Transcendental Meditation as a Modulator of Cognitive and Psychological Well-Being

Abstract

Background: Meditation is the practice of focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity to reach a calm, stable state. Meditation is been practised since ancient past in various forms. Transcendental meditation (TM) is widely practiced for its potential benefits on mental and physical well-being using the mantra "OM" as an object of awareness. Despite its popularity in the Global North, evidence of its impact on cognitive and psychological health remains limited in the Indian context.

Aim: To evaluate the effects of TM practice on cognitive performance by audiovisual reaction time and psychological parameters.

Methods: This single-group quasi-experimental study was conducted after Institutional Ethics Committee approval. Thirty-four volunteers (13 males and 21 females aged 25-50 years) underwent a 12-week TM intervention from a certified instructor. Audiovisual reaction time was measured using a Psychotronics digital reaction time apparatus and ADI Power Lab 8. The Profile of Mood States (POMS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and Standardized Assessment of Personality Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS) were used for psychological assessment. Resilience was measured using the Nicholson McBride Resilience Questionnaire (NMRQ). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 29.

Results: Audiovisual reaction time was significantly reduced as a result of TM for cognitive tasks suggesting enhanced cognitive processing speed. Highly significant improvements were also observed in mood scores, sleep quality, resilience levels after the TM intervention (p<0.0001). Personality traits showed an increase in positive scores toward emotional stability.

Conclusion: Transcendental meditation improves cognitive performance and psychological well-being, supporting its potential as a complementary approach for mental health promotion and stress reduction. It can also be utilized for enhancing focus and attention, in activities demanding rapid and accurate responses, such as sports.

INTRODUCTION

Meditation is the practice of focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity to reach a calm stable state (1). It involves intentional mental and awareness activities such as observing, focusing, releasing, imagining, or mindful movement (2). These practices are based on the fundamental skill of being aware of one's own awareness. It includes a wide range of practices like mindfulness, focused attention, body scan, loving-kindness, transcendental meditation (TM), tai chi and advanced states like the jhanas (3, 4). Transcendental meditation, developed in the 1950s by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi a disciple of Swami Brahmananda Saraswati. It is a technique based on the ancient Vedic traditions of India that focuses on avoiding distracting thoughts using a specific mantra to promote deep relaxation and self-development. Mantras like "OM" or affirmations such as "I am worthy" serve as anchors for awareness (1). Transcendental meditation spread globally under the Maharishi's guidance, attracting widespread interest for its simplicity and potential to improve mental and physical well-being.

Contemplative practices from ancient traditions, especially those rooted in the Global South, are increasingly studied for their health benefits. So far, research has largely focused on mindfulness, which is common in Western clinical practice (5-7). In recent years, TM has also gained scientific attention for its role in reducing stress, improving mood and supporting overall well-being (8). However, evidence on TM's impact on mental and cognitive functions in the Indian context remains limited. Hence, our study aims to address this critical gap by regarding impact of TM on cognitive and psychological factors and highlight its potential as a complementary approach for mental health promotion and performance enhancement in the Indian context.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design

This study employed a longitudinal, single group quasi-experimental design to assess the effects of a 12-week TM program. A convenience sample of healthy adult volunteers who provided written informed consent participated in the study (Figure 1).

Study setting

The study was conducted in the Department of Physiology, AIIMS Bibinagar, India, after obtaining the Institutional Ethics Committee approval. The TM program was facilitated by a certified and experienced TM instructor.

Study participants

Healthy adults aged 25 to 50 years, who met the inclusion criteria and consented to participate, were recruited through word of mouth and WhatsApp groups. A total of 56 individuals were initially enrolled. Inclusion criteria required participants to be willing to learn and practice TM for 12 weeks and to be able to read and understand study instructions.

Exclusion criteria included a history or current diagnosis of major psychiatric, neurological, or chronic medical conditions, use of psychotropic medications, substance abuse or dependence and prior practice of any other meditation technique within the past six months. Daily attendance was recorded and only participants with a minimum of 80% attendance were included in the final analysis. Of the initial 56 participants, 34 (13 males, 21 females) met the attendance criterion. Baseline assessment was done and repeated 12 weeks after the TM intervention. Participants underwent a 12-week TM program for 20 minutes once daily five days a week in the Department of Physiology. Weekly sessions of motivational talk on Indian philosophy were conducted to avoid monotony and encourage daily participation in TM sessions. Participants were instructed to maintain their usual daily routines and refrain from initiating other new wellness practices during the study period.

Assessments

Cognitive measures – Auditory reaction time (ART) and visual reaction time (VRT) were assessed using two instruments.

The first one was a digital reaction time apparatus Psychotronics, Bangalore; model No. 501-004TR) with a built-in timer and chronoscope (accuracy: 1 ms). The ART was measured in response to a beep sound stimulus, while VRT was measured using green and red-light stimuli. The apparatus consisted of separate examiner and subject interfaces with designated keys for stimulus administration and response. Each participant underwent three trials and the shortest reaction time was recorded for analysis (9).

The second instrument was ADI Power Lab 8. The ART was measured in response to a 'click' sound stimulus and VRT to a visual pattern (line stimuli). Each task lasted for two minutes with a one-minute break between trials (10). Participants received standardized instructions and a one-minute familiarization trial before final recordings.

Psychological and behavioural measures – Four validated standardized self-report instruments were used, as described below.

1) Profile of Mood States (POMS, revised version): A 40-item self-report questionnaire designed for the evaluation of six distinct mood dimensions, including Tension-Anxiety, Depression-Dejection, Anger-Hostility, Vigor-Activity, Fatigue-Inertia and Confusion-Bewilderment, was employed. Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale (0 = Not at all to 4 = Extremely). A total mood disturbance (TMD) score was computed by summing the negative subscales and subtracting the positive Vigor score (11).

2) Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI): a widely used 19-item self-rated questionnaire that assesses sleep quality and disturbances over the previous month. The PSQI generated seven component scores: subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleeping medication and daytime dysfunction. These were summed to yield a global score ranging from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality (12).

3) Standardized Assessment of Personality Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS): an eight-item screening tool for the detection of possible personality disorder traits. Each item was scored dichotomously (Yes/No), yielding a total score from 0 to 8. Higher scores suggest a greater likelihood of personality-related vulnerabilities (13).

4) Resilience: it was measured using the Nicholson McBride Resilience Questionnaire (NMRQ) that assessed an individual's capacity to cope with stress, adapt to change and recover from setbacks. The NMRQ provides an overall resilience score based on participants' responses to key items reflecting positive psychological adaptation (14).

Data collection procedure

Reaction time tasks were conducted in a standardized laboratory setting, with participants seated comfortably and using the same equipment for both pre- and post-assessments. All questionnaires were completed in a quiet setting under supervision of the research team. Adherence to the TM practice was monitored through daily attendance. Participant confidentiality was maintained throughout the study.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS-29. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant demographics. Pre- post differences in ART as well as POMS, PSQI, SAPAS and resilience scores were analyzed using paired t-tests for normally distributed variables. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

FIGURE 1.

Project workflow

RESULTS

Cognitive scores

Reaction time (by digital reaction time apparatus)

Transcendental meditation practice led to statistically significant improvements in reaction times. Visual reaction time decreased significantly for green light (p < 0.001) and red light (p = 0.008). Auditory reaction time to a beep was very highly significant (p < 0.0001) (Table 1).

Reaction time (by AD instruments)

Visual reaction time for cognitive task shortened highly significant from baseline to post-intervention (p < 0.001). Auditory reaction time to click was just significant (p= 0.009) unlike ART by digital reaction time apparatus using beep was highly significant (Table 2).

Psychological scores

Profile of Mood States (POMS) scores

Results depicted decrease in negative mood scores (Tension, Depression, Anger, Fatigue, Confusion), increase in vigor and esteem related affect (ERA) showing highly significant (p < 0.001) improvement in overall mood reflected by a lower Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) score (Table 3).

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores

Following the TM intervention, participants demonstrated a highly significant decrease in global PSQI scores indicating improved sleep quality compared to baseline (p < 0.001) (Table 4).

Standardized Assessment of Personality Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS) questionnaire scores

The SAPAS scores reduced post TM intervention leading to highly significant (p < 0.0001) improvement in emotional stability indicating that personality traits can change due to TM (Table 5).

Resilience scores

The Nicholson McBride Resilience Questionnaire (NMRQ) scores increased from established level of resilience to a strong level of resilience which was highly significant (p < 0.0001) (Table 6).

TABLE 1.

Visual and auditory reaction times by digital reaction time apparatuses scores before and after intervention

TABLE 2.

Scores of visual reaction time and auditory reaction time by AD instrument before and after intervention

TABLE 3.

Profile of Mood States (POMS) scores before and after intervention

TABLE 4.

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores before and after intervention

TABLE 5.

Standardized Assessment of Personality Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS) scores before and after intervention

TABLE 6.

Resilience scores before and after intervention

DISCUSSION

Our quasi-experimental study demonstrated that regular practice of TM for 12 weeks produced significant improvements in both cognitive and psychological well-being among healthy adult participants. TM practice also positively modulates cognitive performance, mood states, sleep quality, resilience and personality.

Reaction time

Baseline VRT were higher with line-based stimuli (AD instrument) than with coloured lights by digital RT instrument, likely due to stronger contrast and sharper edge detection with light stimuli that activate the visual cortex (V1) more effectively (15). Green light consistently produced faster reaction times than red light, consistent with earlier studies (16-18). Venkatesh et al, Daulatabad et al, Bamne et al and Swati et al revealed similar findings in their study (19-22). This can be explained by Max Planck's corpuscular theory green light's shorter wavelength and higher energy stimulate visual receptors more effectively than red light (23). Auditory reaction time improved most notably with beeps compared to clicks due to the sharper, more abrupt onset of beep sounds (24). Beeps prompt faster responses because stimuli with rapid rise times lead to shorter reaction times. Consistent with prior research, auditory reaction times were generally quicker than visual reaction times, both before and after TM (25, 26) as auditory signals reach the brainstem in 8-10 ms, while visual signals take 20-40 ms due to longer retinal-thalamic-cortical pathways (27).

The improved reaction times reflect enhanced central information processing speed and neural efficiency. Transcendental meditation promotes parasympathetic dominance, improves vagal tone, and induces a restful yet alert state (28). "OM" chanting during TM may further enhance reaction time by limbic deactivation, as seen in fMRI studies. Neuroimaging and EEG studies show TM increases alpha wave coherence and frontal lobe activation, improving attention and psychomotor performance (29). Transcendental meditation reduces cognitive interference, enhances attentional control and strengthens executive functioning (30). Higher cortical arousal also naturally shortens the reaction time, which is critical in sports, thus, reaction time should be considered criteria in selection and training (31). Our results align with previous work by Jedrczak et al, who found faster choice reaction times and better information processing in college students practicing TM (32) and by Dillbeck and Orme-Johnson, who reported significant perceptual-motor improvements (33).

Profile of Mood States (POMS)

We used POMS (revised version) questionnaire by Grove and Prapavessis (34) that was designed to measure mood states. Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) was calculated by summing the totals for the negative subscales and then subtracting the totals for the positive subscales: TMD=(TEN+DEP+ANG+FAT+CON) – (VIG+ERA). Participants showed a significant reduction in negative mood subscales like Tension, Depression, Anger, Fatigue and Confusion and an increase in the positive Vigor score and esteem-related affect (ERA). This improvement is reflected by a decrease in the TMD score from 76.7 ± 13.65 before intervention to 70.43 ± 11.3 after intervention, with a very low p-value indicating high statistical significance. The significant drop in TMD suggests a more balanced emotional state. The POMS results revealed an "Iceberg profile," marked by low negative moods and high vigor, which has been associated with success in Olympic-level athletes and is considered an ideal mood profile for optimal performance (35).

Transcendental meditation reduces sympathetic nervous system activity and promotes parasympathetic dominance by downregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) and lowering cortisol levels leading to alleviation of anxiety creating a calm and sattvic personality with decreased negative affect and increase in vigor (36).

Transcendental meditation decreases proinflammatory markers and hormones related to sympathetic overdrive and enhances connectivity between brain regions such as the caudate, frontal and temporal lobes to upregulate emotion regulation networks and attention explaining its positive effects on mood and cognition (37). Mantra chanting in TM reduces amygdala hyperactivity a key driver of stress and emotional distress by activating brain regions such as the solitary nucleus, thalamus and limbic system. Further activation of prefrontal cortex and insula leads to inhibition of amygdala hyperactivity by enhancing GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), which is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms down excessive neuronal activity (38). These mechanisms likely contribute to reduced anxiety, lower negative affect and increased Vigor. Regular TM practice also promotes neuroplastic changes in areas like the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex, which are crucial for emotion regulation, thereby supporting greater emotional resilience and mood stability (39). Transcendental meditation helps shift the body toward parasympathetic dominance and lowers stress by modulating the HPA axis and reducing cortisol levels. It improves sleep quality and boosts beneficial neurotransmitters like β-endorphins, oxytocin, GABA and BDNF. By increasing GABA levels TM also helps to reduce psychological distress and enhance cognitive functioning (40).

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI)

Sleep quality also improved significantly, as reflected by a decrease in PSQI scores from 3.83 ± 2.26 before intervention to 2.87 ± 2.15 after intervention (p < 0.001), indicating a highly significant improved sleep quality and sleep patterns. Our findings align with previous research showing that TM helps reduce sleep disturbances by calming mental activity and lowering physiological arousal (41). An Indian study by Kaur et al demonstrated that TM practitioners showed improved sleep quality and reduced stress levels compared to a matched control group (42). TM reduces ruminative thinking and intrusive thoughts, which are common barriers to restful sleep. The mantra repetition (OM) in TM acts as a mental anchor, helping disengage habitual thought patterns, thereby decreasing cognitive load and fostering a restful yet alert mind state. as supported by YANTRA scale findings (43). This can be explained on the basis of Mandukya Upanishad which states that human consciousness operates in four dimensions: wakefulness (Vaishvanara Purusha, "AAA"), dream (Tejas Purusha, "UUU"), deep sleep (Prajna Purusha, "MMM") and the transcendental state (Turiya), which underlies and integrates the other three (44). Transcendental meditation is believed to facilitate effortless access to the Turiya (Figure 2), a state of restful alertness that goes beyond the ordinary wakeful, dream or sleep states (44). This unique mode of consciousness likely explains the significant improvements observed in our study as reduced negative mood states (POMS) and better sleep quality (PSQI) indicate a harmonization of the wakeful, dream and deep sleep dimensions. Turiya (Transcendental state) restores balance in brain rhythms, improving sleep quality and stabilizing mood. Studies show that TM supports better sleep, a more positive mood (45). This may be due to its effect on autonomic balance, with increased parasympathetic activity supporting sleep onset and continuity.

Standardized Assessment of Personality Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS) for personality traits

Our study reveals that personality traits can shift following the intervention. The average SAPAS score decreased significantly from 3.23 ± 1.42 pre-intervention to 2.23 ± 0.86 post-intervention (p = 1.078 × 10^-5), indicating a meaningful reduction in personality related symptoms and behaviours. This suggests improved emotional stability and fewer maladaptive traits such as impulsivity or irritability. Studies using functional MRI and EEG coherence have shown increased activation and connectivity in the prefrontal cortex and reduced activation of the amygdala, resulting in enhanced emotion regulation and attentional control (Travis et al, 2009) (46). These findings highlight TM's potential to enhance psychological health by supporting healthier personality patterns, consistent with previous evidence that long-term meditation practice is linked to greater self-regulation, patience and agreeableness (46). However, further research with larger samples and clinical comparisons is needed to confirm these results.

Resilience scores

Resilience, the ability to adapt and thrive under stress, significantly improved 12 weeks after TM meditation. The NMRQ scores increased from a moderate to a strong level of resilience, rising from 41.83 ± 7.67 to 47.63 ± 6.04 (p < 0.0001), indicating a highly significant improvement with more consistent results. Transcendental meditation strengthens mental resilience, helping one handle daily stress calmly. This leads to positive psychological states by cultivating a calm, stable inner awareness and lowering stress reactivity. Previous trials have reported similar findings, showing that regular meditation strengthens adaptive coping strategies and psychological flexibility (47). Sustained access to the transcendental state may also foster greater psychological stability (lower SAPAS scores) and enhanced resilience, as this state is described as the silent source of awareness, promoting deeper self-integration and stress reduction. Thus, TM may cultivate a balanced mind-body state by aligning with the ancient Vedic understanding of consciousness. Similar findings were revealed in studies by in a meta-analysis showing that TM was more effective than other relaxation techniques in reducing trait anxiety (48). Transcendental meditation has been linked to increased regional cerebral metabolic rate of glucose consumption (rCMRGlc) in the frontal lobe of the brain and reduction in the primary and secondary visual centers. An Indian study by Subrahmanyam and colleagues found changes in neurotransmitters showing reduced stress and improved health in TM practitioners. Regardless of the pathophysiologic pathway, various studies have shown that TM like other yogic practices results in immediate psychological effects of decreasing anxiety resulting from improvement of resilience from developing to established-to-strong to-exceptional level (49-51). Additionally, TM and Yoga may increase serotonin, peripheral melatonin, GABA, oxytocin, and beta-endorphins, which support better mood, sleep, social connection and overall well-being (52-54).

Transcendental meditation as a part of Yoga promotes health through multiple neurobiological pathways. At the core, TM enhances genomic stability by increasing telomerase activity and longevity markers like Sirtuin 1, while favorably regulating gene expression. This cellular effect improves mind-body communication by balancing stress hormones (lower cortisol), boosting anti-inflammatory and immune factors (IL-6, LL-37). Transcendental meditation also enhances neuroplasticity by increasing BDNF, serotonin and melatonin, which support mood regulation and healthy brain rhythms. Clinically, these changes reduce depression severity, improve stress resilience and enhance quality of life. On a larger scale, TM may help lower chronic disease burden, extend lifespan and benefit public health (Figure 3) (55).

FIGURE 2.

Stages of body-mind consciousness

FIGURE 3.

Neuro-endocrinal mechanisms

CONCLUSION

The findings of this quasi-experimental study indicate that 12 weeks of regular Transcendental Meditation practice produced significant improvements in both cognitive performances, reflected by shorter time to react to cognitive tasks. The significant reduction in visual and auditory reaction times suggests enhanced focus, alertness and information processing speed, which aligns with previous evidence that meditation can positively affect attention and executive functions.

The psychological well-being, demonstrated by better mood, improved sleep quality, higher resilience and positive shifts in personality traits toward emotional stability. The improvements in mood and sleep quality, along with greater resilience, support TM's potential role in managing stress and enhancing coping abilities. This study provides valuable insights into the cognitive and psychological effects of TM in a healthy adult population. The findings may contribute to the understanding of TM as a potential tool for enhancing mental health and cognitive function and it could be useful modality to improve sleep and mood disorders and help reduce anxiety and depression.

SUGGESTIONS

Our study findings provide preliminary evidence for the positive effects of TM in healthy adults. Further research in larger population in patients of anxiety, depression and mood disorders requires that can help us understand the nuances in detail and develop tailor-made approaches. If proven to be efficacious and safe, TM can be an immensely useful modality to improve sleep and mood disorders and help reduce anxiety and depression particularly in patients partially responding or resistant to conventional treatments and to enhance psychological wellbeing and quality of life. These findings underscore TM's promise as a simple, non-pharmacological and cost-effective practice for improving cognitive efficiency and psychological wellbeing. It may be particularly useful for students, athletes and professionals who require optimal focus, rapid decision-making, and emotional stability. Further studies with larger, randomized controlled designs and neurophysiological correlates will help strengthen the evidence base and clarify underlying mechanisms. Taken together, these results reinforce the notion that TM may serve as an effective complementary practice for promoting mental clarity, emotional regulation and physiological balance. Importantly, the marked improvement in reaction time underscores its potential utility for individuals, such as athletes or professionals, who require heightened focus and rapid response in time-critical tasks.

Authors' contributions

Prafull K conceptualized and designed the study, analyzed data and drafted the manuscript. Vandana Daulatabad contributed to data collection and analysis, manuscript draft and revision. Estelle and Naveen: contributed to data collection, manuscript editing, provided figures and critical inputs. Afna and Anala: data collection, data analysis. Ravi, Payal: co-ordination for intervention, data collection, maintainance of records, attendance and participant follow-up. Nitin John: final approval of manucript and guidance. Hemant Bhargav: guidance and critical appraisal of manucript. Neeraja: TM intervention.

Ethical statement

The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) approval vide letter: AIIMS/BBN/IEC/AUG/2024/548-R.

Financial support

none declared.

Conflicts of interest

none declared.