Traditional preparation and cultural significance of chemo, an indigenous coffee-leaf beverage in Southwestern Ethiopia

Abstract

Background

Chemo is an indigenous hot beverage prepared from coffee leaves and traditionally consumed in Tepi Town, Southwestern Ethiopia. Although it is widely embedded in everyday life and local food traditions, systematic documentation of its preparation practices and socio-cultural roles has been limited. This study aimed to document the traditional preparation methods and ingredient composition of Chemo and to describe its perceived cultural, social, and livelihood-related roles within the local community.

Methods

A mixed-methods ethnobotanical and socio-cultural study was conducted from August to October 2025 across eight sites in Tepi Town. Data were collected from 64 households and 16 key informants using semi-structured interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions, and free-listing. Botanical specimens were collected, identified, and deposited at the Mizan-Tepi University Herbarium. Quantitative data were summarized using descriptive statistics, while qualitative data were analyzed thematically, focusing on recurring narratives and observed practices.

Results

Coffee leaves (Coffea arabica L.) were consistently identified as the core ingredient of Chemo, with households adding a range of locally available herbs and spices, including Ocimum basilicum L., Lippia abyssinica (Otto & A. Dietr.) Cufod., Zingiber officinale Roscoe, and Capsicum frutescens L. Preparation typically involved roasting or heating the leaves, grinding, and boiling, followed by the addition of butter, salt, and spices. Participants described Chemo as commonly served to guests, shared during communal activities, and consumed for perceived warming and restorative effects. Women were identified as the primary practitioners responsible for preparation and knowledge transmission. Reported challenges included seasonal shortages of ingredients, hygiene-related constraints, and limited market opportunities.

Conclusion

The findings show that Chemo remains an important element of local food practices in Tepi Town, valued for its role in hospitality, daily social interaction, and household use. While the study does not quantify nutritional or economic outcomes, it provides ethnographic evidence of Chemo’s cultural relevance and continued practice. Further research integrating chemical analysis, standardized socio-economic data, and comparative ethnobotanical perspectives is needed to better assess its functional properties and broader development potential.

Background

Coffee is Ethiopia’s most important cash crop and a central element of the country’s social, cultural, and economic life [1]. While international markets and research have largely focused on roasted coffee beans, rural Ethiopian communities have long made use of multiple parts of the Coffea plant for food and beverage preparation. One such practice is the preparation of beverages from coffee leaves, locally known in southwestern Ethiopia as Chemo, although similar drinks exist under different local names in other regions of the country [1, 2].

Unlike roasted-bean coffee, which dominates urban consumption and global trade, Chemo is primarily embedded in household and community life [2]. It is prepared at the domestic level and consumed during daily routines, communal labor, and selected ceremonial occasions [3]. Ingredients such as butter, salt, and aromatic spices are sometimes added, reflecting locally developed taste preferences and cultural meanings rather than standardized recipes [1]. These practices illustrate the multifunctional role of the coffee plant within rural livelihoods, extending beyond its economic value as an export commodity.

From a culinary and ethnobotanical perspective, Chemo preparation follows place-based techniques that shape its sensory characteristics and locally perceived effects [4]. Preparation typically involves harvesting fresh or dried coffee leaves, lightly roasting or heating them, crushing the material, and boiling or steeping it in water [5]. Depending on availability and household preference, aromatic herbs or spices may be added. Variations in roasting intensity, ingredient selection, and preparation sequence are common across communities and ethnic groups, contributing to distinct local expressions of the beverage [6]. Knowledge of these practices is transmitted primarily through oral instruction and hands-on experience within households, highlighting the close interaction between ecology, taste, and social custom [2, 5, 6].

In recent years, scientific interest in coffee leaves has increased due to their reported content of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids, xanthones, and alkaloids such as caffeine [7–10]. Studies suggest that coffee leaves can contain substantial levels of phenolic compounds and chlorogenic acids, with concentrations influenced by leaf age and processing methods [8]. Roasting and drying have been shown to modify chemical composition, offering partial explanations for local descriptions of Chemo as warming or refreshing [1, 3, 5]. However, most available evidence is derived from laboratory-based analyses rather than direct examination of traditionally prepared Chemo beverages.

Beyond nutritional and chemical considerations, coffee leaf beverages have also been discussed within frameworks of sustainability and circular economies [9, 11, 12]. Because coffee leaves can be harvested without directly reducing bean yield, they represent a potential value-added by-product for smallholder farmers. Ethiopian institutions and industry actors have begun exploring processing standards, safety requirements, and market pathways for coffee by-products such as coffee leaf tea and cascara [10, 13, 14]. At the policy level, discussions increasingly emphasize the need to balance commercialization with protection of traditional knowledge and equitable benefit sharing. Coffee leaf tea has already been approved under European Union food regulations [10, 15].

Despite this growing interest, significant knowledge gaps remain. Ethnographic studies describe considerable diversity in Chemo preparation methods and locally perceived health benefits, such as relief from fatigue, colds, or stomach discomfort [1, 11–13]. However, few studies have critically linked traditional preparation practices with sensory outcomes, nutritional composition, or pharmacological properties. Moreover, the social and cultural dimensions of Chemo including gender roles, intergenerational knowledge transmission, and challenges faced by local producers have received limited systematic attention. As interest in commercialization increases, documenting customary practices within their cultural, ecological, and ethical contexts becomes particularly important [14, 15].

Ethiopia, recognized as the center of origin of Coffea arabica L., contains montane forests in its southwestern highlands that form part of the moist evergreen Afromontane biodiversity hotspot [16–18]. Coffee supports the livelihoods of more than 15 million Ethiopians and contributes over 25% of national foreign exchange earnings [19]. The Ethiopian coffee ceremony is internationally recognized as a symbol of hospitality, dialogue, and social cohesion [20]. Within this broader coffee culture, Chemo represents a locally significant yet under-documented practice that remains largely absent from national and international discourse [1, 3, 21].

This study therefore aims to document traditional Chemo preparation methods and ingredient use in Tepi Town; to describe reported cultural and social roles associated with its consumption; to examine women’s involvement in preparation and knowledge transmission; and to identify challenges related to ingredient availability, hygiene, and market access. By doing so, the study provides a descriptive ethnobotanical foundation for future analytical, nutritional, and comparative research in Ethiopia’s coffee-growing regions.

Revised historical background and cultural significance of chemo in Tepi town

Tepi Town, located in the Sheka Zone of southwestern Ethiopia, lies within one of the country’s most ecologically diverse and agriculturally productive regions. The area is characterized by high rainfall, fertile soils, and extensive coffee and spice cultivation, and is often described as part of Ethiopia’s coffee heartland [22, 23]. While roasted-bean coffee dominates national and international markets, local communities in and around Tepi have long made use of other coffee plant parts, particularly leaves, to prepare a hot beverage known locally as Chemo [4].

Oral histories and ethnographic accounts from the Sheka, Bench-Sheko, and Kaffa zones suggest that the use of coffee leaves as a beverage may predate the widespread roasting of coffee beans, which expanded later through trade and cultural exchange beyond Ethiopia [24]. Because coffee leaves are available throughout the year, Chemo has historically provided a readily accessible source of warmth and stimulation, especially during cool and rainy seasons when agricultural labor is intensive [1]. The beverage is known by different names in neighboring communities, such as Cari among the Majang and Genu in the Sheko language, reflecting regional linguistic diversity.

Local narratives often describe Chemo as having emerged through practical experimentation, such as herders boiling coffee leaves to relieve fatigue. Over time, preparation methods evolved to include butter, salt, and locally available spices, contributing to taste variation and perceived functional value [4, 7]. Importantly, several of the plant species used as additives such as Zingiber officinale and Capsicum frutescens are not native to Africa, reflecting long-standing processes of crop introduction, adaptation, and integration into local food systems. Their incorporation into Chemo highlights the dynamic and historically layered nature of indigenous food traditions rather than static cultural continuity.

In Tepi and surrounding rural areas, Chemo holds recognized social value as a beverage associated with hospitality and everyday interaction. Serving Chemo to guests is widely described as a sign of respect and welcome, comparable in social meaning, though not in formality, to the Ethiopian coffee ceremony. Chemo is typically prepared in the morning or late afternoon and shared among family members, neighbors, or co-workers, providing opportunities for conversation and informal exchange [1, 3, 22].

Chemo is also consumed during selected religious and ceremonial contexts. During fasting periods of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, it is often preferred to bean-based coffee because of its lighter composition [25]. It may also be served at weddings, funerals, and harvest-related gatherings, where sharing from a single pot symbolizes togetherness and mutual care [4]. These practices are locally understood as reinforcing social bonds rather than fulfilling formal ritual requirements.

Community members frequently attribute medicinal or restorative properties to Chemo, including relief from headaches, stomach discomfort, and fatigue [1, 3]. While such claims are based on local experience and belief, they align broadly with scientific findings that coffee leaves contain compounds such as polyphenols, chlorogenic acids, mangiferin, and xanthones, which have documented antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [8, 10, 26]. However, the extent to which these compounds are retained in traditionally prepared Chemo remains insufficiently studied.

Chemo also reflects locally adapted strategies of resource use. By relying on renewable coffee leaves rather than beans, the beverage does not directly compete with market-oriented coffee production and may complement shade-grown coffee systems [7, 27]. Women play a central role in this practice, serving as the primary custodians of preparation knowledge. Within households, mothers and grandmothers are typically responsible for selecting, roasting, and blending ingredients, and skills are passed on through observation and practice rather than formal instruction [22].

In recent years, Chemo has drawn attention as a potential product for coffee diversification, with small-scale producers exploring hygienic packaging and marketing under labels such as “coffee leaf tea” [6]. While this presents economic opportunities, it also raises concerns related to intellectual property, benefit sharing, and cultural representation. Ensuring that any commercialization respects community ownership and local knowledge remains a key challenge [28].

Methods and materials

Description of the study area

Tepi Town is located in the Yeki District of the Sheka Zone in southwestern Ethiopia and functions as the administrative and commercial center of the district. Geographically, the area lies between 7°12′–7°43′ N latitude and 35°32′–35°75′ E longitude (Fig. 1). The elevation ranges from approximately 1,001 to 2,007 m above sea level. The district experiences a humid tropical climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 1,171 to 2,200 mm and a main rainy season extending from April to September.

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area (Arc GIS 10.8.1)

These climatic and edaphic conditions support the cultivation of a range of cash crops and spices, including coffee (Coffea arabica), ginger, turmeric, and black pepper (Piper nigrum) [11, 12]. The area forms part of Ethiopia’s recognized center of coffee genetic diversity, characterized by remnant wild coffee forests and long-established coffee-based farming systems. Within this ecological and cultural context, the preparation of Chemo—a beverage brewed from coffee leaves represents a locally embedded practice associated with household consumption rather than commercial production.

The population of Tepi Town is ethnically diverse, with Shekacho, Sheko, Majang, Kafficho, and Amhara communities forming the majority of residents. Livelihoods are largely based on mixed farming systems that combine coffee cultivation with subsistence crops and small-scale livestock rearing [1, 8, 22]. These agrarian practices shape local food traditions and resource use, including the continued preparation and consumption of Chemo. The beverage reflects everyday interactions between people, crops, and the surrounding landscape, and provides an appropriate context for examining locally maintained knowledge related to coffee leaf use.

Climate of the study area

According to data from the Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (2001–2021), the Yeki District experiences mean annual temperatures ranging from 13.1 °C to 34.2 °C, with an overall average of 21.6 °C. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the district receives an average annual rainfall of approximately 1,352 mm. The rainfall pattern is unimodal, with the majority of precipitation occurring between April and September.

Fig. 2.

The climate diagram of Tepi town

This abundant and well-distributed rainfall supports the development of moist evergreen Afromontane forests, which form the ecological backbone of the region. These forests harbor a rich diversity of endemic and economically valuable plant species, including Coffea arabica, and provide the environmental conditions necessary for traditional coffee-based livelihoods [11, 12].

The Yeki District’s agro-ecological zones consist primarily of highland areas (56%), followed by midland or Woynadega zones (24%) and lowland (Qolla) zones (20%). This ecological diversity contributes to varied agricultural practices and supports the cultivation of multiple crops, with coffee serving as the dominant cash crop. The region’s favorable climate and topography thus play a crucial role in sustaining both agricultural productivity and the traditional preparation of coffee-leaf beverages such as Chemo.

Site selection

The study was conducted between August and October 2025 in Tepi Town, Sheka Zone, southwestern Ethiopia. A purposive site selection strategy was employed to identify locations where Chemo preparation and consumption are actively practiced. Selection was guided by three criteria: (i) the local prevalence of Chemo consumption, (ii) cultural and ethnic diversity, and (iii) logistical accessibility for repeated field visits and direct observation.

Site identification was carried out in consultation with staff from the Tepi Agricultural Office and the Culture and Tourism Office, as well as local elders and members of coffee cooperatives. These consultations helped identify areas where Chemo is both regularly prepared at the household level and exchanged in local marketplaces. Marketplaces where Chemo is sold and consumed were also included based on recommendations from the Culture and Tourism Office. In total, eight sites: Ayermeda, Mero Sefer, Gebeymeda, Mizan Ber, Tsanu Ber, Zinki Ber, Korcha Ber, and Kes Sefer were selected to represent a range of coffee-farming systems and cultural practices.

A combination of purposive and snowball sampling was used to identify participant households. Initial households known for preparing Chemo were identified through local informants. Additional households were included through snowball sampling, particularly when informants reported variations in preparation techniques or ingredient use. This approach allowed the documentation of both commonly shared and locally specific practices.

Study design

A mixed-methods research design was adopted to document Chemo preparation practices and to describe their cultural and socio-economic contexts. The study combined ethnobotanical documentation with socio-cultural inquiry, integrating qualitative and quantitative data to capture variation in ingredients, preparation techniques, and reported uses.

Qualitative methods were used to explore preparation processes, cultural meanings, gender roles, and perceived health and livelihood relevance. Quantitative data were used descriptively to summarize ingredient proportions, frequency of use, and participant characteristics, and to support triangulation of qualitative findings.

Sampling and participants

A total of 64 households were selected, with eight households sampled from each study site. Household lists were obtained from local administrative offices and used as sampling frames. In addition, 16 key informants including elderly women, traditional healers, religious leaders, and local Chemo vendors were purposively selected based on their long-term experience and knowledge of Chemo preparation and use.

To explore shared perceptions and community-level values, eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted: six with women and two with men. Each FGD included 6–10 participants. All participants were adults (≥ 18 years) and provided informed consent prior to participation.

This multi-layered sampling strategy ensured representation across gender, age groups, ethnic backgrounds, and livelihood types, allowing for a contextualized description of Chemo practices in Tepi Town.

Data collection methods

Ethnobotanical and Socio-cultural data

Ethnobotanical and socio-cultural data were collected using semi-structured interviews, participant observation, focus group discussions (FGDs), and free-listing exercises, following established ethnographic guidelines [29]. These complementary methods were used to document both technical preparation practices and their social contexts.

Semi-structured interviews focused on local terminology, ingredient selection, preparation sequences, serving customs, consumption occasions, and perceived nutritional or medicinal roles. Interviews were often conducted during Chemo preparation sessions, allowing respondents to demonstrate practices while explaining their choices.

Participant observation was conducted in 40 households, where the entire preparation process leaf harvesting, roasting, pounding, boiling, and ingredient mixing was observed and documented. Observations also included utensils used, serving practices, and social interactions during preparation and consumption, both in households and in public spaces such as Chemo markets (Chemo Tera or Gulit).

FGDs were used to examine shared meanings, gender roles, and intergenerational knowledge transmission. Discussions were conducted in Shekacho, Sheknono, Majang, and Amharic, audio-recorded with permission, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English.

Measurement of ingredients

For each observed preparation, the mass of all ingredients was measured in grams using an electronic balance. Traditional household measures (e.g., cups, spoons, handfuls) were recorded and subsequently converted into metric units. Ingredient proportions and frequency of use were summarized and presented in tabular form.

Botanical sample collection and identification

Plant materials used in Chemo preparation were collected from home gardens, local markets, and surrounding forest areas. Specimens were pressed, labeled, and deposited at the Mizan-Tepi University Mini Herbarium (MTU-MH). Taxonomic identification was conducted by qualified botanists, and voucher numbers were assigned to all species, including Coffea arabica, Ocimum basilicum, Mentha piperita, Ruta chalepensis, Lippia adoensis, and Aframomum corrorima. Vernacular names were verified through consultation with elders and long-term residents to ensure linguistic accuracy.

Ingredient and spice Documentation

In each surveyed household, the type, quantity, and reported purpose of all ingredients used in Chemo preparation were systematically documented. The base ingredient in all preparations was the leaves of Coffea arabica, which were used either fresh or after drying, depending on household preference and availability.

To enhance flavor and aroma, a variety of locally available aromatic and flavoring plants were added. These commonly included Lippia adoensis, Ocimum basilicum, Mentha piperita, Ruta chalepensis, Coriandrum sativum, Aframomum corrorima, Zingiber officinale, Capsicum frutescens, Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Foeniculum vulgare, and Cymbopogon citratus. The selection and combination of these plants varied across households and sites, reflecting local taste preferences and cultural practices.

In addition to plant ingredients, salt, butter, and water were routinely used as additives during preparation. Participants explained the sensory and functional roles of individual ingredients, such as enhancing aroma, improving taste, or producing a perceived warming or restorative effect. These locally reported functions were cross-checked with published ethnobotanical and phytochemical studies to contextualize community knowledge within existing scientific literature [7, 30–32].

Data analysis

Qualitative data from interviews and focus group discussions were transcribed, translated, and systematically coded to identify recurring themes, including cultural symbolism, preparation techniques, gender roles, and reported challenges. These themes were illustrated with direct quotations and triangulated with observation notes and relevant literature.

Quantitative data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analyzed using descriptive statistics to summarize participant characteristics, ingredient proportions, preparation frequencies, and usage patterns across sites. Frequency distributions were employed to examine variations in ingredient use and gender participation.

Qualitative and quantitative findings were then integrated to provide a comprehensive descriptive account of Chemo preparation and its local significance.

Results

Socio-demographic characteristics of participants

The study included 64 households and 16 key informants representing the major ethnic groups in Tepi Town: Amhara (38%), Shekacho (28%), Kafficho (16%), Sheko (10%), and other groups (8%). Women constituted 75% of participants, reflecting their primary role in household food and beverage preparation.

Participant ages ranged from 18 to 75 years, with a mean age of 42 years. More than 70% of respondents reported over ten years of experience in preparing or consuming Chemo, indicating sustained intergenerational continuity of the practice.

Ingredients and spices used in chemo Preparation

Chemo is traditionally prepared from the leaves of Coffea arabica, using either fresh or sun-dried leaves. The leaves are lightly roasted or pan-toasted, crushed, and boiled or steeped to produce a dark infusion (Fig. 3). Various herbs and spices including Ocimum basilicum, Mentha piperita, Ruta chalepensis, Lippia adoensis, Coriandrum sativum, Aframomum corrorima, Allium sativum, and Foeniculum vulgare are added to enhance flavor and aroma (Table 1).

Fig. 3.

Spices added in Chemo preparation (1) Zingiber officinale, (2) Cymbopogon citratus, (3) Ruta chalepensis, (4) Ocimum basilicum, (5) Mentha piperita, (6) Lippia adoensis, (7) Foeniculum vulgare, (8) Coriandrum sativum, (9) Aframomum corrorima, (10) Allium sativum, 11. Allium cepa, 12. Capsicum frutescens

Table 1.

Ingredients and spices used in Chemo preparation, their local names, functional roles, and major phytochemicals

Scientific name	Local name	Role in chemo preparation	Key phytochemicals/Bioactive compounds	References
Coffea arabica	Bunna	Base ingredient; provides color, mild bitterness, and stimulating effect	Chlorogenic acids, mangiferin, caffeine, xanthones, polyphenols	[7, 26], 32– [34]
Ocimum basilicum	Besobila	Enhances aroma and flavor; believed to aid digestion	Eugenol, linalool, methyl cinnamate, rosmarinic acid	[35–40]
Mentha piperita	Nana	Cooling aroma; balances bitterness; soothing to the stomach	Menthol, menthone, rosmarinic acid, flavonoids	[41, 42]
Ruta chalepensis	Tena Adam	Adds citrusy aroma; traditional medicinal herb	Rutin, chalepensin, essential oils (2-undecanone)	[43, 44]
Coriandrum sativum	Dimbilal	Sweet-spicy note; digestive aid	Linalool, geraniol, camphor	[34, 45, 46]
Lippia adoensis	Koseret	Distinct herbal aroma; cultural marker of Ethiopian beverages	Geraniol, thymol, p-cymene, linalool	[30]
Allium sativum	Nech Shinkurt	Savory note; medicinal; strengthens immunity	Allicin, sulfur compounds, flavonoids	[37]
Allium cepa	Key Shinkurt	Sweet aroma; enhances umami balance	Quercetin, sulfur volatiles, kaempferol	[37]
Zingiber officinale	Zingibil	Warming and aromatic; used for energy and digestion	Gingerols, shogaols, zingerone	[47–49]
Cymbopogon citratus	Tej-sar	Adds citrus aroma and freshness; mild antiseptic	Citral, geraniol, limonene	[50]
Sodium chloride	Salt	Balances bitterness and enhances flavor	—	Traditional practice
Capsicum frutescens	Mitmita	Provides heat and spiciness; stimulant	Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin	[51–53]
Aframomum corrorima	Korarima	Aromatic spice; enhances flavor and symbolic richness	1,8-cineole, limonene, β-pinene	[54]
Foeniculum vulgare	Ensilal	Sweet and anise-like aroma; digestive	Anethole, fenchone, estragole	[55]
Butter (Niter Kibbeh)	Kibe	Improves texture, aroma, and energy value; symbol of hospitality	Fatty acids, butyrates, flavor volatiles	[1, 22]
Water	Wuha	Solvent; extracts flavors and nutrients	—	Traditional practice

Spices and their mean proportions in chemo Preparation in Tepi town

To document and quantify the ingredients used in Chemo preparation, direct observations were conducted during household-level preparation sessions across the eight study sites. Participants identified each ingredient and demonstrated the quantities customarily used. Ingredient weights were measured using a digital balance, and values were summarized using descriptive statistics.

Although ingredient proportions varied slightly among households depending on whether coffee leaves were used fresh or roasted, and on the volume of water added clear and consistent patterns were observed. On average, 164 g of fresh coffee leaves or 39 g of roasted leaves were used per liter of water, underscoring the central role of Coffea arabica leaves in Chemo preparation (Table 2). The total number of ingredients used per preparation ranged from ten to fifteen plant-based components, excluding water.

Table 2.

Spices and their proportions for Chemo Preparation in the study area

Scientific name	Local name	Plant part used	Fresh form (g)	Dry form (g)
Coffea arabica L.	Buna	Leaf	164	39
Ocimum basilicum L.	Besobila	Leaf	24	11
Mentha × piperita L.	Nanna	Leaf	9	3
Ruta chalepensis L.	Tena adam	Leaf	14	6
Coriandrum sativum L.	Dimblal	Seed	13	4
Lippia abyssinica (Otto & A.Dietr.) Cufod.	Kosert	Leaf	19	8
Allium sativum L.	Nech shinkurt	Bulb	21	19
Allium cepa L.	Key shinkurt	Bulb	19	12
Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zingibil	Rhizome	24	14
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Tejisar	Leaf	22	13
Sodium chloride	Chew	Solid	-	32
Capsicum frutescens L.	Mitmita	Fruit	10	3
Aframomum corrorima (A.Braun) P.C.M.Jansen	Corerima	Seed	8	2
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Ensilal	Leaf	15	6
Butter	Qibe	-	40	-
Water	Wuha	-	1000 ml	1000 ml

Chemo preparation relies on a diverse assemblage of plant materials, including leaves, aromatic herbs, bulbs, rhizomes, fruits, and seeds. Leafy ingredients constituted the dominant category. In addition to Coffea arabica (Buna), commonly used leafy spices included Ocimum basilicum (Besobila; mean 24 g fresh/11 g dry), Lippia adoensis (Koseret; 19 g fresh/8 g dry), Cymbopogon citratus (Tejisar; 22 g fresh/13 g dry), and Foeniculum vulgare (Ensilal; 15 g fresh/6 g dry). Strongly aromatic species such as Mentha piperita (Nanna) and Ruta chalepensis (Tena-adam) were consistently added in smaller quantities, reflecting their intense flavor profiles.

Bulbous and rhizome spices formed another important ingredient group. Allium sativum (Nech shinkurt) and Allium cepa (Key shinkurt) were used at mean quantities of 21 g and 19 g in fresh form, and 19 g and 12 g in dried form, respectively. Zingiber officinale (Zingibil) rhizomes were added at a mean of 24 g fresh or 14 g dry, contributing warmth and aromatic depth. Fruit- and seed-based spices, including Capsicum frutescens (Mitmita) and Aframomum corrorima (Corerima), were used in relatively small amounts due to their pungency.

Non-plant ingredients also played functional roles in Chemo preparation. Sodium chloride (Chew) was added at a mean of 32 g (dry) per batch to balance bitterness, while butter (Qibe) contributed richness and mouthfeel, with an average of 40 g used. Water (Wuha) served as the extraction medium, with approximately 1,000 ml added per preparation.

Traditional Preparation process of chemo

Field observations and household-level demonstrations revealed that the preparation of Chemo in Tepi Town follows a structured but flexible multi-step process that integrates coffee leaves with a range of locally available spices and additives. Although individual households adjust ingredient combinations and processing steps according to preference and availability, the overall preparation logic is widely shared across the study sites.

Preparation typically begins with the careful selection and cleaning of fresh ingredients. Leaves of Coffea arabica (Buna), Ocimum basilicum (Besobila), Lippia adoensis (Koseret), Cymbopogon citratus (Tejisar), and Foeniculum vulgare (Ensilal) are thoroughly washed to remove soil and debris. Bulbous, rhizomatous, and fruit-based ingredients including Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Zingiber officinale, Aframomum corrorima, and Capsicum frutescens are peeled, sliced, or crushed to facilitate even cooking and flavor extraction (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Traditional process of Chemo preparation among the local community. The process includes: (1) cultivation of Coffea arabica in the field; (2) collection of fresh coffee leaves; (3) drying the leaves on the floor or rooftop; (4) heating the coffee plant materials; (5) roasting; (6) detaching the leaves from branches; (7) placing the roasted leaves into a clay pot; (8) collection of Capsicum frutescens L.; (9) collection of Lippia abyssinica (Otto & A. Dietr.) Cufod.; (10) mixing the spices; (11) crushing and chopping the spices with a traditional grinding stone; (12) boiling and filtering the Chemo beverage; (13) preparation of a clay cup; (14) use of a traditional filter made from Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook. f.) C. Jeffrey, locally called “Qil”, for filtering Chemo; (15) pouring the Chemo into the drinking clay cup; (16) researcher tasting the Chemo; (17) serving chemo with Dioscorea alata L and (18) community members sharing the Chemo with the researcher

The cleaned plant materials are then ground or pounded using traditional tools to produce a coarse or fine paste, depending on household preference. In many cases, this mixture is blended with butter (Qibe), which participants explained enhances aroma and mouthfeel while helping release aromatic compounds. Separately, water (Wuha) is brought to a boil and serves as the extraction medium. The ground mixture and prepared coffee leaves are gradually added to the boiling water while stirring continuously to ensure uniform mixing and to prevent scorching. Sodium chloride (Chew) is added in small amounts to balance bitterness. Cooking continues under controlled heat until the mixture reaches a semi-solid consistency characteristic of Chemo. Minor adjustments to spice quantities are commonly made at this stage to suit local taste. Once cooking is complete, the beverage is allowed to rest briefly before serving and is traditionally consumed hot, often accompanied by locally prepared staple foods.

Across Tepi Town, three main preparation methods were consistently documented. The first and most widely practiced method involves harvesting the tender tip leaves of the coffee plant, roasting them directly over fire or in a pan, and crushing them before boiling. Water is first brought to a boil, after which the roasted leaves are added and cooked for approximately 15 min. Other ingredients are then incorporated, and the mixture is boiled for an additional 25–30 min. The final beverage is filtered and served with foods such as Colocasia esculenta, Dioscorea species, boiled Zea mays, Manihot esculenta, Ipomoea batatas, and Phaseolus vulgaris (Fig. 5). Participants frequently described this method as producing a sweeter and more balanced flavor, which may explain its widespread adoption.

Fig. 5.

Traditional preparation process of foods typically consumed alongside Chemo. The steps include: (1) collection of Dioscorea alata L.; (2) peeling and washing the yam (D. alata); (3) adding water and the yam to a cooking pot; (4) cooking; (5) peeling the cooked yam; (6) placing it on a serving dish; (7) boiling Phaseolus vulgaris L. and Zea mays L.; and (8) serving the cooked P. vulgaris, Z. mays, and chopped Capsicum frutescens L. together, ready to be eaten with Chemo

The second method differs primarily in the treatment of the coffee leaves. Instead of roasting, leaf tips are briefly heated over fire for about five minutes and crushed while still moist. Participants reported that this approach produces a milder taste and a lighter aroma compared to the roasted-leaf method.

The third method, practiced mainly among the Majang ethnic group, involves boiling coffee leaves and Capsicum frutescens separately. The coffee leaf infusion is filtered into a pot containing the other spices, while the amount of Capsicum frutescens is adjusted at the point of serving. Larger quantities are often added for individuals experiencing colds or respiratory discomfort, reflecting locally perceived medicinal properties rather than standardized therapeutic dosing.

Cultural Significance, Value, and social functions of chemo in Tepi town

Field observations, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions consistently indicated that Chemo occupies an important place in the social, cultural, and everyday life of communities in Tepi Town and its surroundings. Participants emphasized that Chemo is valued not only as a food or beverage but also as a social medium through which relationships, identities, and shared norms are expressed.

Hospitality and social cohesion

Across all study sites, Chemo was repeatedly described as a key expression of hospitality. Serving Chemo to visitors is considered a sign of respect and goodwill and is often viewed as equivalent to serving coffee prepared from beans in urban Ethiopian settings. Chemo is commonly prepared in the early morning for household members and shared after agricultural labor, particularly during the coffee-harvesting season. Focus group participants explained that gatherings around Chemo provide opportunities for conversation, conflict resolution, and informal community decision-making. The local expression that “no visitor leaves without Chemo” reflects its role in reinforcing inclusion and social cohesion.

Ceremonial and religious contexts

Chemo also plays a role in religious and ceremonial life. Participants reported that butter-free versions are prepared during Ethiopian Orthodox fasting periods, while Muslim households commonly serve Chemo in the evenings during Ramadan. In addition, Chemo is served communally at weddings and funerals, where it symbolizes unity, endurance, and mutual support. Women participating in interviews frequently noted that Chemo is believed to “restore strength” after fasting, mourning, or long periods of physical labor. These perceptions are locally associated with the beverage’s mild stimulating effects rather than with clinically verified outcomes.

Gendered knowledge and intergenerational transmission

Women were identified as the primary holders and transmitters of knowledge related to Chemo preparation. Responsibilities such as selecting ingredients, determining roasting levels, balancing flavors, and deciding serving practices are largely managed by women. Skills are transmitted informally from mothers to daughters through observation and participation, reflecting broader patterns of gendered culinary knowledge in Ethiopian societies. Ritualized preparation and sharing during weddings, postpartum gatherings, and communal events strengthen women’s social networks and contribute to the continuity of this knowledge across generations.

Socio-Cultural value in everyday life

Chemo functions as a marker of cultural identity and continuity within the community. It is commonly served with local foods such as Baka or Kocho and shared with neighbors and passersby. Participants noted that Chemo is often served in multiple rounds Abol, Tona, and Bereka paralleling the structure of the Ethiopian coffee ceremony, with the first round typically reserved for guests. During funerals, Chemo is served repeatedly over several days alongside bread or boiled maize, expressing solidarity and collective mourning. Beyond ceremonial contexts, farmers and laborers value Chemo for providing warmth and perceived energy during the cold and labor-intensive coffee harvest season (September–November). In some households, preparation residues are fed to cattle, reflecting beliefs that they enhance milk production and linking Chemo to broader household livelihood systems.

Perceived medicinal value

Community members attributed a range of therapeutic properties to Chemo, including relief from colds, stomach discomfort, malaria, and high blood pressure. Regular consumption was described as helping maintain general well-being, particularly in areas with limited access to formal healthcare. Participants also associated the combined use of coffee leaves, aromatic herbs, and iodized salt with preventing goiter and supporting overall health. These accounts represent locally held beliefs and experiential knowledge rather than experimentally verified medical effects. While previous studies have reported antioxidant and stimulant compounds in coffee leaves and associated herbs, the present study does not experimentally test these claims.

Economic importance

Chemo contributes modestly but meaningfully to household economies. Because most ingredients are locally sourced, preparation reduces dependence on purchased food items. The use of coffee leaves allows households to sell coffee beans, which are economically more valuable, thereby supporting income diversification. In local markets, Chemo is sold at approximately 10 Ethiopian birr per cup. Vendors reported average daily sales of about 40 cups, generating roughly 400 ETB in revenue and an estimated 200 ETB in profit. These activities are primarily managed by women, positioning Chemo as a small-scale income-generating practice that supports household needs and local microeconomies.

Stimulatory and psychosocial effects

Respondents commonly described Chemo as mildly stimulating, reporting increased alertness and reduced fatigue following consumption. Some individuals indicated that they feel less productive when they do not consume Chemo regularly. Beyond its perceived physical effects, Chemo was described as facilitating relaxation, conversation, and collective engagement. In some cases, individuals reported combining Chemo with coffee to maintain focus during extended work or social interactions, illustrating its dual role as both a functional and socially embedded beverage.

Discussion

This study documents the traditional preparation, cultural significance, and socio-economic roles of Chemo, an indigenous coffee-leaf beverage consumed in Tepi Town, southwestern Ethiopia. Data from 64 households and 16 key informants indicate that Chemo is a deeply embedded daily practice rather than an occasional beverage, with over 70% of participants reporting more than ten years of experience preparing or consuming it, reflecting strong continuity of knowledge and long-term cultural familiarity [1–3, 22].

Ethnobotanical composition and functional interpretation

The core ingredient, Coffea arabica leaves, contains polyphenols, flavonoids, and xanthones with antioxidant activity and lower caffeine levels than roasted coffee beans [33]. These properties align with local descriptions of Chemo as “refreshing” and “invigorating but mild,” though this study did not conduct biochemical or nutritional analyses.

Chemo incorporates a diverse mix of herbs and spices, including Ocimum basilicum, Mentha piperita, Ruta chalepensis, Lippia adoensis, Coriandrum sativum, and Foeniculum vulgare, primarily for flavor, aroma, and perceived health benefits [34]. Regionally valued spices such as Zingiber officinale, Cymbopogon citratus, Capsicum spp., and Aframomum corrorima add pungency, warmth, and aromatic complexity, balancing the inherent bitterness of coffee leaves [35, 36]. Some households also include Allium sativum and Allium cepa for savory flavor and locally recognized medicinal qualities [37, 38].

Several of these species, particularly ginger, chili, onion, and garlic, are non-native to Africa. Their consistent use illustrates the dynamic nature of local ethnobotanical systems, shaped by historical plant introductions and cultural integration rather than strict nativeness. Minor ingredients such as salt and butter influence texture, flavor balance, and symbolic value, particularly during social events, aligning Chemo with broader Ethiopian culinary traditions where fat signifies nourishment, hospitality, and ritual importance.

Variations in roasting intensity, infusion duration, and ingredient sequencing highlight household-level adaptive strategies. These choices affect sensory properties and likely influence antioxidant retention, emphasizing the importance of documenting preparation techniques before any standardization or commercialization efforts [1, 2].

The observed ingredient composition reflects a locally developed ethnobotanical system that integrates coffee leaves with aromatic and pungent plants to achieve desired sensory and functional properties. Strongly aromatic or pungent species are used sparingly, while milder leafy components dominate, reflecting an implicit understanding of potency and balance consistent with broader Ethiopian culinary practices [1, 6].

Importantly, this study does not assess nutritional composition, pharmacological effects, or sensory outcomes experimentally. Perceived qualities such as warmth, stimulation, or medicinal value are reported strictly as locally expressed interpretations, not verified biomedical effects. Quantitative findings were limited to descriptive summaries of ingredient use and preparation steps.

Thus, Chemo preparation illustrates local ingenuity in utilizing coffee leaves beyond bean consumption. The flexibility and variation observed across households demonstrate resilience, continuity, and adaptation of traditional practices. This ethnobotanical documentation provides a foundation for future studies examining chemical composition, sensory qualities, safety, and potential health benefits, while contextualizing Chemo as a dynamic and culturally significant beverage rather than a static tradition.

Social and cultural functions

Socially, Chemo functions as a communal beverage comparable to the Ethiopian coffee ceremony, facilitating conversation, cooperation, and shared labor [3–6]. It plays an important role in reinforcing local identity and indigenous ecological knowledge embedded in daily life. Participants consistently emphasized that Chemo gatherings create space for dialogue, reconciliation, and mutual support.

While previous studies report that many Chemo ingredients contain bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, or digestive properties [47–49], it is important to clarify that the present study documents local perceptions and reported experiences, not clinically verified health outcomes. Claims regarding anticancer, antihypertensive, or antimalarial effects often associated with Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale [37] should therefore be interpreted as ethnomedicinal beliefs supported by broader literature rather than direct evidence from this study.

Comparison with related Ethiopian food traditions

Preparation practices such as adjusting roasting levels, combining aromatic herbs, and adding butter or salt parallel other Ethiopian infusions and foods such as kuti and atmit [5, 6, 19]. These shared strategies suggest culturally consistent approaches to improving flavor, texture, and perceived functionality. The presence of compounds such as linalool, citral, and thymol in Ocimum basilicum, Ruta chalepensis, and Lippia adoensis provides a biochemical context for local interpretations of Chemo as soothing or health-supportive [30, 50, 56].

Livelihood and sustainability dimensions

Chemo contributes modestly to local food security and livelihoods. Harvesting young coffee leaves complements plantation management and may stimulate branch growth when practiced carefully [5, 6]. However, unregulated harvesting poses risks to plant health, emphasizing the need for guidance on sustainable leaf collection. Local vendors reported average profits of approximately 6,000 ETB per month from Chemo sales, demonstrating its economic relevance at household scale.

Women play a central role in Chemo production, sale, and knowledge transmission. Preparation skills are passed down through intergenerational apprenticeship, sustaining both household nutrition and cultural heritage [56–59]. Despite increasing availability of commercial beverages, Chemo remains resilient in Tepi, although elders expressed concern that younger generation’s show declining familiarity with traditional preparation methods.

Commercialization, Heritage, and ethical considerations

Growing interest in commercializing Chemo as a packaged “coffee-leaf tea” presents both opportunities and challenges. While commercialization could enhance income and promote sustainable use of coffee by-products, it also raises concerns regarding intellectual property, benefit sharing, and cultural appropriation. Any market expansion should therefore prioritize community ownership, cultural authenticity, and food safety, in line with global efforts to valorize indigenous foods through respectful innovation [28].

Chemo thus represents both a tangible beverage and an element of intangible cultural heritage, integrating ecology, identity, and well-being. Comparable drinks such as kuti (Sidama), genu (Sheko), and cari (Majang) highlight Ethiopia’s ethnogastronomic diversity. Chemo’s combination of coffee leaves and aromatic herbs positions it as a culturally grounded, low-caffeine beverage with growing relevance in contemporary discussions of plant-based functional foods.

Chemo production faces challenges in raw material availability, knowledge transfer, hygiene, and market access. Seasonal ingredients like Coffea arabica leaves and spices (Capsicum frutescens, Aframomum corrorima, Zingiber officinale, Ocimum basilicum) and poor storage compromise quality, while oral knowledge transmission and declining youth participation threaten continuity. Sanitation issues, rising costs of inputs, lack of branding, and limited market linkages further hinder commercialization, and urbanization has reduced cultural engagement [55, 57].

Addressing these challenges requires sustainable resource management, proper drying and storage, hygiene training, and documentation in local languages. Community-based workshops, women’s cooperatives, and permanent market spaces can improve consistency, income, and accessibility. Promoting Chemo through festivals, school programs, and tourism, alongside multimedia archives, can revitalize cultural identity and safeguard this tradition as part of Ethiopia’s intangible cultural heritage.

Implications and uses of chemo in the study area

Cultural and social significance

Chemo constitutes an important element of Tepi Town’s intangible cultural heritage. Beyond nutrition, it symbolizes respect, hospitality, and collective identity. Sharing Chemo parallels the Ethiopian coffee ceremony but requires fewer resources, making it accessible to households with limited economic means [2, 43, 44]. Elders regard Chemo gatherings as spaces for dialogue and reconciliation, reinforcing social cohesion amid social and economic change.

Nutritional and Health-Related implications

Coffee leaves contain chlorogenic acids, mangiferin, and xanthones with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [26, 32], while herbs such as Lippia adoensis, Ocimum basilicum, and Zingiber officinale contribute essential oils linked to antimicrobial and digestive activity [30, 50, 56, 57]. The addition of butter and salt increases caloric density and mineral intake, supporting laborers and fasting individuals. However, these implications are inferred from literature and local perceptions rather than direct nutritional assessment.

Economic and livelihood implications

Chemo offers a pathway for valorizing coffee leaves, an underutilized by-product of coffee cultivation [60, 61]. Women-led processing, drying, and local marketing provide opportunities for income diversification. Cooperative organization could support hygienic processing, branding, and fair benefit sharing, aligning with Ethiopia’s green economy and Access and Benefit-Sharing frameworks [27, 28].

Environmental and sustainability implications

By encouraging shade-grown coffee agroforestry and non-destructive harvesting, Chemo production supports biodiversity conservation and circular bioeconomy principles [22–24]. Utilizing leaves that would otherwise be discarded enhances resource efficiency without compromising long-term productivity.

Cultural tourism and education

Integrating Chemo into coffee-related tourism through demonstrations, cultural cafés, or heritage houses could promote local identity while generating income. Such initiatives align with UNESCO’s emphasis on safeguarding living cultural traditions [62, 63].

Limitations of the study and future research directions

Chemo underscores the importance of indigenous beverages for food heritage conservation, rural innovation, and cultural identity. Future research should focus on standardizing preparation variables, assessing nutritional and microbial safety, evaluating sensory properties, and exploring commercialization potential.

This study is primarily descriptive and ethnobotanical. Quantitative analyses were limited to summarizing preparation practices and reported ingredient use; no biochemical, nutritional, microbial, or clinical assessments were conducted. As a result, perceived medicinal or stimulatory effects reflect participant reports rather than experimentally verified outcomes. The research was confined to Tepi Town and surrounding areas, which may limit generalizability to other coffee-growing regions. Seasonal variations in ingredient availability, household-level differences in preparation, and minor translation challenges may have affected data consistency. Additionally, while economic activities related to Chemo were documented, no formal value-chain or market feasibility analysis was performed, so commercialization conclusions remain preliminary.

Despite these limitations, documenting Chemo provides a foundation for culturally respectful research, policy recognition, and sustainable development. Future studies should integrate ethnography with food chemistry, nutritional and microbial analysis, and sensory evaluation. Comparative regional studies and gender-focused value-chain assessments would further clarify Chemo’s cultural variation, health-related properties, and potential for supporting local livelihoods.

Conclusion and recommendations

Chemo is an indigenous coffee-leaf beverage of considerable cultural importance in Tepi Town, southwestern Ethiopia, representing both tangible food practices and intangible cultural heritage. Its preparation involves locally available coffee leaves combined with aromatic herbs and spices, reflecting a well-established ethnobotanical system shaped by local knowledge and experience. Beyond its role as a food item, Chemo functions as a medium for hospitality, social interaction, ceremonial practices, and intergenerational knowledge transmission, with women playing a central role in its preparation and continuity. Small-scale production and local sale also contribute modestly to household livelihoods, while the use of coffee leaves aligns with biodiversity-friendly agroforestry practices.

Despite its continued relevance, Chemo faces several challenges, including seasonal availability of ingredients, declining knowledge transmission among younger generations, hygiene and food safety concerns, and limited access to formal markets. Addressing these constraints is essential to ensure the continuity of the practice and to support its cultural and socio-economic value.

To safeguard and promote Chemo, systematic documentation of preparation methods, ingredient use, and associated cultural practices is recommended through community archives, educational materials, and local cultural programs. Strengthening intergenerational knowledge transfer particularly through training and apprenticeship opportunities for youth will be critical for sustaining traditional skills. Improving hygiene and food safety practices, including clean water use and appropriate storage of ingredients, could enhance both household consumption and local marketing.

Sustainable resource management should be encouraged through community-based guidelines for coffee leaf harvesting and the cultivation of key herbs and spices in home gardens. Supporting women-led cooperatives and small enterprises may strengthen local livelihoods through value addition, processing, and culturally respectful marketing. Finally, future interdisciplinary research integrating ethnography with nutritional, phytochemical, and sensory analysis would help clarify Chemo’s properties while ensuring that any innovation or commercialization respects traditional knowledge and cultural identity.

Author contributions

AA was responsible for the proposal development, field data collection, specimen identification, investigation, verified the data analysis, and drafting of the initial manuscript. MG contributed valuable insights and comments during the proposal development, participated in field data collection, and assisted in the final manuscript preparation. AT supported the proposal write-up, participated in field data collection, and contributed to the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Prior to data collection, formal authorization was obtained from the Tepi Town Administration Offices. All participants provided verbal informed consent before engaging in interviews, household observations, and focus group discussions and their responses were recorded only with their approval. Additional consent was secured from participants for the publication of data and for the use of photographs included in the manuscript. All procedures adhered to ethical standards for research involving human participants and respected local cultural norms.

Consent for publication

Informed consent was obtained from all participants for their involvement in the study, as well as for the publication of the collected data in an anonymized form.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.