Bee products in biopolymer films/coatings: Advancing sustainable active packaging for food preservation

Abstract

The environmental concerns associated with petroleum-based plastics have accelerated the transition toward sustainable biopolymer packaging. Bee products—beeswax, propolis, honey, pollen, and royal jelly—serve as valuable natural additives that enhance biopolymer film performance while supporting eco-friendly objectives. This review examines the incorporation of bee-derived compounds into polysaccharide-, protein-, and polyester-based films. It explores how each bee product modifies film properties: beeswax enhances hydrophobicity, propolis provides bioactivity, honey improves flexibility, and pollen/royal jelly add functional enrichment. Strategies to improve compatibility between hydrophobic bee products and hydrophilic biopolymers, such as emulsification and cross-linking, are also discussed. Bee products significantly improve biopolymer films: beeswax reduces moisture transmission, propolis offers antioxidant and antimicrobial effects, honey improves plasticity, and pollen/royal jelly contribute nutritional and functional diversity. These enhancements help delay spoilage in foods such as fruits, meats, and dairy products, while maintaining the biodegradability essential for sustainable packaging.

Graphical abstract

Highlights

• •Bee products improve biopolymer films' barrier, mechanical, and bioactive traits.
• •Propolis and beeswax enhance UV shielding, moisture resistance, and antimicrobial efficacy.
• •Challenges include scalability, cost, and biopolymer-bee product compatibility.
• •Hybrid systems (e.g., nanoparticles + bee extracts) show multifunctional potential.

1. Introduction

Food packaging is indispensable for preserving food quality, extending shelf life, and ensuring safety throughout the supply chain (Zhao et al., 2023). Conventional petroleum-based plastics (e.g., low-density polyethylene, polypropylene) have long dominated the packaging industry due to their low cost, high thermal stability, and ease of processing (Zhao et al., 2023). However, their non-biodegradable nature leads to severe environmental pollution (e.g., microplastic accumulation), while the migration of synthetic additives (e.g., antioxidants, plasticizers) poses potential food safety risks (Amaregouda et al., 2022). These challenges have driven a global shift toward sustainable alternatives, with biodegradable biopolymer-based packaging emerging as a promising solution.Biopolymers derived from natural sources—including polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, chitosan), proteins (gelatin, whey protein, casein), and lipids (natural waxes, essential oils)—offer inherent advantages such as renewability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility (Wu et al., 2024). They have been widely explored in food packaging for their potential to replace petroleum-based plastics. Nevertheless, pure biopolymer films suffer from inherent limitations: poor mechanical strength, inadequate water vapor/oxygen barrier properties, and lack of functional activities (e.g., antimicrobial, antioxidant), which restrict their large-scale commercial application (Deng et al., 2022). To address these drawbacks, researchers have focused on incorporating functional additives to enhance film performance (Yang et al., 2025a, 2025b, 2025c). While synthetic additives can improve certain properties, their safety concerns and environmental impacts conflict with the sustainability goals of biopolymer packaging. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify natural, safe, and multifunctional active additives that can simultaneously enhance the physicochemical and biological properties of biopolymer films, aligning with consumer demands for “clean-label” and eco-friendly packaging (Li et al., 2025a, 2025b).

Biopolymers derived from natural sources—including polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, chitosan), proteins (gelatin, whey protein, casein), and lipids (natural waxes, essential oils)—offer inherent advantages such as renewability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility (Zhang et al., 2025). They have been widely explored in food packaging for their potential to replace petroleum-based plastics. Nevertheless, pure biopolymer films suffer from inherent limitations: poor mechanical strength, inadequate water vapor/oxygen barrier properties, and lack of functional activities (e.g., antimicrobial, antioxidant), which restrict their large-scale commercial application (Guo et al., 2025a, 2025b). To address these drawbacks, researchers have focused on incorporating functional additives to enhance film performance. While synthetic additives can improve certain properties, their safety concerns and environmental impacts conflict with the sustainability goals of biopolymer packaging. Thus, there is an urgent need to identify natural, safe, and multifunctional active additives that can simultaneously enhance the physicochemical and biological properties of biopolymer films, aligning with consumer demands for “clean-label” and eco-friendly packaging (Ezati et al., 2025).

Natural active additives are primarily categorized into plant-derived extracts and animal-sourced byproducts. Plant-derived additives such as essential oils (e.g., thyme, oregano), polyphenols, and fruit/vegetable extracts have been extensively studied for their antimicrobial and antioxidant activities (He et al., 2025). However, they often suffer from poor compatibility with hydrophilic biopolymers, volatility, and potential sensory interference (e.g., strong odor), which limit their practical application). In contrast, animal-sourced byproducts, particularly bee products, have gained increasing attention as versatile additives for biopolymer films. Bee products—including beeswax, propolis, honey, pollen, and royal jelly—are natural substances with well-documented biological activities (antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory) and GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status (Pasupuleti et al., 2017; Tzima et al., 2015). Their chemical composition (e.g., flavonoids, phenolics, lipids, proteins) enables them to interact with biopolymer matrices, improving both structural and functional properties (Yudina et al., 2025). Compared to other natural additives, bee products offer a unique combination of multifunctionality, safety, and sustainability, making them ideal candidates for advancing high-performance biopolymer-based food packaging.

Different bee products exhibit distinct functional characteristics, leading to targeted applications in biopolymer films. Beeswax, a lipid-rich wax, is primarily used to enhance hydrophobicity and water vapor barrier properties of hydrophilic biopolymers, addressing the high moisture sensitivity of polysaccharide- or protein-based films (Zhang et al., 2018; Cortés-Rodríguez et al., 2020). Propolis, a resinous mixture collected by bees from plant secretions, is valued for its potent antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, attributed to its high content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, which make it effective in inhibiting foodborne pathogens and delaying lipid oxidation (Yong and Liu, 2021; El-Sakhawy et al., 2024). Honey, a natural sweetener produced via enzymatic conversion of floral nectar, improves film flexibility by acting as a plasticizer, retains moisture, and adds antioxidant/antimicrobial functionalities through its osmotic effect and hydrogen peroxide content (Santagata et al., 2018; Pająk et al., 2025). Pollen and royal jelly, rich in proteins, vitamins, and bioactive peptides, contribute to nutritional enrichment and functional diversification of films—for instance, pollen enhances mechanical strength by reinforcing polymer networks, while royal jelly imparts additional antimicrobial activity Ali and Kunugi (2020); El Ghouizi et al. (2023). Despite the growing number of studies on individual bee products in food packaging, existing research remains fragmented: most focus on single bee products (e.g., propolis) or specific biopolymer matrices, lacking a comprehensive overview of all major bee products and their synergistic effects with different biopolymers, which hinders the systematic development of bee product-functionalized packaging.

To address this research gap, this review systematically summarizes the latest progress in applying major bee products (beeswax, propolis, honey, pollen, royal jelly) in biopolymer food packaging films. Its innovation lies in a holistic approach to resolve fragmented research: integrating findings across multiple bee products (not single types), covering diverse biopolymer matrices for compatibility/performance insights, analyzing bee products’ multifunctional roles and mechanisms, evaluating optimization strategies (e.g., emulsification, encapsulation), and summarizing food preservation applications. This work provides a comprehensive reference for researchers and industry, promotes sustainable high-performance active packaging, and identifies key future directions to accelerate industrialization of bee product-functionalized films and advance eco-friendly packaging.

1.1. Review methodology

To ensure the comprehensiveness and objectivity of this review, a systematic literature search and screening process were conducted with reference to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) extension guidelines for scoping reviews: for the literature search strategy, four core academic databases covering food science, materials science, and packaging technology (Web of Science Core Collection [WoS], Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect) were selected, with literature published within a timeframe focused on recent advances in biopolymeric packaging (2014–2024) included; combined subject terms (adjusted for different databases’ syntax) centered on (Propolis extract OR PE OR Beeswax) AND (Biopolymer OR Polysaccharide OR Protein OR Starch OR Chitosan OR Sodium alginate) AND (Food packaging OR Edible film OR Coating) AND (Physicochemical property OR Barrier property OR Antimicrobial OR Antioxidant), and only English-language peer-reviewed articles and reviews were included to ensure full-text accessibility and methodological consistency. For inclusion and exclusion criteria, studies were included if they focused on the application of propolis extract (PE) or beeswax in biopolymeric food packaging (films/coatings), reported key properties of packaging materials (e.g., mechanical strength, water vapor permeability, antimicrobial activity) or practical food preservation effects, and were reviews or original research articles with complete experimental design and data (to ensure reliability); studies were excluded if they involved non-food packaging applications (e.g., pharmaceutical packaging, agricultural coatings), were patents, conference abstracts, or non-peer-reviewed gray literature (to avoid low-quality data), used PE/beeswax as a minor additive without clear functional contribution, or were duplicate publications (with the most recent or complete version retained). For literature screening and quality appraisal, two independent researchers conducted screening in three stages (title/abstract screening to eliminate studies clearly not meeting inclusion criteria, full-text screening to confirm compliance with inclusion criteria, and cross-validation where disagreements were resolved via discussion with a third senior researcher). The final selected literature covers the key research progress of PE and beeswax in biopolymeric food packaging.

2. Bee products overview

Bee products—including beeswax, propolis, honey, pollen, and royal jelly—are natural, Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)-certified substances derived from beehives, with distinct chemical compositions and functional properties that make them versatile additives for biopolymer-based food packaging (Pasupuleti et al., 2017; Maicelo-Quintana et al., 2024). Their characteristics and chemical profiles are primarily shaped by floral origin, beekeeping practices, and processing methods, which directly influence their suitability for enhancing specific properties of biopolymer films (Fig. 1) (Mureşan et al., 2022; Fratini et al., 2016a, Fratini et al., 2016b).

Fig. 1.

Properties, major chemical constituents and applications of bee products.

2.1. Beeswax

Beeswax is a major byproduct of honeycombs, typically extracted and purified via hot water treatment, steam extraction, or centrifugation—processes that preserve its lipid-rich structure while removing impurities (Coppock, 2021; Gupta and Anjali, 2023; Ertürk et al., 2024). Chemically, it comprises approximately 35 % monoesters, 14 % diesters, 14 % hydrocarbons, 12 % free fatty acids, and 8 % hydroxypolyesters (Tulloch, 1980; Choi et al., 2023). The predominant hydrocarbon, heptacosane (C₂₇H₅₆), and long-chain fatty acids (e.g., cerotic acid, palmitic acid) are key contributors to its strong hydrophobicity, while myricyl palmitate regulates its solidification behavior and textural properties—critical traits for improving the moisture barrier performance of biopolymer films (Tanleque-Alberto et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2018).

As an EU-approved food additive (E901), beeswax excels at addressing the high moisture sensitivity of hydrophilic biopolymers (e.g., starch, chitosan). When emulsified with biopolymers using low-hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) emulsifiers (e.g., glyceryl monostearate), it forms a continuous hydrophobic network that reduces water vapor permeability by 20–40 % and increases the water contact angle to >90° (Zhang et al., 2022; Cortés-Rodríguez et al., 2020). Its low melting point (61–66 °C) enables compatibility with scalable film-forming processes, including casting, extrusion blow molding, and continuous solution casting—essential for industrial production (Luchesi et al., 2024; Cheng et al., 2024, Cheng et al., 2024). Additionally, beeswax contains D-002, a mixture of long-chain aliphatic alcohols with mild antioxidant activity, which aids in delaying lipid oxidation of packaged high-fat foods (e.g., nuts, processed meat) (Fratini et al., 2016a, Fratini et al., 2016b; Mishyna et al., 2019).

2.2. Propolis

Propolis is a resinous mixture collected by bees from plant secretions (e.g., buds, bark), consisting of 50 % resin/balsam, 30 % wax, 10 % essential oils, 5 % pollen, and trace impurities (Thomson, 1990; Prashanthi and Sujatha, 2024). Its bioactivity stems from phenolic compounds (e.g., gallic acid, ferulic acid) and flavonoids (e.g., betanin, isobetanin), which exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against common foodborne pathogens (e.g., Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes) and strong free radical scavenging capacity (DPPH radical clearance >50 % at 3 % addition in films) (Hanapiah et al., 2024; El-Sakhawy et al., 2024).

Ethanolic extracts of propolis are most widely used in biopolymer films, as they retain more bioactive compounds than aqueous extracts and form stable hydrogen bonds with polysaccharide or protein matrices (e.g., sodium alginate, gelatin) (Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022a, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022b, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022c, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022d; De Carli et al., 2022). This interfacial interaction enhances film cohesion: for instance, adding 3 % propolis extract to sodium alginate films increases tensile strength by 19–25 % and reduces oxygen permeability by 30 % (Guo et al., 2025, Guo et al., 2025a, Guo et al., 2025b; He et al., 2025). While raw propolis may cause sensory interference (e.g., bitter taste) in direct food-contact films, purification or microencapsulation mitigates this issue, expanding its application in dairy, meat, and fruit packaging (Osuna et al., 2024; Salimi et al., 2025).

2.3. Honey

Honey is a natural sweetener produced by bees via enzymatic conversion (glucose oxidase) and dehydration of floral nectar. It primarily contains ∼80 % carbohydrates (38–42 % fructose, 31–38 % glucose), 17–20 % water, and trace bioactives (e.g., flavonoids, organic acids, enzymes) (da Silva et al., 2016; Arshad et al., 2022). Its low water activity (a_n < 0.6) and high osmotic pressure inhibit microbial growth, while hydrogen peroxide—generated by glucose oxidase—further enhances antimicrobial efficacy against spoilage microorganisms like Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Santagata et al., 2018; Biratu et al., 2024).

In biopolymer films, honey acts as a multifunctional additive: it improves flexibility (increasing elongation at break by 30–50 % in starch films) by plasticizing polymer chains, reduces moisture loss (lowering papaya weight loss by 15–20 % during storage), and enhances antioxidant activity (ABTS radical clearance >90 % at 20 % addition) (Maringgal et al., 2020; Pająk et al., 2025). Its compatibility with hydrophilic biopolymers (e.g., pectin, chitosan) arises from hydroxyl groups forming hydrogen bonds with polymer matrices. However, concentrations exceeding 20 % may reduce tensile strength due to excessive plasticization, requiring formulation optimization (Osuna et al., 2024; Khajeh-Ali et al., 2022).

2.4. Pollen

Bee pollen is formed when worker bees agglutinate pollen grains from plant anthers. Its composition varies by floral source: 10–40 % protein, 1–13 % lipids, 13–55 % carbohydrates, and trace vitamins (e.g., vitamin K, B-complex) and minerals (e.g., calcium, iron) (Campos et al., 2008; El Ghouizi et al., 2023). Its moisture content (3–30 %) requires control during storage to prevent caking and fungal contamination, typically achieved via low-temperature drying (Sultan et al., 2021; Rodrigues-Pólit et al., 2023).

In biopolymer films, pollen acts as a reinforcing agent: adding 1–3 % pollen to chitosan films increases tensile strength by 15–22 % and reduces water vapor permeability by 25 %, as its protein components form cross-links with polymer chains (Velásquez et al., 2022; Macieira et al., 2010). Its polyphenolic compounds (e.g., gallic acid, quercetin) also contribute antioxidant activity (DPPH radical clearance ∼60 % at 3 % addition) and mild antimicrobial effects against S. aureus (Skowron et al., 2019; Hashim et al., 2022).

2.5. Royal jelly

Royal jelly is a milky secretion produced by young worker bees, with a pH of 3.6–4.2 and composition: 50–60 % water, 18 % proteins (major royal jelly proteins, MRJPs), 15 % carbohydrates, 3–6 % lipids (predominantly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid, 10-HDA), and trace vitamins (e.g., ascorbic acid, biotin) (Nagai and Inoue, 2004; Ali and Kunugi, 2020). Its bioactivity is primarily attributed to MRJPs (which inhibit bacterial cell membrane integrity) and 10-HDA (a potent free radical scavenger), enabling it to suppress E. coli growth and reduce oxidative damage (Fratini et al., 2016a, Fratini et al., 2016b; Ahmad et al., 2020; Kamthai et al., 2025). When incorporated into biopolymer films (e.g., carboxymethyl starch-chitosan blends), 0.1–0.4 % royal jelly improves thermal stability (increasing onset degradation temperature by 10–15 °C) and reduces microbial counts (yeast/mold <2 log CFU/g in walnut packaging) (Kamthai et al., 2025; Mishyna et al., 2019). However, its sour taste limits direct use in high-contact films, a issue addressable via microencapsulation with cyclodextrins to mask flavor while preserving bioactivity (Ali and Kunugi, 2020).

Collectively, these bee products offer targeted solutions to overcome biopolymer film limitations: beeswax enhances hydrophobicity, propolis enables active preservation, honey improves flexibility and moisture retention, pollen reinforces mechanical strength, and royal jelly boosts antimicrobial activity and thermal stability. Their unique compositions facilitate synergistic interactions with biopolymers, supporting the development of sustainable, high-performance food packaging systems (Mureşan et al., 2022; Maicelo-Quintana et al., 2024).

3. Progress in the application of propolis in food packaging films

Propolis extract (PE), valued for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties from flavonoid and phenolic components (Chourmouziadi Laleni et al., 2021; Cui et al., 2022; Kolayli, 2024; Reddy et al., 2025), has become a key additive for enhancing active biopolymer-based food packaging—with notable efficacy in polysaccharide matrices, the focus of this section (Cunha et al., 2021; Marangoni Júnior, Jamróz, et al., 2022; Jamróz et al., 2022). Numerous polysaccharide-based films have been optimized via PE incorporation, including starch (Betancur-D'Ambrosio et al., 2024; de Araújo et al., 2015), chitosan (De Carli et al., 2022), alginate (Cruz et al., 2021; Guo et al., 2025), pectin (Marangoni Júnior, Gonçalves, et al., 2022), and pullulan (Chang-Bravo et al., 2014; Roy and Rhim, 2021). Table 1 highlights recent examples of how PE modifies these films’ physicochemical and functional properties. The benefits of PE in polysaccharide films stem from hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between its phenolics/flavonoids and polymer chains (Marangoni Júnior, Gonçalves, et al., 2022), which enhance mechanical strength, thermal stability, and moisture barrier performance (Betancur-D'Ambrosio et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024). Its bioactivity further extends food shelf life by inhibiting pathogens and blocking UV radiation (Marangoni Júnior, Rodrigues, et al., 2022), while synergies with nanoparticles (Guo et al., 2025) or essential oils (He et al., 2025) can further boost performance (Rodrigues et al., 2021).

Table 1.

Recent overview of composition, functional enhancements, and food applications of biopolymer-based films incorporated with propolis.

Biopolymer type	Propolis concentration	Observed effects	Food model	Reference
Poly-lactic acid (PLA)	0–40 %(w/w)	Enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial properties; mechanical strength decreased by 35 % at higher PE concentration; elastic modulus improved by ∼16 % with PEG/CaCO3 addition	Dry meat sausage	Safaei and Roosta Azad (2020)
Chitosan (from crayfish shells)	5–20 %(w/w)	Slightly increased film thickness (about 16 %); light transmission decreased from 91 to 62 %; thermal stability improved with degradation temperature rising by around 8 °C; tensile modulus and strength increased up to 50 %, while elongation at break decreased; antioxidant activity greatly enhanced, nearly eighteenfold in the DPPH assay; antimicrobial effect strengthened, showing inhibition zones up to 3.8 mm against S. aureus	–	De Carli et al. (2022)
Cassava starch	0, 30, 60 g/100 g starch	Improved flexibility and extensibility with higher elongation at break (from 1.6 % to 28.4 %) and reduced modulus; greater homogeneity and smoother surface structure; phenolic content increased to 5.5 mg GAE/g and antioxidant activity to about 39 μmol TE/g	–	Cunha et al. (2021)
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/Starch	0.5, 2, 5, 10, and 20 % (v/v)	Achieved highest tensile strength (6.1 MPa at 20 % PE); exhibited strong antibacterial activity against E. coli and MRSA; showed distinct color change with pH 2–14; effectively delayed milk spoilage by inhibiting microbial growth	Dairy products	Mustafa et al. (2020)
Cassava starch with beeswax	1–4 % (v/w)	Exhibited improved tensile strength (up to 5.9 MPa) and thermal stability; showed enhanced antifungal activity with up to 52 % inhibition of Aspergillus niger through beeswax–propolis synergy	–	Betancur-D'Ambrosio et al. (2024)
Corn starch	10 % (w/w)	Showed enhanced antibacterial, barrier, and mechanical properties when combined with Thymus vulgaris essential oil and propolis extract; exhibited synergistic inhibition against E. coli and L. monocytogenes	–	Ardjoum et al. (2023)
Sodium alginate with nano-SiO2	3 % (w/w)	Enhanced tensile strength by 52 %, reduced water vapor transmission rate by 16 %, and increased antioxidant activity	–	Marangoni Júnior, Jamróz, et al. (2022)
Polylactide (PLA) with PEG	5, 10, and 20 % (v/v)	Improved water vapor barrier by 64 %, increased opacity and yellowness, and reduced fruit weight loss by 25 % during storage	Blueberry	Olewnik-Kruszkowska et al. (2022)
Pullulan/Chitosan with ZnO Nanoparticles	2 and 5 % (w/w)	Improved mechanical strength by about 25 % and enhanced antioxidant activity, with DPPH and ABTS scavenging increased to approximately 30 % and 70 %, respectively	Meat	Roy et al. (2021b)
Apple pectin	0, 2.5 and 5 g/100 g of pectin	Significantly enhanced antioxidant capacity and pronounced antimicrobial activity against Listeria innocua and Staphylococcus aureus, improving the bioactive performance of the films	–	Osuna et al. (2024)
Sodium alginate with zein co-encapsulated Wampee essential oil (WEO)	3 % (w/w)	Showed enhanced mechanical strength, rigidity, water and thermal stability, and compact structure, with superior antioxidant and antimicrobial performance, effectively prolonging strawberry shelf life	Strawberry	He et al. (2025)
Pectin and pea protein	0, 3, 6, and 12 % (v/w)	Films with 12 % PE showed the highest antioxidant activity, strongest antimicrobial effect, and best barrier properties, effectively extending black mulberry shelf life to 18 days at 4 °C	black mulberry	Salimi et al. (2025)
Chitosan/Tenebrio molitor larvae protein	1, 2, and 3 % (v/w)	The films with 3 % propolis extract showed higher elongation at break, improved barrier, thermal, and hydrophobic properties, and stronger antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, effectively extending strawberry shelf life	Strawberry	Liu et al. (2024)
Citrus pectin	1, 2, and 3 % (w/w)	Improved compatibility of water-soluble PE with the biopolymer matrix; tensile strength decreased from 19.0 to 14.8 MPa, while antioxidant activity increased from 12.6 % to 54.8 %, and UV-barrier performance was enhanced	–	Marangoni Júnior, Gonçalves, et al. (2022)
Guar gum	5 % (v/v)	Addition of 5 % EEP increased film opacity, moisture barrier, and elongation at break; antioxidant activity improved with DPPH and ABTS scavenging of 47.60 % and 94.87 %, respectively, showing strong antifungal and antibacterial effects and effectively preserving “Nanguo” pears	Nanguo pears	Pu et al. (2024)

3.1. Polysaccharide-based films incorporating PE

Polysaccharide-based films are widely used in food packaging due to their renewability and biocompatibility, but their inherent hydrophilicity and weak mechanical/antibacterial properties often limit practical applications. Propolis extract (PE), with its rich phenolic and flavonoid components, has emerged as a versatile modifier to address these limitations—but its efficacy varies significantly with polysaccharide type, co-additives, and processing methods, revealing unrecognized interface interaction mechanisms and application-specific optimization needs, as discussed below.

Among recent studies, He et al. (2025) focused on synergistic enhancement between PE and bioactive oils in sodium alginate (SA) films—a system where single additives often fail to balance mechanical and functional properties. They prepared SA films loaded with zein-co-encapsulated Wampee essential oil (WEO) and PE (denoted as ZPWS), and found that ZPWS films exhibited higher tensile strength and lower elongation at break than pure SA films. The hydrophobicity of WEO and PE jointly reduced film moisture content and increased water contact angle, while their combined bioactivity significantly inhibited bacterial growth and enhanced antioxidant capacity (Fig. 2a), ultimately extending strawberry shelf life in real-time tests (Fig. 2b) (He et al., 2025). A critical insight here is that zein encapsulation not only resolves the poor compatibility between hydrophobic WEO/PE and hydrophilic SA, but also achieves controlled release of active components—addressing the common issue of rapid bioactivity loss in unencapsulated PE-based films. This suggests that “encapsulation-mediated synergy” could be a general strategy for improving PE's performance in hydrophilic polysaccharide matrices.

Fig. 2.

(a) antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of zein co-encapsulated Wampee essential oil and ethanolic propolis extract within sodium alginate films and (b) its effect on extending strawberry shelf life (He et al., 2025), adapted under a CC BY 4.0 license from content originally published by Elsevier; (c) physical and mechanical performance of food packaging films using Tenebrio molitor larvae protein, chitosan, and PE, (d) PE effect on biodegradability of these films (Liu et al., 2024), adapted with permission from Elsabagh et al., 2024; (e) preparation scheme of citrus pectin loaded with water-soluble green propolis extract and its effect on UV–vis barrier, antioxidant, and (f) morphological behavior of the films (Marangoni Júnior, Gonçalves, et al., 2022), adapted with permission from Elsabagh et al., 2024.

This synergy is further validated by studies combining PE with nanoparticles, though with subtle differences in mechanism. Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022a, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022b, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022c, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022d reported that simultaneous addition of PE and nanosilica (SiO₂) to SA films increased tensile strength from 12.9 ± 1.2 MPa (control) to 19.6 ± 1.4 MPa (3 % PE + 10 % SiO₂), along with a 3.8-fold increase in antioxidant activity (from 3.5 % to 13.3 %) and enhanced UV-blocking capacity. Similarly, Roy et al. (2021) found that blending PE with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) in pullulan/chitosan films improved mechanical strength by ∼25 % and UV barrier properties. However, a key distinction emerges: SiO₂ primarily acts as a physical reinforcer to enhance PE-polysaccharide network cohesion, while ZnONPs synergize with PE's phenolics to boost antibacterial activity (targeting foodborne pathogens like E. coli). This indicates that nanoparticle type should be tailored to the core functional need (mechanical enhancement vs. antibacterial activity) when formulating PE-polysaccharide composite films.

Shifting to chitosan-based films—another widely studied polysaccharide—PE's role expands from a bioactive additive to a “crosslinking regulator,” with emulsification proving critical for performance optimization. Liu et al. (2024) fabricated chitosan/Tenebrio molitor larval protein/PE films and observed that PE specifically enhanced elongation at break, water vapor barrier properties (22.94 % improvement), thermal stability (45.84 % improvement), and surface hydrophobicity (20.25 % increase), while also boosting biodegradation rate to ∼86 % at 35 days (Fig. 2c and d). Unlike SA's ionic crosslinking with PE, chitosan's amino groups form hydrogen bonds with PE's phenolic hydroxyl groups, explaining the unique improvement in elongation rather than tensile strength. De Carli et al. (2022) further confirmed that pure chitosan films enriched with PE showed enhanced thermal stability, mechanical properties (modulus of elasticity, yield strength), and bioactivity—but Akkuzu et al. (2024) noted that these benefits could be amplified by an additional emulsification step. When PE was incorporated into emulsion-based chitosan films for strawberry preservation (inoculated with Botrytis cinerea), the films retained higher levels of phenolics, anthocyanins, and ascorbic acid, and completely inhibited mold growth over 14 days at 4 °C—outperforming non-emulsified counterparts. This highlights that emulsification reduces phase separation between PE and chitosan—a common issue in direct blending—and underscores the need to match processing methods to polysaccharide-PE interaction mechanisms.

Pectin-based films, by contrast, reveal a strong matrix hydrophilicity-dependent PE concentration effect, with solvent type also playing a pivotal role. Osuna et al. (2024) prepared pectin films with honey and PE, finding that 5 g PE per 100 g pectin (plus 60 g honey) maximized mechanical strength and antioxidant activity (605 % and 757 % increases in ABTS• and DPPH• scavenging, respectively), with PE's phenolics driving antimicrobial activity against Listeria innocua and Staphylococcus aureus. Salimi et al. (2025) extended this to pectin-protein blends (apple pomace pectin + grass pea protein), showing that 12 % PE was optimal for water vapor/oxygen barrier properties and black mulberry preservation (reducing weight loss and fungal counts, while maintaining 90.22 % ABTS scavenging after 18 days at 4 °C). The discrepancy in optimal PE concentration (5 % vs. 12 %) arises from the protein's hydrophobicity: grass pea protein reduces pectin's hydrophilicity, allowing higher PE loading without phase separation—an effect not observed in pectin-honey films (honey is highly hydrophilic). Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022a, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022b, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022c, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022d added another dimension by using water-soluble green PE (instead of common ethanolic extracts) in citrus pectin films. This solvent shift altered PE's chemical profile, leading to homogeneous, pore-free microstructures (Fig. 2f) and extending UV barrier from 300 nm (pure pectin) to 400 nm, with DPPH scavenging increasing from 12.6 % to 54.8 % at 3 % PE (Kubiliene et al., 2015). Notably, water-soluble PE avoided the ethanol-induced protein denaturation or polysaccharide chain cleavage seen in ethanolic extracts, suggesting it may be a superior choice for heat- or solvent-sensitive polysaccharide matrices.

PE's performance in other polysaccharides further confirms its versatility, while also exposing unresolved challenges. Pu et al. (2024) developed guar gum (GG) films with 5 % PE, which enhanced opacity, moisture barrier, and elongation at break (likely due to PE acting as a plasticizer), but reduced tensile strength—indicating a trade-off between flexibility and mechanical robustness that requires formulation adjustment (e.g., adding small amounts of nanocellulose). For hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) films used in cheese coating, Paula et al. (2024) found PE reduced counts of mesophilic bacteria, coliforms, and E. coli (to undetectable levels by day 28), but caused significant lightness loss in cheese and partial phenolic degradation during storage—highlighting the need for PE stabilization strategies (e.g., microencapsulation) to retain activity without altering food sensory properties. Similarly, Elsabagh et al. (2024) showed that carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) coatings with PE reduced Bacillus cereus counts in beef fillets to 5.41 log CFU/g by day 21 (vs. ∼9.7 log CFU/g in controls), and that combining PE with lactoferrin further improved efficacy—suggesting PE's antibacterial spectrum can be expanded via “bioactive stacking,” though the underlying synergistic mechanisms (e.g., PE disrupting cell membranes + lactoferrin binding iron) remain to be clarified.

Finally, PE's interaction with starch-based films (a cost-effective polysaccharide) reveals conflicting trends that demand attention. Ardjoum et al. (2023) reported that adding PE and thyme essential oil to cornstarch films increased elongation at break from 5.8 % to 13.5 % and enhanced antibacterial activity against E. coli and L. monocytogenes, but reduced tensile strength—likely due to oil-induced plasticization. In contrast, Cunha et al. (2021) found that cassava starch films with PE showed higher tensile strength, Young's modulus, and elongation at break, along with increased phenolics and antioxidant activity. This contradiction may stem from starch source (corn vs. cassava) and amylose/amylopectin ratio: cassava starch has higher amylopectin content, which forms more hydrogen bonds with PE's phenolics, whereas corn starch's higher amylose content is more prone to phase separation with PE. When beeswax was further added to cassava starch-PE films, Betancur-D'Ambrosio et al. (2024) observed nonlinear mechanical behavior but 51 % inhibition of Aspergillus niger—indicating that lipid addition can enhance PE's antifungal activity, though at the cost of mechanical predictability.

In summary, PE effectively modifies polysaccharide-based films by leveraging hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, and synergies with co-additives, but its performance is governed by three understudied factors: (1) the hydrophilicity of the polysaccharide matrix (dictating PE compatibility and optimal concentration), (2) the type of co-additive (nanoparticles for mechanics, oils for bioactivity, emulsifiers for dispersion), and (3) solvent/processing effects (water-soluble PE outperforming ethanolic extracts in sensitive matrices). Future work should focus on quantifying these interface interactions and developing multi-functional composite systems (e.g., polysaccharide-protein-PE) to address current trade-offs between mechanical strength, bioactivity, and stability.

3.2. Protein-based films incorporating PE

Protein-based films offer good flexibility and biocompatibility for food packaging, but their high hydrophilicity and weak mechanical/antibacterial properties limit practical use (Reyes et al., 2021). PE, rich in phenolics and flavonoids, addresses these limitations—yet its efficacy differs from that in polysaccharide films (Section 3.1): in protein systems, PE focuses on “bioactivity enhancement + interface regulation,” with effects varying between pure protein and protein-polysaccharide blend matrices.

Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022a, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022b, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022c, Marangoni Júnior et al., 2022d developed hydrolyzed collagen (HC)/sodium alginate (SA) films with up to 4 % PE, revealing clear “concentration adaptability” of PE. At lower concentrations, PE improved film homogeneity without altering key functional groups of SA and HC. When PE content reached 3 %, the film achieved the most balanced performance: tensile strength peaked at 16.3 MPa, moisture content decreased, and water vapor permeability was effectively modulated. Moisture sorption followed Type III isotherms, best fitted by Smith's model—indicating PE promoted miscibility between SA and HC via hydrogen bonds (bridging SA's carboxyl groups and HC's amino groups). Additionally, PE enhanced antioxidant activity (up to 22.5 %) and UV-light shielding, attributed to its phenolic constituents. Notably, the SA/HC/PE3 % film was optimal, as excessive PE (>3 %) might disrupt the SA-HC hydrogen bond network—consistent with the concentration threshold of PE in polysaccharide films (e.g., 5 % PE in pectin films, Osuna et al., 2024).

Filgueiras et al. (2024) evaluated gelatin-based films containing red PE, highlighting PE's “bioactivity priority” in pure protein matrices. These films exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with the 25 % red PE formulation showing the strongest efficacy. When applied as coatings for grapes, the films reduced water loss, maintained visual appearance, and extended shelf life—especially under refrigeration. Unlike in SA/HC blends, PE barely improved gelatin's mechanical properties, likely due to gelatin's amorphous structure (dominated by random coils) that limits cross-linking with PE's phenolics. This contrasts with PE's dual role (mechanical reinforcement + bioactivity) in protein-polysaccharide blends.

Other protein-based matrices incorporating PE have also been investigated, such as whey protein (Fadiloglu and Emir Coban, 2022; Shakoury et al., 2022), casein (do Nascimento et al., 2022), and soy protein (Shahabi et al., 2023). Nevertheless, polysaccharide-based films remain far more prevalent. A key research gap lies in underutilized proteins: ovalbumin, gluten, and other proteins with unique structural features (e.g., gluten's viscoelasticity, ovalbumin's heat-induced gelation) are rarely explored for PE-incorporated film formation. These proteins may interact uniquely with PE, offering new opportunities to expand the functionality of protein-PE films.

3.3. Aliphatic polyester-based films and other matrices incorporating PE

Synthetic and semisynthetic biobased matrices (e.g., aliphatic polyesters, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-starch blends) complement natural polymers in food packaging, and PE's incorporation here primarily targets barrier enhancement, antimicrobial activity, and functional diversification—with effects shaped by matrix hydrophobicity and PE concentration, alongside unique trade-offs not seen in natural polymers.

For poly(lactic acid) (PLA), a rigid synthetic aliphatic polyester, PE modified key properties: Olewnik-Kruszkowska et al. (2022) reported PLA-PE films had increased thickness/opacity, reduced water vapor transmission rate, and notable antibacterial activity, enabling effective blueberry preservation. However, Safaei & Roosta Azad (2020) found PLA films with 20–40 % PE exhibited antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus but suffered compromised mechanical properties—a “antibacterial-mechanical trade-off” specific to rigid synthetic polyesters, as PE disrupts PLA's crystalline structure at high concentrations.

In semisynthetic systems, the blend of PVA, starch, PE, anthocyanins, and rosemary extract showed innovation: Mustafa et al. (2020) designed this as dual-function (active + pH-indicating) films for meat packaging, with PE concentration positively correlating with improved light barrier, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial effects. PE's synergy with anthocyanins (pH-sensing) and rosemary extract (antioxidant) addressed both preservation and quality monitoring, highlighting its value in multifunctional semisynthetic films.

Overall, PE enhances properties in these matrices, though its interactions with synthetic polymer chains (lacking active groups like hydroxyl/amino) are weaker than in natural polymers—relying more on physical dispersion than hydrogen bonding (Chourmouziadi Laleni et al., 2021; Olewnik-Kruszkowska et al., 2022). Promising directions include intelligent packaging (e.g., pH-sensitive films) and coatings for perishables (berries, meats), but gaps remain: PE composition standardization, long-term stability in synthetic matrices, and scalable production. Water-soluble PE is more promising when using biopolymer films due to better compatibility with macromolecular matrices, while protein-rich byproducts remain rarely explored—offering paths to zero-waste systems. Altogether, PE stands out as a versatile additive, with strong potential in synthetic/semisynthetic matrices for industrial-scale active packaging.

4. Research progress of beeswax in food packaging films

Polysaccharide- and protein-based biopolymeric films generally exhibit low water resistance due to the intrinsic hydrophilic nature of these macromolecules, which contain hydroxyl, amine, and carboxyl functional groups that readily interact with water molecules (Ureña et al., 2023). As a result, these films tend to absorb moisture from the environment or food, leading to increased permeability, reduced mechanical strength, and potential degradation over time. To overcome this limitation, incorporating hydrophobic compounds, such as fats, waxes, and oils, has been widely explored in the development of food packaging films (Mathew et al., 2025). These hydrophobic additives can be physically blended or chemically modified within the polymer matrix to create heterogeneous structures that disrupt water diffusion pathways, enhancing the overall moisture barrier properties.

Among lipids, natural waxes—composed of long-chain fatty acids and esters—show great potential for application due to their non-toxicity, biodegradability, and high hydrophobicity (Goslinska and Heinrich, 2019; Borriello et al., 2022). These characteristics make them particularly suitable for improving the barrier properties of biopolymeric films used in food packaging. In addition, natural waxes provide excellent water resistance (Devi et al., 2022). Beyond moisture protection, they also enhance other essential properties, such as gas and light barrier performance, contributing to extended food shelf life by reducing oxidation and microbial growth. Some waxes also exhibit antioxidant activity, further protecting packaged food from lipid oxidation and quality deterioration (Devi et al., 2024). Natural waxes, such as carnauba wax (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2020), beeswax (Cortés-Rodríguez et al., 2020), sugarcane wax (Hashim et al., 2022), candelilla wax (Janjarasskul et al., 2014), and shellac wax (Li et al., 2022), have been extensively investigated for this purpose—with beeswax standing out for its unique balance of processability and functionality, as detailed below.

Beeswax is a natural wax with high inertia and plasticity produced by bees (Nong et al., 2023). Classified as food additive E−901 (approved by the European Union), it is used in the food industry as a glazing agent, protective coating, and flavor carrier (Aguilar et al., 2007). It exhibits good viscoelasticity and a low melting point (61–66 °C) due to the presence of long-chain fatty acids (Y. Zhang et al., 2018). This low melting point aligns with the processing window of most biopolymers (e.g., starch, agar), avoiding thermal degradation during film formation—an advantage over higher-melting waxes like carnauba wax (82–86°C, de Oliveira Filho et al., 2020). Beeswax stands out in the formulation of edible films due to its viscoelastic behavior and ability to increase hydrophobicity, which consequently enhances water vapor resistance and reduces moisture sensitivity (Fig. 3) (Ochoa et al., 2017). Studies show that composite edible films—especially those based on polysaccharides or proteins combined with lipids—exhibit superior barrier properties, making them promising alternatives for sustainable food packaging (Y. Cheng et al., 2024; Pérez-Vergara et al., 2020).

Fig. 3.

An overview of beeswax-based composite polymer films.

The incorporation of beeswax into polymeric films has led to significant improvements in their physicochemical properties, particularly in relation to water-related characteristics. As summarized in Table 2, these enhancements include reduced water solubility, lower water vapor permeability (WVP), decreased moisture content, and an increased contact angle—collectively contributing to superior barrier properties. Such modifications have been observed in various biopolymeric film formulations: cassava starch/whey protein films (Cortés-Rodríguez et al., 2020) showed 30–40 % WVP reduction; starch/gelatin films (Y. Cheng et al., 2023) had contact angles exceeding 90°; native cassava starch films (Pérez-Vergara et al., 2020) exhibited reduced moisture absorption; gum cordia films (Haq et al., 2016) had lower water solubility; tragacanth/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) films (Bahrami et al., 2019) showed improved moisture resistance; HPMC films (Navarro-Tarazaga et al., 2011) had enhanced water barrier; starch films (S＀＀Sun et al., 2025a, Sun et al., 2025b) retained structural integrity under high humidity; and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films (Peter et al., 2024; Lim et al., 2024) reduced oxygen-induced lipid oxidation. A unifying insight here is that beeswax's efficacy in these matrices depends on dispersion uniformity—only when wax particles integrate into the polymer network (rather than aggregating) can they fully block water diffusion.

Table 2.

Studies on polymeric films containing beeswax.

Polymer	Beeswax concentration	Food product	Key Findings	Reference
Sodium caseinate	0–30 %	–	Optimized sodium caseinate films showed improved tensile and water barrier properties, with an elastic modulus of 29.01 MPa, elongation at break of 23.90 %	Fabra et al. (2008)
Guar gum	0–2.5 % (w/w)	–	Composite films showed increased tensile strength of 122 MPa and reduced water vapor permeability	Saurabh et al. (2016)
Gum cordia	0.05–0.20 g/g of biopolymer	–	Reduced tensile strength, Young's modulus, and elongation at break, with lower water vapor permeability and higher oxygen permeability	Haq et al. (2016)
Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose	–		Increased oxygen permeability and reduced water barrier and mechanical properties, while combined use of beeswax and nanoclay produced balanced film performance	Klangmuang and Sothornvit (2016)
Chitosan	0–50 % (w/w)	–	Improved water-proof properties, including lower water solubility and water vapor permeability and higher water contact angle	Santos et al. (2017)
Gelatin	5、10 and 15 % (w/w)		Improved thermal stability, UV/visible light and water vapor barrier properties, with beeswax showing better performance than carnauba wax	Y. Zhang et al. (2018)
Native cassava starch	0.5–0.9 % (w/w)	–	Water vapor permeability decreased by about 79 % and moisture content dropped from 20.0 % to 8.6 % with increasing beeswax concentration.	Pérez-Vergara et al. (2020)
Pullulan	0–10 % (w/w)	–	Water-proof properties were significantly improved; water vapor permeability decreased by 69 percent, water contact angle increased, and water solubility was substantially reduced with increasing beeswax concentration	Omar-Aziz et al. (2021)
Starch/gelatin	6 % (w/w)	–	Reduced water solubility and water vapor permeability. Enhanced thermal stability, water contact angle, tensile strength, elongation at break, and Young's modulus	Y. Cheng et al. (2021)
Agar/maltodextrin	0.40–20 % (w/v)	–	Exhibited the highest tensile strength and elongation at break, with tensile strength increased by 18 % and elongation at break by 39 %, as well as 2 percent lower water vapor permeability and 99 % lower oxygen permeability, indicating superior barrier performance	R. Zhang et al. (2022)
Hydrophobic starch	0, 30, 50, and 70 wt%	–	Lower water solubility and water vapor permeability; higher contact angle and thermal stability; enhanced cohesion and phase compatibility within the starch/BW matrix	Luchesi et al. (2024)
Poly(vinyl alcohol)	0–2 g	Bread	Reduced water vapor permeability 74 %. Improved thermal stability 45° increase in decomposition temperature. Preserved bread softness 15 % higher than neat PVA	Peter et al. (2024)
Guar gum/agar	20 wt%	Cheese	Improved tensile strength by 48.32 % and elongation at break by 26.05 %. Reduced water solubility by 66.67 percent, water vapor permeability by 69.28 percent, and oxygen permeability by 72.23 %. Improved the shelf life of cheese, effectively maintaining its moisture content, texture, colour, and pH for up to two months from the point of packaging	(Pu et al., 2024)
Starch/Gelatin	3, 6,9 and 12 % (w/w)	Chili oil, high-fat milk, and dumpling filling with cucumber and egg	Excellent hydrophobicity with a water contact angle of 106°, outstanding water resistance, UV-blocking, self-cleaning ability, and strong moisture, oxygen, and oil barrier properties. Excellent biosafety with cell viability of 100 percent, high storage stability maintaining hydrophobicity for 90 days	Y. Cheng et al. (2024)
Alginate	5、6.7、10, and 20 wt%	–	Improved contact angle by 98.66 %, tensile strength by 57.63 %, elongation at break by 102.71 %, and elastic modulus by 83.93 %. Reduced solubility by 64.38 % and water vapor permeability by 8.39 percent.	de Oliveira Queiroz, Aroucha and de Lima Leite (2025)

The common function of beeswax in biopolymer-based food packaging films is to create hydrophobic surfaces. Its strong hydrophobicity minimizes water molecule transmission, offering effective moisture-proof properties, and it can even form superhydrophobic surfaces with self-cleaning and anti-fouling functions (Hosseini et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2019). Since most biopolymers are hydrophilic, emulsification is critical to preparing homogeneous beeswax-polymer films. Zhang et al. (2022) found that the type and amount of emulsifier affect the formation, stability, and properties of agar/maltodextrin-beeswax film emulsions. As shown in Fig. 4A, agar molecules exist as random coils in the emulsion at 95 °C; as temperature decreases during film formation, agar adopts a double helix structure, constructing a gel network interspersed with maltodextrin, emulsifier, and beeswax particles. Emulsifiers with low hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) values (e.g., glyceryl monostearate) have more lipophilic groups (hydrocarbon chains) than hydrophilic groups (polar heads), allowing better binding with beeswax to form small, evenly distributed wax-emulsifier structures. High-HLB emulsifiers, by contrast, have fewer lipophilic groups, leading to uneven beeswax accumulation and phase separation. This explains why low-HLB emulsifiers are more effective at promoting agar/maltodextrin-beeswax compatibility—they act as “bridges” between hydrophilic polymers and hydrophobic wax.

Fig. 4.

A: Schematic diagram of the hypothetic distribution of the ingredients in agar/maltodextrin−beeswax film (Zhang et al., 2022); B: Schematic diagram of the agar/maltodextrin−beeswax pseudo-bilayer films network formation mechanism (Zhang et al., 2020).

Drying temperature significantly modulates the performance of beeswax composite films, with effects varying by polymer matrix but centered on structural uniformity and functional expression. As shown in two studies: Increasing temperature from 5 °C to 25 °C reduces the film's equilibrium moisture content (EMC), with the GAB model well fitting moisture sorption data to predict environmental stability (Soazo, Rubiolo and Verdini, 2011a); conversely, lowering temperature to 5 °C decreases water vapor permeability (WVP, enhancing moisture barrier) but increases solubility, and it impacts tensile strength without obvious effects on puncture strength (Soazo, Rubiolo and Verdini, 2011b). These findings highlight the need to optimize drying conditions based on specific packaging performance demands. Homogenization speed is a key factor regulating the properties of beeswax composite films by improving beeswax dispersion and particle size control. For starch-beeswax films, homogenization at 15,000 rpm for 1 min promotes beeswax migration to the film surface, increasing contact angle (up to 98°) for enhanced hydrophobicity, while combined homogenization and ultrasonication achieves uniform dispersion, reducing moisture permeability and solubility (Sun et al., 2025a, Sun et al., 2025b; Vianna et al., 2024). High-pressure homogenization (HPH) – a widely studied approach – drastically reduces emulsion droplet size to improve stability: for protein-based films, HPH enhances the tensile strength of resultant films by 2–4 times compared to non-homogenized systems (Agyemang et al., 2022). Specifically for soybean-protein isolate (SPI)–beeswax films, HPH lowers water vapor permeability (WVP) to ∼50 % of the control, tightens the film matrix, boosts hydrophobicity, and increases bound-beeswax content (a key contributor to reduced WVP, distinct from free beeswax) (Zhang et al., 2012). These findings confirm that optimizing homogenization speed/treatment tailors beeswax distribution and binding state, directly enhancing the film's hydrophobic, mechanical, and barrier performance.

Another strategy for optimizing beeswax dispersion is phase separation during film formation. Zhang et al. (2020) prepared agar/maltodextrin-beeswax pseudo-bilayer films via gravity-induced phase separation (buoyancy), which formed a lipid-rich surface layer. Drying temperature and homogenization conditions were key: as shown in Fig. 4B, temperatures above beeswax's melting point (61–66 °C) reduced rapid crystallization, allowing more liquid wax to migrate upward; lower temperatures caused agar to form a tight gel network that hindered wax movement. The pseudo-bilayer film prepared at 8000 rpm homogenization showed the highest tensile strength (20.57 MPa), Young's modulus (640.60 MPa), contact angle (92.9°), and lowest WVP (2.18 × 10⁻¹² g m⁻¹ s⁻¹ Pa⁻¹)—demonstrating that “surface-enriched wax” is more effective for barrier properties than uniformly dispersed wax. Similarly, S. S. Mathew et al. (2025) used thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) to create hydrophobic cellulose nanopaper (BCNP) with beeswax. The modified BCNP had a contact angle of 119° and tensile strength of 28.5 MPa, with WVP and oxygen permeability comparable to commercial low-density polyethylene (LDPE) films. It effectively delayed tomato decay, highlighting TIPS as a scalable method for wax modification of cellulose-based materials.

The effects of beeswax incorporation on the mechanical properties of biopolymeric films show divergent results, driven by matrix type and wax dispersion. Some studies report improvements: Cortés-Rodríguez et al. (2020) found cassava starch/whey protein-beeswax films had higher tensile strength; Kazemi et al. (2023) observed increased elongation in gelatin-ulvan-beeswax films. Others note reductions: Haq et al. (2016) found gum cordia-beeswax films became more fragile; Bahrami et al. (2019) reported lower tensile strength in tragacanth/HPMC-beeswax films. This variation stems from two factors: (1) lipids like beeswax inherently have low mechanical strength—if they aggregate, they create discontinuities in the polymer network (de Oliveira Filho et al., 2020); (2) well-dispersed wax can fill gaps in the matrix (e.g., starch's amorphous regions), enhancing cohesion. To mitigate brittleness, strategies include nanoemulsification (reducing wax droplet size to <100 nm, de Oliveira Filho et al., 2020) and adding reinforcing agents like cellulose nanocrystals (which bridge wax-polymer interfaces, de Oliveira Filho et al., 2021a, de Oliveira Filho et al., 2021b). These methods balance hydrophobicity and mechanical integrity, critical for practical packaging use.

Beeswax also significantly influences film opacity. Studies show its addition increases opacity (Kazemi et al., 2023; Syahida et al., 2020; Y. Zhang et al., 2018)—attributed to lipid micelles and crystalline structures disrupting visible light transmission, plus refractive index differences between hydrophilic polymers and hydrophobic wax (Kazemi et al., 2023). While this limits transparent applications (e.g., fresh produce packaging), it improves UV and visible light barrier properties (Y. Cheng et al., 2024)—protecting light-sensitive food components (lipids, vitamins, pigments) from photodegradation. For example, PVA-beeswax films (Peter et al., 2024) reduced vitamin C loss in packaged fruits by 35 % compared to unmodified PVA films, highlighting opacity as a functional advantage in light-sensitive food applications.

The impact of beeswax on thermal properties depends on its interaction with the polymer matrix. Kazemi et al. (2023) found gelatin-ulvan-beeswax films had reduced thermal resistance—phase separation between hydrophilic polymer and hydrophobic wax created weak points that degraded early. In contrast, Mohajer et al. (2017) observed enhanced thermal stability in gelatin-agar-beeswax films: well-dispersed wax restricted polymer chain mobility, delaying decomposition. This discrepancy confirms that compatibility and dispersion determine thermal performance—beeswax acts as a stabilizer only when it integrates into the matrix. For industrial processing (e.g., extrusion), this means matching wax content to matrix thermal stability: high wax loads (>5 %) may compromise heat resistance in sensitive matrices like gelatin, while rigid matrices like starch tolerate higher loads.

Beeswax also enhances film antioxidant properties, critical for active packaging. Y. Zhang et al. (2018) linked this to D-002—a mixture of long-chain primary aliphatic alcohols in beeswax with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity (Fratini et al., 2016). For example, starch-beeswax films (S. Sun et al., 2025a,b) reduced lipid oxidation in powdered milk (measured by TBARS) by 40 % over 30 days, reducing reliance on synthetic antioxidants like BHT.

Traditionally, casting is the primary method for producing beeswax-functionalized composite films (Fig. 3), involving dissolving/dispersing components in a solvent and controlled drying (Cortés-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Haq et al., 2016; Kazemi et al., 2023; Mohajer et al., 2017; Peter et al., 2024). While effective in labs, it has limitations for scaling: slow drying, inconsistent thickness, and high energy use. Recent advances address this, including continuous solution casting and extrusion blow molding.

Continuous solution casting accelerates aqueous formulation processing, yielding uniform films. Cai et al. (2020) optimized a closed-loop system for starch-beeswax films, achieving 92 % solvent recovery and 35 % energy reduction vs. open-air drying. Luchesi et al. (2024) used this technique to produce starch-beeswax films (with/without emulsifiers) at 0.55 m²/h, maintaining excellent water barrier properties—proving its scalability.

Extrusion blow molding is widely used in industrial packaging for its high efficiency and ability to produce multilayer films. It involves extruding molten polymer into a tubular “parison,” inflating it in a mold to achieve desired thickness and properties (Y. Cheng et al., 2024; Y. Cheng et al., 2021). J. Cheng et al. (2024) used it to make gelatin-beeswax films, adjusting gelatin Bloom values (100 vs. 250): higher Bloom gelatin (more cross-linked) improved wax dispersion, yielding 20 % lower WVP and 15 % higher tensile strength. de Campos Galuppo, Santana, Alves and Nóbrega (2024) developed co-extruded multilayer films (starch-beeswax inner layer + chitosan outer layer), where the inner layer provided moisture barrier and the outer layer antimicrobial activity—with peel strength >0.8 N/mm ensuring layer adhesion. These studies show extrusion is ideal for tailoring beeswax films to specific needs, from single-layer to complex multilayer structures.

Promising results have been observed when beeswax-enriched films are applied to preserve food quality (Table 2), with efficacy matching food physicochemical characteristics. For high-moisture foods (cucumber dumpling filling, Y. Cheng et al., 2024), films reduced moisture loss by 28 % over 7 days at 4 °C, maintaining texture. For high-fat products (powdered milk, Peter et al., 2024), PVA-beeswax films reduced oxygen permeability by 45 %, lowering lipid oxidation. For high-oil foods (chili oil seasoning, Y. Cheng et al., 2024), they prevented oil migration and rancidity. In dairy (cheese, Pal and Agarwal, 2024), HPMC-beeswax films reduced mesophilic bacteria by 2 log CFU/g after 28 days. In fruits (strawberries, apples, pears, Sultan et al., 2021; Trinh et al., 2022; Sinha et al., 2022), coatings regulated respiration, extending shelf life by 5–7 days. In eggs (R. Sun et al., 2021), beeswax-chitosan coatings cut weight loss from 8.5 % to 3.2 % and maintained Haugh units (freshness indicator) at 72 vs. 55 for uncoated eggs. In meats (fermented pork sausage “Naem,” Bui, Tangkham, LeMieux, Vuong, Prinyawiwatkul and Xu, 2024), starch-beeswax films reduced oxidative deterioration by 40 %. In bakery (bread, Peter et al., 2024), films prevented staling by retaining moisture. However, sensory challenges exist: high wax content (>3 %) can cause a “waxy” aftertaste in direct-contact foods (e.g., cheese, Paula et al., 2024), requiring formulation adjustments (e.g., microencapsulation) for consumer acceptance.

Beeswax-based films can be functionalized with bioactive compounds to create active and smart materials (Alves-Silva, Santos, Romani and Martins, 2023), expanding their utility beyond basic barrier packaging.

Active films interact with food to extend shelf life or enhance safety. Lakshan et al. (2024) added 1 % thyme essential oil to starch-beeswax films, achieving 90 % inhibition of E. coli and S. aureus—beeswax's hydrophobicity slowed oil evaporation, prolonging activity. Martínez-Abad et al. (2014) used 0.1 % silver nanoparticles with beeswax in gelatin films, reducing L. monocytogenes by 3 log CFU/g. Sustainable alternatives include natural waste: Verrillo et al. (2023) incorporated 2 % coffee residue extract into beeswax-chitosan films, boosting DPPH scavenging to 55 % and reducing waste. These active films address the limitation of pure beeswax films (mild antimicrobial activity) while retaining biodegradability.

Smart films monitor food quality via environmental-responsive feedback (de Oliveira Filho, Braga, et al., 2021). Beeswax improves their water resistance—critical for maintaining sensitivity. Shi et al. (2023) developed cellulose nanocrystal-anthocyanin-sodium alginate films with 2 % beeswax: wax increased contact angle by 25 % and reduced water absorption by 30 %, while preserving pH sensitivity (color change from pink to blue at pH > 7) and transmittance (>80 %). However, challenges remain: anthocyanins fade after 10 days of light exposure, and wax migration into food is unevaluated—requiring further safety and stability testing.

Overall, incorporating beeswax into biopolymeric films presents a promising strategy for enhancing functional properties, particularly water resistance, barrier performance, and antioxidant capacity. Despite challenges (mechanical trade-offs, sensory impact), innovative approaches (nanoemulsification, reinforcing agents, scalable processing) mitigate these limitations. Future research should prioritize: (1) standardizing beeswax extraction and characterization to ensure consistent performance; (2) quantifying wax migration into food to meet safety regulations; (3) optimizing formulations for sensory-sensitive applications (e.g., microencapsulation to reduce “waxy” aftertaste); and (4) testing long-term stability in real food systems. These steps will expand the industrial application of beeswax-enriched films, contributing to sustainable, high-performance food packaging.

5. Research progress of other bee products in food packaging

Honey, bee pollen, bee bread, and emerging bee-derived ingredients (e.g., honey bee larvae protein) have emerged as promising additives for biopolymer-based food packaging, leveraging their natural bioactivity (antioxidant, antimicrobial) and compatibility with biodegradable matrices. However, their performance is highly variable—shaped by concentration, matrix type, and processing methods—and existing research often lacks systematic exploration of underlying mechanisms or standardized evaluation criteria. This section synthesizes current findings, highlights unresolved trade-offs, and identifies gaps to guide future development.

5.1. Bee pollen and bee bread

Bee pollen—collected by bees and agglutinated into granules—has a variable but nutrient-dense composition: 10–40 % protein, 1–13 % lipids, 13–55 % carbohydrates, and trace polyphenols (e.g., gallic acid, quercetin) (Campos et al., 2008). Its role in packaging films is dual: as a mechanical reinforcer (via protein cross-linking) and a mild bioactive agent (via polyphenols), but its efficacy is strongly tied to the polymer matrix's chemical nature. Velásquez et al. (2022) investigated kappa-carrageenan films incorporating bee pollen extracts (5–15 % w/v) and honey (10 % w/v), focusing on physical properties and antibacterial activity. They found that pollen extract increased film tensile strength by 18–25 % (from 2.1 MPa to 2.6 MPa) and reduced water contact angle by 12–18 % (indicating higher hydrophilicity), attributed to pollen's cationic proteins forming hydrogen bonds with carrageenan's anionic sulfate groups—strengthening the polymer network while increasing water affinity. However, the films showed no significant antimicrobial activity against E. coli or S. aureus, even at 15 % pollen concentration. This inconsistency likely stems from carrageenan's dense structure: polyphenols (the main antimicrobial components of pollen) were trapped within the matrix, limiting their release to the film surface where pathogens interact. Notably, similar kappa-carrageenan systems have shown enhanced functionality with other natural additives—Praseptiangga et al. (2022) found that combining honey with vanilla essential oil in κ-carrageenan films yielded stronger antimicrobial activity against common foodborne pathogens, suggesting that pollen's bioactive release may benefit from synergistic combinations with more lipophilic agents.

In starch matrices—traditionally prone to brittleness and poor thermal stability—bee pollen acts as both a reinforcer and plasticizer. Macieira et al. (2010) prepared starch-bee pollen films via casting, with pollen concentrations ranging from 5 % to 20 % (w/w). Pure starch films exhibited severe heterogeneity (visible cracks and uneven thickness), but adding 10 % pollen eliminated these defects, increased tensile strength by 30 % (from 1.8 MPa to 2.3 MPa), and raised onset degradation temperature by 15 °C (from 280 °C to 295 °C). The authors attributed this to pollen's lipid components (e.g., linoleic acid) plasticizing starch chains, while proteins cross-linked with starch's hydroxyl groups to form a more cohesive network. Notably, concentrations above 15 % pollen caused phase separation—pollen aggregates (5–10 μm) disrupted the starch matrix, reducing elongation at break by 22 %. This “optimal concentration window” (10–15 % for starch) is a recurring theme in pollen research, though the exact range varies by matrix (e.g., 5–10 % for carrageenan, 10–15 % for starch), emphasizing the need for matrix-specific optimization.

For hybrid synthetic-natural matrices, bee pollen enhances bioactivity without compromising mechanical integrity. Skowron et al. (2019) coated polypropylene (a common synthetic packaging polymer) with a chitosan-propolis-bee pollen composite (1–3 % pollen extract), testing its efficacy against Listeria monocytogenes on three high-risk foods: salmon (high moisture), salami (high fat), and cheese (high protein). The coated films reduced L. monocytogenes counts by 1.5–2.3 log CFU/g, with the highest efficacy on salami. The authors explained that salami's high fat content improved pollen polyphenol solubility, facilitating their release and interaction with bacterial cell membranes. In contrast, on salmon, excess moisture diluted the polyphenols, reducing antimicrobial activity. This finding underscores a often-overlooked factor: food composition, not just film formulation, dictates the performance of pollen-enriched packaging—a critical consideration for practical applications.

Pollen's utility extends beyond antimicrobial applications to long-term fruit preservation, where barrier properties are critical for maintaining post-harvest quality. Sultan et al. (2021) assessed intelligent edible coating films based on chitosan and bee pollen for the preservation of Le Conte pears after harvest. The addition of pollen grains improved the water contact angle (reducing surface hydrophilicity) compared to pure chitosan film and reduced the water vapor transmission rate by 50 %—a key improvement for minimizing moisture loss. After 105 days of refrigerated storage, the coated fruits showed significant reductions in weight loss (from 18 % to 11 %), deterioration rate (from 35 % to 12 %), and softening (firmness retained at 22 N vs. 15 N for uncoated fruits), underscoring that pollen's value in packaging lies not only in direct bioactivity but also in reinforcing barrier performance for extended storage.

Bee bread—bee pollen fermented with nectar and bee saliva—addresses some limitations of raw pollen, as fermentation amplifies bioactivity (via enzyme-mediated release of polyphenols) and improves compatibility with polymers. Khalifa et al. (2020) identified key fermentative products in bee bread: organic acids (e.g., lactic acid, acetic acid) that lower pH (enhancing antimicrobial activity) and hydrolyzed proteins (smaller peptides) that improve dispersion in matrices. Subramaniam et al. (2023) built on this by adding ethanol extracts of bee bread (5–20 % v/v) to carrageenan films. At 5 % and 10 % concentrations, the films showed increased tensile strength (from 2.2 MPa to 2.7 MPa) and elongation at break (from 15 % to 22 %), as well as sustained antioxidant release—DPPH radical scavenging remained above 50 % for 14 days, compared to 30 % for pure carrageenan films. However, 20 % bee bread extract caused significant aggregation (visible under SEM), reducing tensile strength to 1.9 MPa and increasing water vapor permeability (WVP) by 20 %. The authors attributed this to excess peptides competing for hydrogen bonds with carrageenan, disrupting the matrix structure. Despite these advances, bee bread research is limited by low fermentation yields (typically <50 % pollen-to-bread conversion) and high extraction costs, making it less scalable than raw pollen.

5.2. Honey

Honey's high carbohydrate content (80 % fructose/glucose), low water activity (a_n < 0.6), and polyphenols make it a versatile additive, but its impact varies by honey type, matrix hydrophilicity, and application target (Bellik and Iguer-ouada, 2013; Bobiş et al., 2018; Sueoka et al., 2022). Specialized honey varieties have shown unique advantages: Mohd Azam and Amin (2017) developed gel films using Manuka honey (rich in the unique antimicrobial factor UMF), which exhibited targeted activity against Staphylococcus aureus—a common food spoilage bacterium—while maintaining flexibility suitable for wrapping irregularly shaped foods. This aligns with findings on other specialty honeys: Lemus et al. (2021) used melipona honey (a stingless bee honey with higher polyphenol content than traditional honey) to plasticize agar-reduced graphene oxide films, increasing elongation at break by 33.6 % and reducing WVP by 22.1 %—demonstrating that honey type directly impacts performance.

For starch-based films, Pająk et al. (2025) found that octenyl succinylated potato starch films with honey had increased phenolic content (by 40 %), antioxidant activity (DPPH scavenging >70 %), and antimicrobial efficacy against Aspergillus niger. Honey's hydroxyl groups formed hydrogen bonds with starch chains, stabilizing the matrix and reducing water vapor permeability (WVP) by 25 %. Mironescu et al. (2019) further showed that 2 % honey in starch films improved elasto-plastic properties and penetration resistance, while enhancing sensory attributes (flavor, aroma) that persisted for 30 days—addressing a key limitation of biopolymer films (often tasteless or off-putting).

In pectin matrices, honey acts as both plasticizer and bioactive agent. Biratu et al. (2024) reported that coffee pulp pectin films with 20 % honey had 30 % higher elongation at break and 15 % higher tensile strength than controls, plus enhanced antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Osuna et al. (2024) optimized apple pectin films with 60 g honey per 100 g pectin, achieving the lowest WVP and best mechanical balance—honey's sugars plasticized pectin's rigid structure, while polyphenols contributed to UV barrier properties. These findings are reinforced by structural studies showing honey modifies pectin gel microstructure, reducing syneresis and improving water holding capacity (Sasikala et al., 2018).

In food applications, honey coatings excel at preserving high-moisture products but face competition from other natural additives. Maringgal et al. (2020) found that 1.0–1.5 % stingless bee honey coatings maintained papaya firmness, reduced weight loss by 20 %, and slowed respiration rate during 12 °C storage. Yousuf and Srivastava (2019) observed synergistic effects when honey was combined with soy protein isolate: fresh-cut pineapple coated with this blend retained 40 % more phenolics and had 2 log CFU/g lower microbial counts than uncoated samples. Honey's efficacy is not limited to fresh produce—it also addresses key challenges in nut preservation, where rancidity and microbial growth are major concerns. Khajeh-Ali et al. (2022) evaluated the effectiveness of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) containing honey from Astragalus gossypinus in controlling rancidity and microbial deterioration of pistachio kernels during ambient storage for 120 days. The results showed that kernels coated with 2 % honey and 1 % CMC had the lowest microbial counts (total plate count of 3.2 log CFU/g vs. 6.5 log CFU/g for uncoated kernels) and a significant reduction in rancidity—at the end of the storage period, the samples containing honey had peroxide values (5.8 meq O₂/kg) and free fatty acid levels approximately half of the acceptable industry limits. Importantly, the coating also maintained better sensory characteristics (color, texture, flavor) of the pistachios, highlighting honey's ability to balance preservation efficacy with consumer acceptability in high-fat, low-moisture foods. However, Saha et al. (2023) showed that honey was less effective than aloe vera gel at preserving fresh-cut pineapple's vitamin C content (27.35 mg/100 g in aloe vs. 18.2 mg/100 g in honey), highlighting that honey is not universally superior—it performs best in applications where both bioactivity and plasticization are needed (e.g., papaya coatings), rather than pure nutrient retention.

Honey-based coatings also show promise in processed foods: Santagata et al. (2018) used pectin-honey coatings for dehydrating apple, melon, and mango slices, achieving 2–3 log reductions in total bacterial counts and 15–20 % higher antioxidant retention compared to uncoated controls. A follow-up study combining this coating with electrical blanching pretreatment further improved color stability in dried pineapple, suggesting honey coatings can integrate with emerging food processing technologies (Santagata et al., 2018).

A notable gap in honey packaging research is scalability and sensory trade-offs. While Santagata et al. (2018) demonstrated lab-scale efficacy, they lacked data on coating uniformity in large-scale drying—critical for industrial adoption. Additionally, high honey concentrations (>20 %) can introduce a “waxy” aftertaste in direct-contact foods (e.g., cheese), though this is mitigated by microencapsulation— a strategy rarely explored in current studies.

5.3. Emerging bee products: Honey bee larvae protein and beyond

Honey bee larvae and pupae (rich in protein: ∼46 %) represent a novel, underutilized additive for biopolymer films, addressing the need for sustainable protein sources in packaging. Mishyna et al. (2019) noted that larvae homogenate contains essential amino acids (leucine: 6.6 g/kg, lysine: 5.8 g/kg) that can cross-link with polymers, while Kamthai et al. (2025) optimized ternary carboxymethyl starch (CMS)-chitosan (CS)-pectin films with 0.1–0.4 % honey bee larvae protein (BBP). The 0.1 % BBP formulation had the highest tensile strength (7.73 MPa) and elongation at break (32.23 %), while 0.4 % BBP improved WVP and thermal stability—BBP's hydrophobic amino acids interacted with dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) cross-linkers, forming a denser network. This study demonstrates BBP's potential as a “dual-function” additive (mechanical reinforcer + barrier enhancer), but challenges remain: larvae protein extraction is labor-intensive and costly, and no studies have evaluated its biodegradability or potential allergenicity (critical for food contact).

Other emerging applications include repurposing bee products for multifunctional films, with honey leading cross-disciplinary innovation. In biomedical contexts, honey has been integrated into gelatin-guar gum films for wound dressings—Sasikala et al. (2018) showed such films maintained moisture balance and exhibited >99 % antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli, while Madian et al. (2023) developed bacterial cellulose-honey composite films with high tensile strength and biocompatibility for wound care. These materials leverage bacterial cellulose's superior mechanical properties (compared to plant cellulose) and honey's bioactivity, creating systems that degrade within 1–2 months (Madian et al., 2023).

Honey, bee pollen, and bee bread serve as valuable natural, bioactive additives for biopolymer-based food packaging, effectively addressing key limitations of such films—including brittleness, insufficient bioactivity, and high water vapor permeability—by leveraging their unique chemical compositions (e.g., honey's sugars and polyphenols, pollen's proteins and lipids). However, their path to industrial adoption is hindered by three interconnected gaps: mechanistic ambiguity, where most studies report performance improvements (e.g., enhanced tensile strength or antimicrobial activity) without clearly linking them to specific polymer-additive interactions (e.g., how pollen proteins cross-link starch versus carrageenan), leading to trial-and-error formulation for different food types; a lack of standardization, as variables like honey type (stingless vs. traditional), pollen concentration (2–10 %), and processing methods (casting vs. extrusion) vary widely across research, making results incomparable and slowing the development of universal best practices; and scalability and cost challenges, particularly for bee bread (due to low-yield fermentation) and honey bee larvae protein (due to labor-intensive extraction), which currently limit their use beyond laboratory-scale trials. Future research should prioritize the development of hybrid systems (e.g., honey + bee pollen + cellulose nanocrystals) to leverage synergistic effects, establish standardized evaluation criteria (e.g., consistent water vapor permeability testing conditions, uniform antimicrobial assay protocols), and explore low-cost feedstocks (e.g., beekeeping byproducts like excess pollen) to reduce production costs, while also conducting large-scale sensory and long-term storage trials to validate real-world applicability for diverse food products.

6. Conclusion and outlook

The incorporation of naturally derived materials like bee products into the biopolymer-based food packaging system presents a promising approach to enhancing the multifunctional properties for food packaging and preservation while promoting the sustainability. Several reports have demonstrated that bee products like beeswax, honey, royal jelly, propolis, and royal jelly, effectively improve the barrier, mechanical, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of biopolymer films and coatings. These greener additives not only preserve food for longer period while also encourage to minimizing the usage of petroleum-based plastics and reliance on the synthetic preservatives in food sectors. Thus, biopolymeric films incorporated with the natural bee products align with the global efforts to produce environment friendly, biodegradable, and active packaging that meets consumer and regulatory demands for safer and more sustainable food packaging. Despite of tremendous progress in this area, a number of difficulties still exist. One of the major primary concerns is that scalability of production and cost effectiveness of incorporating the bee products into biopolymer matrices. Due to the hydrophobicity of the bee products, it is difficult to achieve single homogenous system that cause notable effects on the multifunctional properties that poses challenges for standardization and commercialization. Furthermore, compatibility issue between several biopolymers and bee products required further comprehensive investigation to enhance the film performance without compromising its biodegradability and safety.

In order to achieve stability of the bio active compounds in the film matrix, the advanced techniques like encapsulation and cross-linking were applied. Besides, to assure food safety and regulatory compliance, comprehensive research on the migration behavior of active ingredients from packaging to food is required. Another promising method is that incorporation of other natural compounds like plant polyphenols and nanoparticles along with the bee products. The food packaging industry may undergo yet another revolution if two or more active additives are combined with cutting-edge technology like smart packaging, which has sensors to monitor the freshness of the food. Furthermore, sustainability studies and life cycle assessments are essential for determining the environmental impact of these innovative packaging systems as well as their viability for widespread use. Moreover, it will be easier to adopt and integrate bee-derived functionalized biopolymer films into mainstream markets if clear criteria are established for their use in food packaging. Studies on customer perception are also required to evaluate market preparedness and resolve any issues with the use of bee products in food packaging.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Xiangxin Li: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Software, Visualization, Methodology, Writing–original draft. Hualei Chen: Conceptualization, Supervision, Review and editing, Resources and funding acquisition. Tilak Gasti: Review and editing, Methodology. Luís Marangoni Júnior: Review and editing. Roniérik Pioli Vieira: Review and editing. Josemar Gonçalves de Oliveira Filho: Review and editing. Wenli Tian: Conceptualization, Supervision, Review and editing, Resources and funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Handling Editor: Dr. Xing Chen