1977 Dec;56(6):1062–1066. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.56.6.1062. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bolli P., Wood A. J., Simpson F. O. Effects of prazosin in patients with hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976 Aug;20(2):138–141. doi: 10.1002/cpt1976202138. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Briant R. H., Reid J. L., Dollery C. T. Interaction between clonidine and desipramine in man. Br Med J. 1973 Mar 3;1(5852):522–523. doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.5852.522. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Bühler F. R., Laragh J. H., Baer L., Vaughan E. D., Jr, Brunner H. R. Propranolol inhibition of renin secretion. A specific approach to diagnosis and treatment of renin-dependent hypertensive diseases. N Engl J Med. 1972 Dec 14;287(24):1209–1214. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197212142872401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. CHANG C. C., COSTA E., BRODIE B. B. INTERACTION OF GUANETHIDINE WITH ADRENERGIC NEURONS. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1965 Mar;147:303–312. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Carstairs K. C., Breckenridge A., Dollery C. T., Worlledge S. M. Incidence of a positive direct coombs test in patients on alpha-methyldopa. Lancet. 1966 Jul 16;2(7455):133–135. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(66)92422-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Colandrea M. A., Friedman G. D., Nichaman M. Z., Lynd C. N. Systolic hypertension in the elderly. An epidemiologic assessment. Circulation. 1970 Feb;41(2):239–245. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.41.2.239. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Coleman T. G., Bower J. D., Langford H. G., Guyton A. C. Regulation of arterial pressure in the anephric state. Circulation. 1970 Sep;42(3):509–514. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.42.3.509. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Dollery C. T., Davies D. S., Draffan G. H., Dargie H. J., Dean C. R., Reid J. L., Clare R. A., Murray S. Clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of clonidine. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976 Jan;19(1):11–17. doi: 10.1002/cpt197619111. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Dormois J. C., Young J. L., Nies A. S. Minoxidil in severe hypertension: value when conventional drugs have failed. Am Heart J. 1975 Sep;90(3):360–368. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(75)90326-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Esler M. D. Effect of practolol on blood pressure and renin release in man. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1974 May;15(5):484–489. doi: 10.1002/cpt1974155484. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Freed C. R., Quintero E., Murphy R. C. Hypotension and hypothalamic amine metabolism after long-term alpha-methyldopa infusions. Life Sci. 1978 Jul 24;23(4):313–322. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(78)90015-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Frohlich E. D., Kozul V. J., Tarazi R. C., Dustan H. P. Physiological comparison of labile and essential hypertension. Circ Res. 1970 Jul;27(1 Suppl 1):55–69. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Frohlich E. D., Tarazi R. C., Dustan H. P., Page I. H. The paradox of beta-adrenergic blockade in hypertension. Circulation. 1968 Mar;37(3):417–423. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.37.3.417. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Gottlieb T. B., Katz F. H., Chidsey C. A., 3rd Combined therapy with vasodilator drugs and beta-adrenergic blockade in hypertension. A comparative study of minoxidil and hydralazine. Circulation. 1972 Mar;45(3):571–582. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.45.3.571. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Graham R. M., Thornell I. R., Gain J. M., Bagnoli C., Oates H. F., Stokes G. S. Prazosin: the first-dose phenomenon. Br Med J. 1976 Nov 27;2(6047):1293–1294. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.6047.1293. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Hansson L., Hunyor S. N., Julius S., Hoobler S. W. Blood pressure crisis following withdrawal of clonidine (Catapres, Catapresan), with special reference to arterial and urinary catecholamine levels, and suggestions for acute management. Am Heart J. 1973 May;85(5):605–610. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(73)90165-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Haynes R. B., Sackett D. L., Gibson E. S., Taylor D. W., Hackett B. C., Roberts R. S., Johnson A. L. Improvement of medication compliance in uncontrolled hypertension. Lancet. 1976 Jun 12;1(7972):1265–1268. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(76)91737-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Heise A., Kroneberg G. -Sympathetic receptor stimulation in the brain and hypotensive activity of -methyldopa. Eur J Pharmacol. 1972 Feb;17(2):315–317. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(72)90180-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Henning M., Rubenson A. Evidence that the hypotensive action of methyldopa is mediated by central actions of methylnoradrenaline. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1971 Jun;23(6):407–411. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1971.tb08671.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hunyor S. N., Bradstock K., Somerville P. J., Lucas N. Clonidine overdose. Br Med J. 1975 Oct 4;4(5987):23–23. doi: 10.1136/bmj.4.5987.23. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Janowsky D. S., el-Yousef M. K., Davis J. M., Fann W. E., Oates J. A. Guanethidine antagonism by antipsychotic drugs. J Tenn Med Assoc. 1972 Jul;65(7):620–622. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Johnson B. F., Kapur M. The influences of rate of injection upon the effects of diazoxide. Am J Med Sci. 1972 Jun;263(6):481–488. doi: 10.1097/00000441-197206000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Julius S., Esler M. Autonomic nervous cardiovascular regulation in borderline hypertension. Am J Cardiol. 1975 Oct 31;36(5):685–696. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(75)90170-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Julius S., Esler M. Autonomic nervous cardiovascular regulation in borderline hypertension. Am J Cardiol. 1975 Oct 31;36(5):685–696. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(75)90170-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Kannel W. B., Castelli W. P., McNamara P. M., McKee P. A., Feinleib M. Role of blood pressure in the development of congestive heart failure. The Framingham study. N Engl J Med. 1972 Oct 19;287(16):781–787. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197210192871601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Kannel W. B. Role of blood pressure in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1974 Jul-Aug;17(1):5–24. doi: 10.1016/0033-0620(74)90034-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Kannel W. B., Wolf P. A., Verter J., McNamara P. M. Epidemiologic assessment of the role of blood pressure in stroke. The Framingham study. JAMA. 1970 Oct 12;214(2):301–310. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Kobinger W., Walland A. Evidence for a central activation of a vagal cardiodepressor reflex by clonidine. Eur J Pharmacol. 1972 Aug;19(2):203–209. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(72)90010-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Koch-Weser J. Sympathetic activity in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1973 Mar 22;288(12):627–629. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197303222881209. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Koch-Weser J. The comeback of hydralazine. Am Heart J. 1978 Jan;95(1):1–3. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(78)90391-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Kumar G. K., Dastoor F. C., Robayo J. R., Razzaque M. A. Side effects of diazoxide. JAMA. 1976 Jan 19;235(3):275–276. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. LIN E. C., HAGIHIRA H., WILSON T. H. Specificity of the transport system for neutral amino acids in the hamster intestine. Am J Physiol. 1962 May;202:919–925. doi: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1962.202.5.919. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Laragh J. H. Vasoconstriction-volume analysis for understanding and treating hypertension: the use of renin and aldosterone profiles. Am J Med. 1973 Sep;55(3):261–274. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(73)90128-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Leth A. Changes in plasma and extracellular fluid volumes in patients with essential hypertension during long-term treatment with hydrochlorothiazide. Circulation. 1970 Sep;42(3):479–485. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.42.3.479. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Lew E. A. High blood pressure, other risk factors and longevity: the insurance viewpoint. Am J Med. 1973 Sep;55(3):281–294. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(73)90130-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Lund-Johansen P., Ohm O. J. Haemodynamic long-term effects of metoprolol at rest and during exercise in essential hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1977 Apr;4(2):147–151. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1977.tb00686.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Lund-Johansen P. alpha-Methyldopa and beta-blockers in hypertension--a comparison of their haemodynamic effects. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol Suppl. 1978;4:23–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Marshall A. J., Barritt D. W., Pocock J., Heaton S. T. Evaluation of beta blockade bendrofluazide, and prazosin in severe hypertension. Lancet. 1977 Feb 5;1(8006):271–274. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(77)91822-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. McNeil B. J., Varady P. D., Burrows B. A., Adelstein S. J. Measures of clinical efficacy. Cost-effectiveness calculations in the diagnosis and treatment of hypertensive renovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1975 Jul 31;293(5):216–221. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197507312930502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Merrifield A. J., Blundell M. D. Letter: Toxicity of sodium nitroprusside. Br J Anaesth. 1974 Apr;46(4):324–324. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Mitchell J. R., Cavanaugh J. H., Arias L., Oates J. A. Guanethidine and related agents. 3. Antagonism by drugs which inhibit the norepinephrine pump in man. J Clin Invest. 1970 Aug;49(8):1596–1604. doi: 10.1172/JCI106377. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Mroczek W. J., Davidov M., Finnerty F. A., Jr Intravenous clonidine in hypertensive patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1973 Sep-Oct;14(5):847–851. doi: 10.1002/cpt1973145847. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Mroczek W. J., Finnerty F. A., Catt K. J. Lack of association between plasma-renin and history of heart-attack or stroke in patients with essential hypertension. Lancet. 1973 Sep 1;2(7827):464–468. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(73)92069-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Mroczek W. J., Leibel B. A., Davidov M., Finnerty F. A., Jr The importance of the rapid administration of diazoxide in accelerated hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1971 Sep 9;285(11):603–606. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197109092851104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. O'Fallon W. M., Labarthe D. R., Kurland L. T. Rauwolfia derivatives and breast cancer. A case/control study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Lancet. 1975 Aug 16;2(7929):292–296. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(75)92730-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Oates J. A., Mitchell J. R., Feagin O. T., Kaufmann J. S., Shand D. G. Distribution of guanidinium antihypertensives--mechanism of their selective action. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1971 Jul 6;179:302–309. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1971.tb46909.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Oliver W. J., Cohen E. L., Neel J. V. Blood pressure, sodium intake, and sodium related hormones in the Yanomamo Indians, a "no-salt" culture. Circulation. 1975 Jul;52(1):146–151. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.52.1.146. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. PAGE I. H., CORCORAN A. C., DUSTAN H. P., KOPPANYI T. Cardiovascular actions of sodium nitroprusside in animals and hypertensive patients. Circulation. 1955 Feb;11(2):188–198. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.11.2.188. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. PERERA G. A. Edema and congestive failure related to administration of Rauwolfia serpentina. J Am Med Assoc. 1955 Oct 1;159(5):439–439. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Perry H. M., Jr, Tan E. M., Carmody S., Sakamoto A. Relationship of acetyl transferase activity to antinuclear antibodies and toxic symptoms in hypertensive patients treated with hydralazine. J Lab Clin Med. 1970 Jul;76(1):114–125. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Pettinger W. A. Drug therapy: clonidine, a new antihypertensive drug. N Engl J Med. 1975 Dec 4;293(23):1179–1180. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197512042932306. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Pettinger W. A., Mitchell H. C. Minoxidil--an alternative to nephrectomy for refractory hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1973 Jul 26;289(4):167–171. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197307262890401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Pluss R. G., Orcutt J., Chidsey C. A. Tissue distribution and hypotensive effects of minoxidil in normotensive rats. J Lab Clin Med. 1972 Apr;79(4):639–647. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. QUETSCH R. M., ACHOR R. W., LITIN E. M., FAUCETT R. L. Depressive reactions in hypertensive patients; a comparison of those treated with Rauwolfia and those receiving no specific antihypertensive treatment. Circulation. 1959 Mar;19(3):366–375. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.19.3.366. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Rahn K. H., Goldberg L. I. Comparison of antihypertensive efficacy, intestinal absorption, and excretion of guanethidine in hypertensive patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1969 Nov-Dec;10(6):858–866. doi: 10.1002/cpt1969106858. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Reid J. L., Wing L. M., Dargie H. J., Hamilton C. A., Davies D. S., Dollery C. T. Clonidine withdrawal in hypertension. Changes in blood-pressure and plasma and urinary noradrenaline. Lancet. 1977 Jun 4;1(8023):1171–1174. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(77)92715-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Reid J. L., Wing L. M., Mathias C. J., Frankel H. L., Neill E. The central hypotensive effect of clonidine. Studies in tetraplegic subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1977 Apr;21(4):375–381. doi: 10.1002/cpt1977214375. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Rodman J. S., Deutsch D. J., Gutman S. I. Methyldopa Hepatitis. A report of six cases and review of the literature. Am J Med. 1976 Jun;60(7):941–948. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(76)90564-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Rosendorff C. Prazosin: severe side effects are dose-dependent. Br Med J. 1976 Aug 28;2(6034):508–508. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.6034.508. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. SMITH A. J. FLUID RETENTION PRODUCED BY GUANETHIDINE; CHANGES IN BODY EXCHANGEABLE SODIUM, BLOOD VOLUME, AND CREATININE CLEARANCE. Circulation. 1965 Apr;31:490–496. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.31.4.490. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Schalekamp M. A., Lebel M., Beevers D. G., Fraser R., Kolsters G., Birkenhäger W. H. Body-fluid volume in low-renin hypertension. Lancet. 1974 Aug 10;2(7876):310–311. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(74)91691-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Shand D. G. Drug therapy: Propranolol. N Engl J Med. 1975 Aug 7;293(6):280–285. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197508072930606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Shand D. G. Pharmacokinetic properties of the beta-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs. Drugs. 1974;7(1):39–47. doi: 10.2165/00003495-197407010-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Simpson F. O. Beta-adrenergic receptor blocking drugs in hypertension. Drugs. 1974;7(1):85–105. doi: 10.2165/00003495-197407010-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Smith R. P., Kruszyna H. Nitroprusside produces cyanide poisoning via reaction with hemoglobin. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1974 Dec;191(3):557–563. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Smith W. M. Epidemiology of hypertension. Med Clin North Am. 1977 May;61(3):467–486. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31311-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Tarazi R. C., Dustan H. P. Beta adrenergic blockade in hypertension. Practical and theoretical implications of long-term hemodynamic variations. Am J Cardiol. 1972 May;29(5):633–640. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(72)90164-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Tarazi R. C., Dustan H. P., Frohlich E. D. Long-term thiazide therapy in essential hypertension. Evidence for persistent alteration in plasma volume and renin activity. Circulation. 1970 Apr;41(4):709–717. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.41.4.709. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Updike S. J., Harrington A. R. Acute diabetes ketoacidosis--a complication of intravenous diazoxide treatment for refractory hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1969 Apr 3;280(14):768–768. doi: 10.1056/NEJM196904032801407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Wallace J. M. Hemodynamic lesions in hypertension. Am J Cardiol. 1975 Oct 31;36(5):670–684. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(75)90169-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Weir E. K., Chidsey C. A., Weil J. V., Grover R. F. Minoxidil reduces pulmonary vascular resistance in dogs and cattle. J Lab Clin Med. 1976 Dec;88(6):885–894. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Wilber J. A., Barrow J. G. Hypertension--a community problem. Am J Med. 1972 May;52(5):653–663. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(72)90055-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Wilkinson P. R., Issler H., Hesp R., Raftery E. B. Total body and serum potassium during prolonged thiazide therapy for essential hypertension. Lancet. 1975 Apr 5;1(7910):759–762. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(75)92432-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Wood A. J., Bolli P., Simpson F. O. Prazosin in normal subjects: plasma levels, blood pressure and heart rate. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1976 Feb;3(1):199–201. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1976.tb00592.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Woods J. W., Pittman A. W., Pulliam C. C., Werk E. E., Jr, Waider W., Allen C. A. Renin profiling in hypertension and its use in treatment with propranolol and chlorthalidone. N Engl J Med. 1976 May 20;294(21):1137–1143. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197605202942101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Woods J. W., Pittman A. W., Pulliam C. C., Werk E. E., Jr, Waider W., Allen C. A. Renin profiling in hypertension and its use in treatment with propranolol and chlorthalidone. N Engl J Med. 1976 May 20;294(21):1137–1143. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197605202942101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Wright J. M., McLeod P. J., McCullough W. Antihypertensive efficacy of a single bedtime dose of methyldopa. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976 Dec;20(6):733–737. doi: 10.1002/cpt1976206733. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Youngberg S. P., Sheps S. G., Strong C. G. Fibromuscular disease of the renal arteries. Med Clin North Am. 1977 May;61(3):623–641. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31321-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Zacest R., Koch-Weser J. Relation of hydralazine plasma concentration to dosage and hypotensive action. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1972 May-Jun;13(3):420–425. doi: 10.1002/cpt1972133420. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Zanchetti A., Leonetti G., Morganti A., Terzoli L. Considerations on physiopathological approaches to the treatment of hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol Suppl. 1978;4:1–9. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Zwieten P. A. Reduction of the hypotensive effect of clonidine and alpha-methyldopa by various psychotropic drugs. Clin Sci Mol Med Suppl. 1976 Dec;3:411s–413s. doi: 10.1042/cs051411s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Western Journal of Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES