Well-being of preschool teachers and their work engagement: cross-cultural differences between Russian and Serbian samples

Abstract

Background

Teachers’ professional characteristics significantly influence children’s emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development. Work engagement, as a core aspect of professional well-being, serves as a critical indicator of educational environmental quality, which in turn shapes developmental outcomes for children. Identifying predictors of work engagement is essential, with psychological well-being emerging as a potential key factor. Elements of the PERMA model of well-being were considered factors of preschool teachers’ work engagement. Additionally, cultural contexts may further modulate preschool teachers’ well-being. This study examines the psychological well-being profiles of preschool teachers in Serbia and Russia and explores how well-being characteristics relate to professional engagement.

Methods

The total sample incorporates 654 preschool teachers aged from 18 to 70 years (M = 44.8, SD = 9.87), 98% female. The Russian sample comprises 388 individuals, the Serbian one – 266. Data collecting was performed using online survey method. Participants answered the PERMA-profiler questionnaire and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale.

Results

The findings emphasized cross-cultural differences in indicators of psychological well-being of teachers. Russian preschool teachers demonstrated a higher level of accomplishment and negative emotions, while their Serbian colleagues showed a higher level of positive emotions, meaning, health and work engagement. Predictors of work engagement varied culturally: for Russian preschool teachers, engagement was driven by positive emotions, meaning, and accomplishment; for Serbian teachers, it was linked to accomplishment, happiness, and low negative emotions.

Conclusions

These findings underscore the interplay between cultural context and well-being in shaping preschool teachers’ professional engagement.

Introduction

Professional and personal characteristics of teachers play a vital role in the educational environment, impacting on the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral growth of children [1]. There is evidence suggesting that personality traits [2, 3], teacher’s mindset of [4], communication style [5, 6], emotional intelligence [7], and professional motivation [8, 9] may either promote or hinder a child’s development.

The recent studies of the educational environment focus on a variety of issues faced by teachers, including burnout [10], a lack of emotional or social intelligence [11], and professional demotivation [12]. The rise of positive psychology and investigations of the psychological well-being of teachers shift the focus from teachers’ deficits in professional development to their attainments and strengths [13, 14]. These studies explore a diversity of resources that teachers can utilize to resist different professional challenges and may transform them into effective tools to overcome the problems [15, 16].

Psychological well-being of preschool teachers

Psychological well-being is a characteristic that describes mechanisms of a well-functioning personality. There are two approaches to understanding this concept. First approach is hedonistic one and well-being in this context is considered as subjective experience of happiness and satisfaction with life and activity [15]. In the framework of eudemonic approach, it is defined as self-fulfillment and self-realization of the individual [17, 18]. The theory of flourishing and the theory of welfare that were developed by M. Seligman based on eudemonic approach [19], five core elements of the model of psychological well-being called the PERMA model. The element of positive emotions is the experience of feelings such as gratitude, contentment, and joy; engagement is a deep interest and absorption in work or a hobby; the element of relationships is the presence of close, warm, supportive connections with others; meaning is finding significance and value through serving a purpose larger than oneself; and accomplishment is achieving important goals or mastery, leading to a sense of competence and success. Previous studies also showed that psychological well-being is significantly defined by these five elements [20, 21].

The professional activity of preschool teachers has specifications that differentiate their work from other occupations. Thus, it includes intensive communication with children, their parents, colleagues, and kindergarten administration. In the professional activity of teachers, personal resources associated with overcoming difficulties are not as important as personal resources that ensure positive processes and changes [22]. In this context, the psychological well-being of teachers working with children is particularly important, as their everyday job relies heavily on positive emotional states [23]. Characteristics of preschool teachers’ work also include emotional engagement, responsibility for children’s lives and health, and an emphasis on individual approach in learning and care, given the inherent vulnerability of young children [24]. At the same time, children demonstrate very fast and comprehensive development of cognitive and emotional abilities in preschool ages [25], and the status of teachers’ well-being may define the dynamics and opportunities of this positive vector of changes [26].

The eudaimonic perspective is particularly relevant for studying teachers’ well-being. First, while acknowledging the role of emotions, it expands our understanding of how other elements of fulfillment drive work engagement. Second, it helps explain why preschool teachers can remain engaged and achieve high results despite high stress and burnout risk. Therefore, this study of preschool teachers’ well-being is grounded in the PERMA model.

Research on the well-being of preschool teachers, specifically within the eudaimonic framework based on the PERMA model, constitutes a relatively small portion of the overall studies on teacher well-being [13, 27]. This gap is significant because such research can inform both theoretical advancements, like refining the conceptualization of well-being, and practical strategies for optimizing teachers’ work. Teacher’s well-being is not only one’s characteristic, but it reflects values, attitudes, and priorities of the society [28]. Associations and predictors of psychological well-being and teachers’ professional activity may vary among individuals in various educational fields or within the same area under different social circumstances or cultural contexts [29, 30]. These features of the well-being concept require investigations into the well-being of preschool teachers, who represent a distinct professional group working in specific conditions.

Teachers’ work engagement and their psychological well-being

Work engagement is a positive and fulfilling mindset that helps people feel active, effective, and capable of meeting work demands and completing tasks, and opposing to burnout [31, 32]. Today, work engagement comprises three indicators: vigor, dedication, and absorption [33] and may be considered as an important or even the main indicator of the organizational or professional well-being of employees [34]. Recent data indicates that teachers, particularly preschool teachers, exhibited a slightly higher level of work engagement compared to professionals from other fields [24].

A growing body of studies presented data about teachers’ professional well-being and factors that affect it. Four groups of factors of professional well-being were identified: personal characteristics, socioemotional skills and intelligence, personal capabilities to respond to work issues and workload, and, finally, relationships with others [22]. Previous studies also showed that psychological well-being may affect work engagement as indicator of professional well-being [35]. For instance, job satisfaction, positive emotions, and life satisfaction demonstrated positive associations with work engagement [36, 37]. Despite evidence supporting the positive role of such hedonic well-being, the contribution of psychological well-being [38], particularly from a eudaimonic perspective to the work engagement of preschool teachers has not received sufficient research attention. In this context, using the PERMA model may define the role of different well-being elements for teachers’ work engagement.

Teachers’ psychological well-being in a cross-cultural context

Previous studies argue that psychological well-being has both similar and contrasting dimensions across cultures. For instance, in the frame of a hedonic approach, such positive states as satisfaction with life and happiness could describe subjective well-being across many cultures and countries [39]. In contrast, studies in the frame of the eudaimonic approach do not demonstrate such consistency. While part of the studies confirm the five-factor structure of the PERMA in different samples [40–44], others suggest alternative structures [45]. Despite this, currently, there is no research on the cross-cultural differences in psychological well-being from the PERMA approach. Nonetheless, some characteristics of teachers’ well-being in different countries could be noted based on fragmented evidence. For example, the Australian school teachers were oriented to providing social support, positive relationships with colleagues, and professional development [46]. The university teachers from Ethiopia assessed relationships and meaning higher than accomplishment and engagement [47]. Higher education teachers from Ireland and the United Kingdom pointed out the significance of positive emotions and relationships, a sense of meaning, and professional accomplishment for their productivity in the workplace [48]. Investigation of preschool teachers from Hong Kong showed that all dimensions of the PERMA model, with the exception of engagement, made contributions to self-efficacy, while self-efficacy affected only further accomplishment [49]. Based on this data, we may speculate that positive relationships and a sense of meaning are dimensions of the PERMA model that are important to all teachers from different countries and unite them.

It is important to note that the vast majority of studies providing an overview of teachers’ psychological well-being have been conducted in North American or European contexts [21], while non-Western cultures remain underrepresented. The current study partially extends the understanding of the specifics of the psychological well-being of teachers from non-Western cultures and investigates the well-being of preschool teachers from Serbia and Russia.

While Russia and Serbia share significant similarities in language, religion, and ethnicity, Serbia’s European integration has fostered distinct national development – blending strong cultural ties with Russia alongside EU-oriented modernization and broader European community engagement [50, 51]. Preschool education in Russia and Serbia exhibit numerous common characteristics, including similar age-specific programs (early childhood, preschool, and pre-primary education). Both countries maintain staffing ratios of two teachers for every 15 to 25 children in each group, and professional responsibilities for teachers are also alike [52, 53]. Notable differences also exist [54, 55] like the obligatory attendance of a preschool program during the year prior to entering primary school in Serbia, whereas in Russia, this is not mandatory [56].

Despite many similarities, Russian and Serbian cultures demonstrate some specific characteristics according to Hofstede’s approach. For instance, the Serbian sample shows a high level of collectivism, while the Russian sample is characterized by masculinity [57]. Additionally, their communication styles differ [58]. We suppose that cultural context may also affect the well-being of preschool teachers [59]. In particular, collectivistic orientation in Serbia may increase the level of positive emotion and relationships among teachers, while the high masculinity of Russian culture may affect the importance of accomplishment. We suggest that a comparative design would highlight both similarities and differences in the professional and psychological well-being of preschool teachers.

Current study

The well-being of preschool teachers as professionals in education and care areas plays a significant role in children’s development because they affect it directly through different ways, from modeling of behavior and sharing of emotions to organizing a safe and welcoming environment [22, 23]. However, despite the importance of early childhood educators, the current brief literature review showed some dramatic gaps. First, prior studies of teachers’ well-being focused primarily on negative aspects such as burnout [10], low emotional or social intelligence [11], and demotivation [12] and much less on the positive dimensions [60, 61]. Second, there are few attempts to investigate teachers’ psychological well-being in terms of their inner potential and personal resources that teachers may use in their professional activity [27]. Third, very little research attention has been paid to the characteristics and factors influencing the psychological well-being of preschool teachers [13]. Finally, the overwhelming majority of cross-cultural research is oriented towards North America and Europe [21], and little is currently known about non-Western contexts.

The current study aims to fill these gaps, and our goal is to explore characteristics of the psychological well-being of preschool teachers from Russia and Serbia. In the frame of exploratory study design, the following questions were formulated:

• RQ1. Are preschool teachers in the group at risk based on low levels of their indicators of psychological well-being?

• RQ2. Are there differences in the well-being of preschool teachers from Russia and Serbia?

• RQ3. What are predictors of work engagement as marker of professional well-being among indicators of psychological well-being?

Methods

Participants and procedure

The total sample includes 654 preschool teachers aged from 18 to 70 years (M = 44.8, SD = 9.87), 98% female. The Russian sample comprises 388 individuals from 19 to 70 (M = 45.7, SD = 9.54), 99% female), the Serbian one includes 266 persons from 18 to 64 (M = 43.3, SD = 10.24), 98% female). Participants recruitment was conducted by preschool organization administrations. The confidential survey was completed voluntarily, with written informed consent obtained from all respondents. The research protocol adhered to the ethical guidelines established by the Russian Psychological Society. Data were collected using online forms, and all materials were presented in the official languages of the participants: Russian and Serbian. Measures and instructions were adapted to Russian in previous studies. Translation and adaptation of all materials to Serbian were performed according to the modern recommendations [62]. Four experts were recruited for the translation procedure: one bilingual expert, one Serbian expert, and two Russian experts.

Measures

Data collection was performed using the following questionnaire

PERMA-profiler is a multidimensional measure of well-being [26, 63]. This questionnaire includes 23 items; 15 of them form the classical 5-factor model of well-being PERMA, developed by Seligman [64]. This model comprises scales of Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationship, Meaning, Accomplishment. Another 8 items were added and validated by authors of the questionnaire and aim to investigate features of general Happiness, Health, Negative emotions and Loneliness. The scales of Happiness and Loneliness are represented by one item; the others contain three items. Respondents provide answers using an 11-point Likert scale from 0 (minimum level of consent) to 10 (maximum level of consent).

The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) was developed by Schaufeli and colleagues [31] to assess the general positive emotional state in the work context. The scale includes 17 items and may investigate such scales as Absorption, Dedication and Vigor, or a general indicator of Work engagement. The within-country comparative analysis in our current study confirmed no differences in three components of work engagement across the samples. A between-group comparison also yielded identical results for vigor, dedication, and absorption between the Serbian and Russian samples. Given these findings, only one general indicator of Work engagement was used. Participants answered using a 7-point Likert scale from 0 (“never”) to 6 (“always”).

Data analysis

Data analysis was performed using JASP 0.19.3. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, as well as multigroup factor analysis, was used to identify measurement invariance; Cronbach’s alpha was used to demonstrate reliability of questionnaire scales. Descriptive statistics allowed an overview of data expression. Correlation analysis demonstrated associations between study variables. The Mann-Whitney test and Friedman test allowed comparison of expression of variables in the Serbian and Russian samples. Regression analysis was run to identify predictors of work engagement among indicators of psychological well-being.

Results

Preliminary analysis and test of psychometric properties of PERMA-profiler and UWES

The analysis of the PERMA-Profiler’s and UWES psychometric properties was conducted in three steps. First, their factor structures were tested separately in the Serbian and Russian samples. Second, a multigroup factor analysis was performed. Finally, the unidimensional reliability of the scales was assessed. As testing the psychometric properties of the PERMA-Profiler and the UWES is not the central aim of this study, this section presents only the core analytical results that informed our subsequent methodological decisions.

Exploratory factor analysis of the PERMA-profiler and the UWES yielded acceptable item loadings and variance explained for all measures scales in both the Serbian and Russian samples, with the exception of the Engagement scale of the PERMA-profiler. This particular factor accounted for a low proportion of variance (R² = 0.21 in the Serbian sample and 0.47 in the Russian sample) and also demonstrated low unidimensional reliability (e.g., Cronbach’s α = 0.41 in the Serbian sample). Furthermore, the theoretical construct measured by this factor is similar to Work Engagement as defined by the Utrecht Scale, raising concerns about potential conceptual overlap that could lead to high covariance and multicollinearity. Based on these findings, the Engagement scale was excluded from subsequent analysis. Exploratory factor analysis also demonstrated poor loadings for the items of the Relationship scale in the Russian sample (with values as low as 0.258). Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed strong associations between the Relationship and Meaning scales in the Serbian sample (r = 0.754, p < 0.001) and a medium-strength association in the Russian sample (r = 0.655, p < 0.001). These patterns increase the likelihood of statistical artifacts in the confirmatory factor analysis. To mitigate this risk and preserve the ability to investigate the role of relationships as an indicator of well-being in the context of work engagement, we used the data for the item with the highest loading in both the Serbian (0.832) and Russian (0.819) samples but demonstrated moderate correlations with Meaning scale (r = 0.65, p < 0.001 in the Serbian sample and r = 0.50, p < 0.001 in the Russian one). This was the item, “To what extent do you feel loved?”.

The test of measurement invariance following Chen’s sequential procedure [65] showed that configural and metric invariance were established for both the PERMA-profiler and the UWES (Table 1). However, testing for scalar invariance showed that full invariance was not reached (ΔCFI > 0.01) [66]. This means that some items had different response thresholds in different cultures. To address this issue, partial scalar invariance was achieved for both questionnaires. The intercept constraints for items that displayed significant intercept differences (Item 4, Item 13, and Item 15 for the PERMA-profiler and Item 3, Item 13, and Item 17 for the UWES) were removed in accordance with the partial invariance approach [67]. The partial scalar models that came out of this had a good fit (ΔCFI < 0.01). This partial scalar invariance allowed comparisons of latent means between Serbian and Russian samples. Following the establishment of partial scalar invariance, we proceeded with all subsequent analyses using the identified measurement models of both questionnaires. The items with non-invariant intercepts were retained in all analyses, as they continue to measure their respective constructs while accounting for cultural differences in response thresholds.

Table 1.

Measurement invariance

Model	χ2	df	CFI	RMSEA	SRMR	ΔCFI	ΔRMSEA
Measurement invariance of the PERMA-profiler
Configural	728.34	160	0.961	0.061	0.029	—	—
Metric	767.72	170	0.958	0.06	0.036	-0.002	-0.0003
Scalar	968.8	180	0.945	0.067	0.041	-0.013	0.007
Partial Scalar	826.32	177	0.955	0.062	0.038	0.01	-0.005
Measurement invariance of the UWES
Configural	3,350.2	238	0.879	0.117	0.053
Metric	3,449.9	254	0.875	0.115	0.064	-0.004	-0.002
Scalar	3,944.5	270	0.857	0.119	0.068	-0.018	0.004
Partial Scalar	3,866.0	267	0.87	0.119	0.068	-0.005	0.004

χ² chi-square,  df degrees of freedom, CFI comparative fit index, TLI Tucker–Lewis index, SRMR standardized root mean square residual, RMSEA root mean square error of approximation

Unidimensional reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. The UWES demonstrated a high Cronbach’s alpha—0.95 for both samples. The PERMA-profiler scales demonstrated acceptable reliability, with values ranging from 0.75 (Negative Emotions) to 0.87 (Health) in the Serbian sample and from 0.65 (Negative Emotions) to 0.88 (Health) in the Russian sample. Given that each scale comprises only three items, these Cronbach’s alpha values can be considered sufficient [68].

Descriptive statistics and results of comparative analysis of psychological well-being and work engagement of preschool teachers from Russia and Serbia

Analysis of descriptive statistics indicated that teachers in both countries assessed positive elements of the PERMA higher than negative ones. Thus, all positive dimensions had scores higher than 7.42 (except for Health in the Russian sample—6.47). Negative dimensions demonstrated scores less than 3.66.

Comparative analysis (Mann-Whitney U-test) was performed in two steps: on the first step we compared latent means of the PERMA scales (Positive emotions, Meaning, Accomplishment, Negative emotions, and Health) and the UWES scale, on the second step - one-item indicators (Relationships, Happiness, and Loneliness). Table 2 displays results of comparative analysis.

Table 2.

Results of comparative analysis

Variables	Group	M	SD	U1	Rank-Biserial r	95% CI
Scales
Positive emotion	Ru	7.86	1.45	45517.5**	-0.12	[-0.21; -0.03]
	SR	8.01	1.47
Meaning	Ru	8.07	1.53	46144.5*	-0.11	[-0.19; -0.02]
	SR	8.37	1.34
Accomplishment	Ru	8.13	1.27	58,857**	0.14	[0.05; 0.23]
	SR	7.73	1.36
Negative emotion	Ru	3.66	1.28	67267.5***	0.30	[0.22; 0.38]
	SR	2.79	1.36
Health	Ru	6.47	1.83	35,399***	-0.31	[-0.39; -0.23]
	SR	7.42	1.85
Work engagement	Ru	4.39	0.89	44695.5**	-0.13	[-0.22; -0.05]
	SR	4.53	1.03
One-item indicators
Relationship	Ru	8.03	2.11	41653.50***	-0.19	[-0.28; -0.11]
	SR	8.70	1.73
Happiness	Ru	8.26	1.77	51634.50	5.910 × 10− 4	[-0.09; 0.09]
	SR	8.35	1.57
Loneliness	Ru	3.44	3.21	52197.50	0.01	[-0.08; 0.10]
	SR	3.23	2.79

Ru Russia, SR Serbia, M mean, SD standard deviation, U Mann-Whitney criterion, CI confidence interval

¹comparative analysis of Positive emotion, Meaning, Accomplishment, Negative emotion, Health and Work engagement was performed based on factor scores

*p < 0.05

**p < 0.01

***p < 0.001

Results showed that Russian and Serbian samples have statistically significant differences in the study variables. Precisely, the Russian preschool teachers demonstrated a higher score of Accomplishment and Negative emotions. Preschool teachers from Serbia have a higher score of Positive emotion, Meaning, Health, and Work engagement. Notably that there are no differences in Happiness and Loneliness.

Predictors of working engagement among the PERMA model dimensions in the Russian and Serbian samples

The linear regression models of predictors for Work engagement were conducted separately for the Russian and Serbian samples because of significant differences in the level of manifestation of the well-being indicators and just partial scalar invariance of questionnaires. Work engagement was the dependent variable, while indicators of well-being were independent ones (Table 3).

Table 3.

Results of regression analysis

Variables	b	SE	Beta	p	95% CI	Tolerance	VIF
Russian sample F = 24.89***, R²=0.344
(Intercept)	-0.294	0.278		0.292	[-0.84; 0.253]
Positive emotion	0.197	0.065	0.197	0.002	[0.07; 0.325]	0.416	2.403
Meaning	0.297	0.072	0.287	< 0.001	[0.155; 0.44]	0.354	2.823
Accomplishment	0.118	0.055	0.119	0.032	[0.01; 0.225]	0.565	1.771
Negative emotion	-0.106	0.056	-0.094	0.058	[-0.215; 0.003]	0.71	1.408
Health	-0.006	0.052	-0.006	0.908	[-0.108; 0.096]	0.628	1.593
Relationship	-0.004	0.025	-0.01	0.863	[-0.053; 0.045]	0.545	1.833
Happiness	0.035	0.032	0.066	0.285	[-0.029; 0.098]	0.461	2.17
Loneliness	0.012	0.015	0.043	0.399	[-0.017; 0.041]	0.672	1.487
Serbian sample F = 16.31***, R²=0.337
(Intercept)	-1.115	0.506		0.028	[-2.111; -0.12]
Positive emotion	0.102	0.097	0.1	0.295	[-0.089; 0.293]	0.283	3.53
Meaning	0.008	0.109	0.008	0.938	[-0.206; 0.223]	0.255	3.921
Accomplishment	0.36	0.08	0.332	< 0.001	[0.202; 0.518]	0.473	2.116
Negative emotion	-0.201	0.076	-0.179	0.008	[-0.351; -0.052]	0.566	1.768
Health	-0.077	0.077	-0.074	0.314	[-0.228; 0.074]	0.48	2.084
Relationship	-0.046	0.045	-0.082	0.3	[-0.134; 0.041]	0.418	2.395
Happiness	0.17	0.059	0.273	0.004	[0.055; 0.286]	0.292	3.423
Loneliness	0.03	0.024	0.085	0.211	[-0.017; 0.077]	0.565	1.771

b unstandardized regression coefficients, SE standard error, Beta standardized regression coefficients, CI confidence interval, VIF variance inflation factor

* p < 0.05

**p < 0.01

***p < 0.001

According to the results, both linear regression models explain 34% of variance, and only Accomplishment significantly predicted Work engagement in both samples. In the model for Russian preschool teachers, Positive emotions and Meaning are also positive predictors of Work engagement, while in the model for Serbian preschool teachers, Work engagement was predicted by Happiness as a positive predictor and Negative emotions as a negative one.

Discussion

The current study aims to investigate characteristics of psychological well-being among Russian and Serbian preschool teachers and identify predictors of work engagement.

First, to answer RQ1, our results indicate that preschool teachers in both countries reported a high level of positive psychological well-being dimensions and a rather low level of negative ones. In general, these findings are consistent with previous research [13, 26]. Also, our results seem do not support the widespread hypothesis that teachers are at high risk for psychological well-being due to the elevated stress levels, professional demands, and burnout [69, 70]. In comparison with teachers at other educational levels [71] and representatives of other professions [72], Russian and Serbian preschool teachers demonstrated higher levels of positive experience and emotions, a stronger sense of meaning in life, greater subjective happiness, and more satisfaction with relationships (in terms of feeling loved). They also reported lower levels of loneliness and negative emotions. These results may suggest that preschool teachers possess sufficient internal resources enabling them to navigate daily challenges and stressors [73].

Second, to answer RQ2, it is important to discuss differences in the elements of psychological well-being of preschool teachers from Russia and Serbia. This cross-country comparison showed that subjective happiness does not demonstrate significant differences. However, the variations between the Russian and Serbian samples revealed in the elements of the PERMA model which may provide information about cross-cultural differences in filling psychological well-being.

Serbian preschool teachers assessed their positive emotions, meaning in life, health, and work engagement higher than their Russian colleagues, who rated their accomplishments and negative emotions higher. Founded contrasts could be explained by a set of factors: cultural and value characteristics as well as social-economic context.

Discussing features of culture, we may note that Serbia, traditionally considered one of the collectivistic cultures of the Balkans and Southern Europe, is oriented toward unity, warm relationships, and hedonism [74]. These cultural features may explain the higher expressiveness of positive emotions, satisfaction derived from a sense of purpose, professional immersion, and, consequently, potentially better somatic health among its population. The profession of a preschool teacher, inherently connected with care and emotional sharing, aligns closely with this cultural model. In contrast, Russian culture is traditionally characterized by higher level of individualism and masculinity [75]. This is often expressed through an orientation toward personal achievements and the overcoming of difficulties as proof of life success [76]. In such context, the reported higher levels of negative emotions, and the willingness to admit them, can be seen as reflection of the general experience of chronic stress and specific cultural coping strategy. Taken together, these cultural characteristics may contribute to lower professional engagement among teachers. Another possible explanation could be a more self-reliant or isolated approach to work among Russian preschool teachers. This interpretation is based on the lower level of work engagement and significance of relationships and the higher emphasis on personal achievement observed in this group compared to their Serbian counterparts. However, this remains a speculative interpretation that requires further investigation.

The socio-economic context may also play a role. Although Serbia and Russia have both experienced considerable changes the last years, we may suggest that the pace and nature of change have been markedly more turbulent and disruptive in Russia. This may serve as an additional factor that increases the background levels of negative emotion of population. Moreover, prestige of the profession of preschool teacher as well as salary seems higher in Serbia [77, 78]. Faced with this disparity, Russian teachers may seek to bolster their professional identity by emphasizing their personal accomplishments and achievements.

The differences found between the Russian and Serbian samples suggest that preschool teachers in these countries tend to exhibit two different general patterns. Serbian preschool teachers demonstrate a tendency to an affective-communal well-being profile, which is based on orientation on positive emotions and supportive relationships, whereas their Russian counterparts demonstrate a tendency to an achievement-oriented profile oriented on accomplishment, mastery, and professional success.

Addressing RQ3, the study revealed the variations in the contributions of psychological well-being elements of the PERMA model to work engagement between preschool teachers of Russia and Serbia. For the Serbian sample, accomplishment, happiness, as well as low negative emotions, are predictors of their involvement in professional activities. For the Russian sample, positive emotions, meaning, and accomplishment also predict work engagement. Interestingly, despite the higher level of meaning among Serbian teachers, it made a significant contribution to work involvement in the Russian sample. The results of the regression analysis may support our suggestions about the differences in psychological well-being profiles in the work context of preschool teachers in Russia and Serbia. Although it was expected that positive relationships would significantly contribute to work engagement because of the social dimension of the teaching profession as it were found in previous studies [e.g., 36], this element of the PERMA model in current study did not show a significant impact on professional well-being in either group. It is important to consider that these patterns might be specific to the methodological choices of this study. On the other hand, such results may be due to the diminished significance of communication and interaction in the professional activities of preschool teachers, since these aspects are fundamental to their daily work; however, further investigation is required to confirm this assumption.

Conclusion

The following conclusions can be drawn from the findings about the characteristics of psychological well-being of preschool teachers from Serbia and Russia. First, preschool teachers from both Russia and Serbia demonstrated a high level of positive and a low level of negative elements of psychological well-being. We can suppose that this reflects the presence of internal resources for successfully overcoming daily stress and difficulties. Second, the revealed differences in the PERMA well-being indicators between Serbian and Russian samples point to different psychological well-being profiles of preschool teachers from these countries. We guess that Serbian teachers exhibit rather an affective-communal profile, while Russians—an achievement-oriented one. Third, the sets of predictors of work engagement vary between Serbian and Russian samples. For Russian preschool teachers, the key predictors include positive emotions, meaning and accomplishment. In contrast, for the Serbian preschool teachers, the predictors consist of accomplishment, happiness, and a low level of negative emotions. These results also support our suggestions about found differences in profiles of psychological well-being of preschool teachers but in the work context.

The interpretation of our findings should be approached with caution due to several study limitations. First, we identified only partial scalar invariance for both questionnaires that may indicate some variations in interpretation of items by respondents from Russia and Serbia. Second, we modified the structure of the classical PERMA-Profiler by removing the Engagement scale and reducing the Relationships scale to a single item to avoid issues of multicollinearity and enhance the validity of the statistical analysis. Third, we received just acceptable reliability and multicollinearity for some scales. There were expected results because as usual, short scales demonstrated low Cronbach’s alpha [e.g., 68], while high associated indicators such as elements of the psychological well-being in the frame of Seligman’s approach may showed multicollinearity [79]. Nevertheless, these data features should be taken into account. Finally, we did not consider social-demographic characteristics such as age, job tenure, region of residence, social-economic status, education level, and marital status because some previous studies provided significant dependence on psychological well-being from these factors [24, 73].

Furter study may mitigate these limitations using qualitative research methods like interview of focus groups or extend groups of respondents involving teachers with different job tenures, social-economic status, education level and professional area (school, high education, etc.).

The findings of this study have important implications for practical interventions with preschool teachers and for identifying new avenues of research. Addressing teacher psychological well-being in relation to resource availability is crucial for retention, productivity, and effective pedagogical practice—all of which are essential for managing the preschool education system, training teaching staff, and planning teacher career development. Conversely, limitations in psychological well-being can guide psychological interventions and support processes aimed at fostering teachers’ professional and personal growth. Therefore, interventions in Serbia could be designed to help preschool teachers learn how to apply their strengths in generating positive emotions and discovering meaning in their professional activities. Practical components could include the implementation of structured positive rituals (e.g., daily greetings and farewell ceremonies) or the use of a professional gratitude diary. In Russia, interventions could focus on helping teachers manage negative emotions through strategies such as cognitive reframing or maintaining a daily journal of small successes. Furthermore, to enhance work engagement, preschool teachers could be encouraged to form professional support groups or collaborate on joint projects.

Authors’ contributions

NR - writing original draft, formal analysis, DK – conceptualization, investigation, review and editing, EV - writing original draft, DZ – investigation, project administration, MM – investigation, project administration, PD – methodology and supervision. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was carried out with the support of the Russian Scientific Foundation,

project No. 25-18-00562.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The ethical approval form was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Federal Scientific Centre of Psychological and Multidisciplinary Research (Approval Number: 01, Date of Approval: 2025-01-13). All study’s procedures have been conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the Russian Psychological Society and Helsinki Declaration. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw consent at any time without repercussion. Privacy and confidentiality of personal information were strictly maintained throughout the study.

Consent for publication

Not Applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.