Academic procrastination as a mediator linking fear of missing out and social phobia to smartphone addiction among university students: a structural model

Abstract

Background

Smartphone addiction is increasing among university students, yet the psychological and behavioral mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain insufficiently understood. Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and social phobia are known predictors of problematic smartphone use, but the role of academic procrastination as a mediating mechanism has not been fully explored, particularly in Jordanian populations.

Objective

This study examined the mediating role of academic procrastination in linking FoMO and social phobia to smartphone addiction among Jordanian university students.

Methods

A sample of 809 students (72.2% female; ages 19–22) completed validated versions of the FoMO Scale, Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN), Academic Procrastination Scale, and Smartphone Addiction Scale. All instruments demonstrated strong internal consistency (α = 0.809–0.958). Structural modeling using parallel multiple mediation analysis was employed to test direct and indirect effects.

Results

The results showed that academic procrastination was the strongest direct predictor of smartphone addiction (β = 0.54, p < .001). FoMO (β = 0.24, p < .001) and social phobia (β = 0.06, p < .05) also showed significant direct effects. Academic procrastination significantly mediated the effects of FoMO (β = 0.1968, p < .001) and social phobia (β = 0.0564, p = .002) on smartphone addiction. Total effects indicated that FoMO had the strongest overall influence (β = 0.4373). The structural model explained 48.3% of the variance in smartphone addiction.

Conclusion

Findings identify academic procrastination as the key behavioral mechanism linking FoMO and social phobia to smartphone addiction among Jordanian university students. Interventions addressing procrastination and FoMO may reduce the risk of problematic smartphone use.

Introduction

At the beginning of 2024, Jordan recorded 10.33 million internet users, corresponding to an internet penetration rate of 91.0%. In parallel, there were 9.14 million active cellular connections, representing 80.4% of the population. Smartphones are the primary devices driving this connectivity, as the majority of mobile users rely on smartphones to access the internet and digital services, while mobile broadband subscriptions grew by approximately 4.1%, according to the Telecommunications Regulatory Commission [1, 2]. These trends highlight the central role of smartphones in facilitating digital engagement and the broader adoption of online services across in Jordan.

Smartphones have evolved beyond basic communication tools to multifunctional devices [3]. Over the past decade, smartphones have become deeply embedded in daily routines, transitioning from supplementary devices to essential tools for engaging with the world [4].

However, the ubiquity of smartphones has also introduced significant challenges. In the context of the modern information society, their excessive use has been linked to emerging behavioral concerns, particularly addictive patterns of use [5], often described as smartphone addiction [6].

A growing body of empirical research highlights the negative consequences of smartphone addiction, particularly its detrimental impact on mental health and overall psychological well-being [7]. These findings emphasize the need for further investigation into the psychosocial effects of smartphone overuse, especially among populations with high levels of digital engagement, as is the case in Jordan.

Among the concerns emerging from this digital surge is smartphone addiction a behavioral phenomenon defined by excessive and compulsive smartphone use that leads to psychological, physical, and social impairments [8].

Smartphone addiction has raised alarm due to its adverse effects on mental and physical health, including sleep disturbances, reduced physical activity, and social dysfunction [9]. The accessibility of Social Networking Sites (SNS) via smartphones amplifies these risks, as excessive engagement with social media has been linked to increased psychological distress and addiction-like behaviors [10, 11]. While social media offers opportunities for connection and self-expression, its overuse may result in significant emotional and behavioral challenges.

Many individuals, especially those with pre-existing psychological vulnerabilities stemming from psychosocial interactions, increasingly rely on smartphones to manage emotions and avoid real-life stressors [12].

Smartphones provide a buffer against perceived social threats, allowing them to interact without the immediate fear of judgment. This association has spurred growing research interest in Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD), which is characterized by intense fear of social evaluation and avoidance of social interactions [13, 14]. Social anxiety is one of the most common mental health disorders globally, and its impact is particularly pronounced in academic settings, including schools and universities. Individuals with social anxiety may experience a range of symptoms, from physiological responses such as nausea and palpitations to difficulties in communication and social withdrawal. These symptoms can substantially impair both academic performance and interpersonal functioning [15]. The prevalence of SAD is particularly high among university students, where the pressure to perform socially and academically exacerbates anxiety symptoms [16, 17]. Public speaking, group work, and classroom participation are common academic stressors that can intensify social anxiety, impacting academic performance and overall well-being [18, 19].

As a coping mechanism for anxiety or social phobia, some students may become excessively attached to their smartphones, using them as a perceived safe and reliable means of remaining connected to the outside world. This dependence can give rise to negative emotional responses, including anxiety when separated from the device, a phenomenon commonly referred to as the fear of missing out (FoMO).

First introduced in 2004, FoMO refers to the apprehension that others might be engaging in rewarding experiences from which one is absent [20]. Fueled by constant updates on social media, FoMO manifests in persistent checking of smartphones, social comparison, and compulsive engagement with digital content [21, 22].

FoMO has been linked to negative psychological outcomes, including increased anxiety, loneliness, and low academic performance among university students [23, 24]. The concept has two dimensions: personal FoMO, relating to individual identity, and social FoMO, concerning interpersonal relationships and social validation [25]. Alleviating FoMO involves enhancing perceived social support and addressing basic psychological needs [26].

While digital tools like smartphones and tablets can support academic productivity enabling communication, collaboration, and information access studies show that excessive use can hinder academic performance [27]. Students addicted to smartphones may neglect study time, experience concentration difficulties, and engage in compulsive behaviors such as constant messaging or gaming, which negatively impact their academic success [28]. Research also shows that both male and female students are equally susceptible to smartphone addiction, with high-risk individuals more likely to achieve lower GPA [29].

Another critical consequence of smartphone addiction is academic procrastination, a prevalent issue in higher education. Procrastination is defined as the voluntary delay of important tasks despite foreseeable negative consequences. It is often linked to emotional regulation difficulties and can lead to increased stress, reduced academic performance, and psychological discomfort [30, 31]. The behavior typically follows a dynamic, nonlinear pattern and is influenced by the interplay between one’s current and future self [32, 33].

Procrastination and addiction share behavioral similarities, both involving avoidance and short-term mood repair at the expense of long-term goals [34]. Procrastinators often delay tasks due to fear of failure or emotional overwhelm, experiencing guilt or shame as a result [35]. Without proper intervention, this self-defeating cycle can become chronic, diminishing academic outcomes and well-being [36–38].

Prolonged procrastination has been shown to lower academic achievement and increase psychological distress. Even when students are granted extensions, procrastinators seldom make meaningful academic gains [39]. As such, addressing procrastination in educational settings requires the development of structured interventions aimed at improving self-regulation, emotional resilience, and task engagement [40].

Academic procrastination in university settings is often embedded in broader patterns of emotional vulnerability and maladaptive coping. Deficits in self-regulation and emotional resilience may lead students to rely on technology-based behaviors for short-term relief from academic stress, making individual differences in social and emotional functioning particularly relevant.

Within this framework, social phobia, smartphone addiction, and fear of missing out are distinct yet interconnected constructs. Socially anxious students may avoid face-to-face interactions and turn to smartphones as a more controllable form of social engagement, while fear of missing out amplifies concerns about social exclusion and encourages persistent digital monitoring. Over time, these processes reinforce excessive smartphone use, increasing the risk of smartphone addiction and sustaining cycles of avoidance and emotional dysregulation. This conceptual linkage provides a focused entry point for examining how psychological vulnerability and technology-mediated social processes contribute to maladaptive academic outcomes.

Research problem

Smartphone addiction has emerged as a significant concern among university students, given its well-documented adverse effects on mental health and academic performance. As smartphone use becomes increasingly embedded in students’ daily lives, understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying problematic use has become a pressing research priority. Existing literature consistently identifies academic procrastination as a central predictor of smartphone addiction [41], alongside other psychological vulnerabilities that may intensify maladaptive usage patterns.

Within this framework, Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and social phobia have gained attention as salient risk factors associated with excessive smartphone engagement. These factors may not only exert direct effects on smartphone addiction but may also operate indirectly through maladaptive self-regulatory behaviors such as academic procrastination. However, the structural pathways linking these variables remain insufficiently clarified.

Students with social phobia, for instance, tend to avoid face-to-face social interactions and instead rely on digital communication, which increases their dependence on smartphones [42, 43]. When combined with FoMO-driven concerns about social exclusion and ongoing online monitoring, these tendencies may foster procrastinator behaviors that further reinforce problematic smartphone use.

Despite growing interest in FoMO and social phobia, limited attention has been directed toward examining academic procrastination as a mediating mechanism through which these factors contribute to smartphone addiction. Moreover, research investigating these relationships within non-Western contexts, including Jordan. To address these gaps, the present study tests a structural model that conceptualizes academic procrastination as a mediator linking FoMO and social phobia to smartphone addiction among university students.

Consequently, the present study is structured to systematically address the following research questions, which underpin the investigation’s theoretical framework:

Research questions

Research question 1

To what extent do Fear of Missing Out (MFears), Social Phobia (Mphobia), and Academic Procrastination (MAPS) exert statistically significant direct effects on Mobile Addiction (Mpho)?

Research question 2

To what extent do Fear of Missing Out (MFears) and Social Phobia (Mphobia) influence Mobile Addiction (Mpho) indirectly through the mediator Academic Procrastination (MAPS)?

Social phobia and smartphone addiction

Social phobia, also known as social anxiety disorder (SAD), is a serious and debilitating condition that significantly impairs social functioning and is among the most common anxiety disorders among individuals seeking psychological help [18]. It is characterized by a persistent and intense fear of social situations due to the possibility of embarrassment or negative evaluation [44, 45], often manifesting during activities such as public speaking, social gatherings, or meeting unfamiliar people.

This fear frequently disrupts daily functioning and may arise in performance-related settings, including eating or speaking in public [13, 14]. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association) [46], formally recognize this disorder as SAD [47]. The condition, particularly when it emerges during adolescence or early adulthood, can negatively affect both academic and social development. University students represent a key population for early diagnosis and intervention to support academic success and encourage help-seeking behavior [48].

Among university students, the prevalence of social phobia ranges from 7.8% to 80%, with frequent symptoms including fear of class presentations, group discussions, and active participation—factors that hinder academic performance and social functioning [45, 49]. SAD may also co-occur with other psychological conditions, compounding its impact [50]. Despite this burden, research on the direct academic consequences of SAD remains limited.

SAD is more frequently reported among female students and is associated with diminished quality of life and heightened psychological distress [16]. Affected individuals often delay or avoid treatment, more so than those with other anxiety or mood disorders [47]. These patterns highlight the importance of awareness initiatives and accessible mental health services on university campuses [51].

Avoidance behavior—a core feature of SAD—frequently results in reliance on indirect forms of communication, including smartphones and social media. These coping strategies, intended to minimize face-to-face interaction, may lead to excessive smartphone use and increase the risk of developing smartphone addiction [52, 53]. Smartphones offer a socially comfortable medium for interaction [54] and are particularly attractive to individuals with social anxiety [55]. These platforms fulfill social needs while minimizing direct contact, contributing to problematic digital behaviors [56, 57].

Although not yet formally recognized in the DSM-5 or ICD-10, smartphone addiction is characterized by impaired control and significant psychological, academic, and social consequences [58, 59]. This behavioral pattern includes compulsive use that interferes with daily functioning [9]. University students are especially vulnerable, given their widespread access to and dependence on digital content such as social media, gaming, and video streaming [60–62].

The consequences of smartphone addiction include increased anxiety, depression, cognitive impairment, and academic decline [28, 63, 64]. While smartphones support communication and academic tasks, their overuse presents growing challenges, necessitating sustained research and intervention efforts [65, 66].

Emerging research suggests that SAD may not only increase smartphone dependence but may also indirectly lead to academic procrastination. Students with SAD often avoid academic tasks to reduce the risk of evaluation or exposure, turning instead to online distractions. This behavioral pattern may represent a potential mediating pathway between social phobia and smartphone addiction, consistent with the structural model proposed in this study.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and smartphone addiction

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), defined as a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent [67], has emerged as a critical psychological construct explaining excessive and problematic smartphone use among university students. With smartphones providing constant access to social updates, FoMO can become a persistent cognitive driver that fuels compulsive digital behavior, particularly in young adults navigating social identity and belonging [68].

Multiple studies have established a robust association between FoMO and smartphone addiction. For instance [69], found that FoMO significantly predicted mobile phone addiction in Chinese university students, partly through its impact on emotional distress [58]. further argued that FoMO amplifies users’ need to stay constantly connected, which in turn increases smartphone dependence, particularly through social networking and messaging platforms. These findings suggest that individuals high in FoMO may use their smartphones compulsively to maintain social inclusion and alleviate anxiety related to disconnection.

In cross-cultural contexts, fear of missing out (FoMO) has consistently been linked to excessive smartphone use and related problematic behaviors [70]. demonstrated that higher levels of FoMO among Turkish university students were associated with increased smartphone overuse and phubbing, a behavior in which individuals prioritize digital interactions over face-to-face communication. Similarly [71], examined undergraduate students and found that phubbing behavior is influenced by multiple factors, including social media addiction, FoMO, and personality traits. Bivariate correlations indicated significant positive associations between both social media addiction and FoMO with phubbing, while personality traits were negatively correlated. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that social media addiction had the strongest predictive power for phubbing, with FoMO exerting a smaller, yet significant, influence. These findings suggest that FoMO functions as a cross-cultural psychosocial vulnerability, contributing to maladaptive technology use and impaired real-world social interactions in digitally connected populations.

Importantly, the mechanism linking FoMO to smartphone addiction may involve emotional dysregulation and maladaptive coping. Individuals experiencing FoMO often turn to smartphones for reassurance, distraction, or connection, reinforcing usage through negative reinforcement loops [72]. In academic contexts, this may be especially pronounced, as students shift attention from academic responsibilities to continuous online engagement in fear of social exclusion.

Taken together, the literature supports the view that FoMO is a potent cognitive-emotional factor underlying smartphone addiction. Its effects are likely to be particularly salient in university populations, where social comparison, peer connection, and online identity formation are intensified. In the context of the current study, FoMO is thus conceptualized as a key psychological predictor of smartphone addiction, potentially operating both directly and indirectly through academic procrastination.

Academic procrastination and smartphone addiction

Academic procrastination—defined as the intentional delay of academic tasks despite foreseeable negative consequences—is increasingly recognized as a serious concern among university students. A growing body of literature suggests a strong link between smartphone addiction and academic procrastination, positioning procrastination both as a consequence of problematic smartphone use and as a behavioral mechanism that exacerbates academic difficulties.

Zhao et al. [73] investigated Chinese university students and found that higher levels of smartphone addiction were associated with increased academic procrastination. This effect was primarily explained by diminished self-regulation: students who were more addicted to their phones had poorer self-control and lower academic self-efficacy, making them more prone to delaying academic tasks. The findings suggest that smartphone addiction can impair students’ discipline and confidence, leading to avoidance behaviors in academic contexts.

Similarly [74], in a study published in Psychology Research and Behavior Management, reported a positive association between smartphone addiction and academic procrastination in undergraduates. Time management and study strategies mediated this relationship. Students who scored higher in smartphone addiction demonstrated weaker planning and learning behaviors, which in turn elevated their tendency to procrastinate. This highlights poor time regulation as a key mechanism through which excessive smartphone use fosters procrastination.

Tian et al. [75], focusing on Chinese medical students in Frontiers in Psychology, observed that smartphone addiction and academic procrastination frequently co-occur and jointly impair academic performance. Students exhibiting both behaviors reported significantly lower academic achievement. These results suggest a cyclical pattern, where excessive phone use and procrastination reinforce one another, further undermining academic outcomes.

Jin et al. [76], writing in Behavioral Sciences, identified that smartphone-related distractions contribute to academic procrastination, which in turn increases students’ academic anxiety. This indirect pathway illustrates how constant smartphone engagement can delay academic work, lead to rushed efforts, and elevate stress. Over time, this pattern may encourage reliance on smartphones as a means of avoidance, reinforcing a feedback loop of distraction, procrastination, and increased dependence.

In the Arab context, including Jordan [77], a cross-sectional study of university students examined smartphone addiction, academic procrastination, and quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic. Published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, the study found that smartphone addiction was positively associated with academic procrastination and negatively associated with quality of life, with both factors contributing to the prediction of problematic smartphone use. These results underscore the interrelationship between smartphone addiction, academic procrastination, and life quality among university students.

Academic procrastination as a mediator

Bringing the threads together, recent studies propose that academic procrastination plays a mediating role between psychological traits—specifically social anxiety and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)—and smartphone addiction. Both social anxiety and FoMO can independently drive students toward excessive smartphone use, but a significant part of their effect appears to operate through procrastinatory behaviors.

Socially anxious students frequently postpone academic tasks (e.g., class participation, starting assignments) due to fear of negative evaluation or failure. This creates idle time and emotional discomfort, which many attempt to alleviate by turning to digital devices [78]. found that students with greater fear of negative evaluation tended to procrastinate more, and this procrastination was associated with increased smartphone use as an “escape route” from anxiety. Similarly [79], demonstrated that academic procrastination fully mediated the relationship between social anxiety and internet addiction in adolescents, underscoring its central role.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) contributes to a similar procrastination–addiction pathway. Students high in FoMO feel compelled to check social media and remain constantly connected, often at the expense of academic engagement. This digital hyper-engagement contributes to distraction and avoidance of coursework—hallmarks of procrastination [57]. McKee et al.[80] found that FoMO predicted increased academic procrastination and excessive social media use. The authors argue that FoMO undermines students’ self-regulation, causing them to prioritize online interactions over academic duties.

Manap et al. [81] provided explicit evidence for this mechanism. Their study found that procrastination mediated the relationship between FoMO and internet addiction. Students high in FoMO were more likely to delay academic tasks, and this avoidance behavior contributed to problematic smartphone use. These findings support a sequential model wherein FoMO fuels procrastination, which in turn increases the risk of addiction.

Further evidence from [78] supports this integrated mediation framework. Using multiple mediation analysis, the study demonstrated that social anxiety predicted smartphone addiction through a combined pathway involving FoMO and academic procrastination. Students with greater social anxiety also had higher FoMO, which led to more procrastination, ultimately increasing mobile phone addiction scores.

Collectively, these findings highlight academic procrastination as a key behavioral mechanism linking psychological vulnerabilities, such as social anxiety and fear of missing out (FoMO), to excessive technology use. Nonetheless, it remains critical to examine the direction and magnitude of these relationships within the Jordanian context. The evidence suggests that the influence of social anxiety and FoMO on smartphone addiction is not direct but operates through the postponement of academic responsibilities and heightened digital distraction. From an intervention perspective, targeting procrastination may disrupt this pathway. Enhancing students’ time management, emotional regulation, and academic engagement skills could reduce their susceptibility to smartphone addiction driven by anxiety or social comparison pressures.

Summary and conceptual alignment

The body of literature reviewed consistently supports the proposed conceptual framework that academic procrastination mediates the relationship between Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), social phobia, and smartphone addiction among university students. Social phobia, characterized by avoidance of evaluative or performance-based settings, often results in academic delays and reduced engagement. These avoidance behaviors are frequently redirected toward smartphone use as a coping mechanism, reinforcing problematic digital reliance.

Similarly, FoMO drives compulsive checking behaviors and digital hyper-engagement, especially via social media platforms. Students experiencing FoMO prioritize online interactions over academic obligations, often postponing essential tasks. This behavioral delay, or academic procrastination, bridges the psychological discomfort caused by FoMO and its manifestation in excessive smartphone use.

Empirical evidence supports this mediation model. Studies show that both social anxiety and FoMO are independently associated with higher levels of smartphone addiction, and that academic procrastination intensifies this effect. Research by [78, 79, 81] provide direct support for the mediating role of procrastination, confirming that it serves as the behavioral conduit through which psychosocial vulnerabilities like FoMO and social anxiety contribute to digital addiction.

Re-examining an already established mediation model is necessary, particularly in the absence of a clearly stated contextual (e.g., Jordanian or Arab) contribution. Investigating this model within the Jordanian context allows for the assessment of its generalizability and cultural relevance, addressing potential variations in behavioral patterns and psychosocial dynamics across populations.

Thus, the integration of academic procrastination as a mediator not only aligns with the literature but also provides a more nuanced understanding of how internal psychological states are behaviorally enacted, culminating in smartphone addiction. This alignment justifies the current study’s focus and its relevance in developing targeted academic and psychological interventions for at-risk student populations.

Methods

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test a theory-driven parallel multiple mediation model, allowing simultaneous estimation of direct and indirect relationships among latent constructs while accounting for measurement error [82, 83]. This approach enabled evaluation of both psychological predictors and behavioral mechanisms within a single integrated framework.

Specifically, the model examined the direct effects of Fear of Missing Out (MFears) and Social Phobia (Mphobia) on Mobile Addiction (Mpho), as well as their indirect effects through Academic Procrastination (MAPS). Both MFears and Mphobia were specified as exogenous latent variables, MAPS as a mediating latent construct, and Mpho as the endogenous outcome variable. All constructs were treated as continuous.

The structural model reflects the theoretical assumption that psychological vulnerability factors contribute to problematic smartphone use both directly and indirectly via maladaptive behavioral regulation, operationalized here as academic procrastination. This framework permits simultaneous estimation of direct, indirect, and total effects, clarifying the unique and shared pathways linking emotional vulnerability, behavioral disengagement, and mobile addiction.

Participants

Sampling strategy

A non-probability sampling strategy, specifically convenience sampling, was employed in this study due to its practical suitability for the study objectives and contextual constraints. Participants were undergraduate students recruited from The Hashemite University through institutional announcements and online survey distribution. They provided demographic information and completed measures of Fear of Missing Out (FoMO), smartphone addiction, social phobia, and academic procrastination. Convenience sampling is commonly used in behavioral and educational research involving university populations and is considered appropriate for theory-driven models that focus on testing structural relationships rather than estimating population parameters.

To reduce potential biases associated with non-probability sampling, efforts were made to enhance sample heterogeneity by recruiting both male and female students across multiple academic disciplines and year levels. Increasing diversity in these characteristics strengthens the robustness of the estimated structural relationships and supports internal validity. Nevertheless, the use of convenience sampling limits the generalizability of the findings beyond the sampled population, and the results should therefore be interpreted with caution when extending conclusions to broader student populations.

Students’ characteristics

The sample included a total of 809 participants. In terms of gender distribution, 27.8% (n = 225) of the participants identified as male, while 72.2% (n = 584) identified as female. Regarding Academic Discipline, 42.8% (n = 346) were enrolled in Humanities, and 57.2% (n = 463) were enrolled in Sciences. The students’ ages ranged from 19 to 22 years. As for academic level, 6.7% (n = 54) of the participants were classified as first-year, 29.7% (n = 240) as second-year, 44.4% (n = 359) as third-year, and 19.3% (n = 156) as fourth-year. For a detailed breakdown of the sample based on these variables, refer to Table 1.

Table 1.

Frequencies and percentages for gender, college, and academic level

Category	Value	Counts	% of Total	Cumulative %
Sex	Male	225	27.80	27.80
	Female	584	72.20	100.00
Academic Discipline	Humanities	346	42.80	42.80
	Sciences	463	57.20	100.00
Academic Level	First-year	54	6.70	6.70
	Second-year	240	29.70	36.30
	Third-year	359	44.40	80.70
	Fourth-year	156	19.30	100.00

Measures

Demographic characteristics

Information regarding participants’ gender, Academic Discipline, Academic Level, was gathered on the initial page of the data collection booklet.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) scale

The FoMO scale used in this study, originally developed by [67] and tested in Arabic by [84], consists of 10 items rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all applies to me, 5 = Strongly applies to me). The Arabic version demonstrated strong internal consistency and acceptable concurrent validity, evidenced by significant positive correlations with the theoretically related construct of social media addiction. A two-factor structure was identified, with both factors positively and significantly correlated with all three SMAS factors (r = .103–0.419, p < .001), indicating a meaningful association between fear of missing out and social media addiction. Overall, the scale’s Cronbach’s alpha values exceeded 0.70, supporting its reliability and psychometric suitability for use in Arabic-speaking research populations.

Academic procrastination scale

Abu Ghazal [85] developed the Academic Procrastination Scale, specifically tailored for the Jordanian context. The scale consists of 21 items rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = applies to me to a very low degree; 5 = applies to me to a very large degree), with higher scores reflecting greater levels of academic procrastination. Reverse scoring was applied to items 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 12, and 17 to align them with the scale’s direction. To examine the dimensional structure, the author conducted factor analysis using the principal components method. The scale demonstrated good internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85), supporting its suitability for research purposes.

Smartphone addiction scale

The Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) [86] consists of 31 items, each rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = Very low, 5 = Very high). The factorial structure and psychometric properties of the Jordanian Arabic version were examined. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicated a five-factor structure, encompassing phone use, mood modification, withdrawal, negative consequences, and tolerance. The scale demonstrated high reliability, with item-total correlations ranging from 0.37 to 0.75, confirming that each item contributed meaningfully to the total score. Furthermore, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.87, indicating high internal consistency. The scale’s construct and content validity were established, and it was deemed suitable for assessing mobile phone addiction in Jordanian populations.

Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)

The Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN; [87]) consists of 17 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). The SPIN demonstrated in the original version strong psychometric properties, including good test–retest reliability, internal consistency, and convergent and divergent validity. Internal consistency, assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.94 for the total scale, while subscale reliability coefficients ranged from 0.68 to 0.81 across the fear, avoidance, and physiological discomfort subscales. Test–retest reliability was also high, with Spearman correlation coefficients of 0.89 and 0.78 in clinically stable subgroups (p < .001), indicating good temporal stability. Overall, these findings support the SPIN as a reliable and valid instrument for assessing the severity of social phobia in both clinical and research settings.

To ensure the psychometric adequacy of the instrument for use in the Jordanian context, a reverse translation procedure was conducted by bilingual experts fluent in Arabic and English to maintain conceptual and linguistic equivalence with the original version. Construct and content validity were evaluated by a panel of four academic experts in counseling psychology, clinical psychology, and psychometrics, who assessed the relevance, clarity, and appropriateness of each item. The panel reached unanimous agreement that all items were consistent with the content and intent of the original scale.

Furthermore, to establish the psychometric adequacy of the all instruments for the Jordanian context, the validity and reliability of the scales were examined. Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha with an independent pilot sample of 35 university students, yielding excellent reliability for the overall scales. The reliability and internal validity statistics are presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Reliability and internal validity statistics for all scales on a pilot sample

Scale	Alpha	Mean ITC
Fear of Missing Out (MFears)	0.809	0.500
Social Phobia (Mphobia)	0.901	0.567
Academic Procrastination (MAPS)	0.958	0.714
Mobile Addiction (Mpho)	0.951	0.606

Scales validity and reliability

To assess the validity and reliability of the scales used in this study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated to determine internal consistency reliability, and item-total correlations were examined to evaluate the internal structure validity of the scales. The reliability and internal validity statistics for each scale are summarized in Table 2.

As presented in Table 2, all scales demonstrated acceptable to excellent internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.809 to 0.958. The mean item-total correlations support the internal validity of each instrument, confirming their suitability for assessing fear of missing out, social phobia, academic procrastination, and mobile addiction in the current sample.

Procedure

All ethical guidelines were followed during the data collection process. Approval for the study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at the university of the first author. Participation was voluntary, and all participants provided informed consent prior to involvement in the study. Data were collected between February 2025 and June 2025. Participants completed a self-administered questionnaire that included demographic questions and a set of validated of the relevant psychological scales.

Sample size determination

The sample size was determined based on methodological recommendations for studies employing structural equation modeling (SEM). SEM requires relatively large samples to ensure stable parameter estimates, adequate statistical power, and reliable model fit indices. Previous methodological literature suggests a minimum ratio of 10–20 participants per estimated parameter or an absolute minimum sample size ranging from 200 to 400 for complex SEM models [82, 88].

The final sample of 809 Jordanian university students exceeds recommended thresholds for SEM and mediation analysis, providing sufficient power and enhancing the stability and generalizability of the findings.

Results

Descriptive and correlations

Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics for all study variables. Among the four constructs examined.

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics for fear of missing out, social phobia, academic procrastination, and mobile addiction

	N	Missing	Mean	Median	SD	Minimum	Maximum
MFears	809	0	2.98	3.00	0.696	1.00	5.00
Mphobia	809	0	2.39	2.29	0.777	1.00	4.65
MAPS	809	0	3.14	3.10	0.870	1.00	5.00
Mpho	809	0	2.80	2.84	0.759	1.00	5.00

The descriptive statistics indicate that Academic Procrastination (MAPS) exhibited the highest mean score (M = 3.14, SD = 0.870), followed by Fear of Missing Out (MFears) (M = 2.98, SD = 0.696) and Mobile Addiction (Mpho) (M = 2.80, SD = 0.759). Social Phobia (Mphobia) yielded the lowest mean score (M = 2.39, SD = 0.777). The standard deviation values reflect a moderate level of variability within each variable. Furthermore, the dataset was free of missing values, enhancing the reliability and completeness of the descriptive analysis. To examine the associations between the study variables, a correlation matrix of the primary measures is presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Correlations among fear of missing out, social phobia, academic procrastination, and mobile addiction

	MFears	Mphobia	MAPS	Mpho
MFears	—
Mphobia	0.344***	—
MAPS	0.401***	0.230***	—
Mpho	0.478***	0.269***	0.650***	—

* p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

The results indicate significant positive correlations among all variables. Fear of Missing Out (MFears) showed a moderate positive correlation with Social Phobia (Mphobia) (r = .344, p < .001), Academic Procrastination (MAPS) (r = .401, p < .001), and Mobile Addiction (Mpho) (r = .478, p < .001). Mobile Addiction (Mpho) was strongly correlated with Academic Procrastination (MAPS) (r = .650, p < .001), suggesting a close relationship between these two constructs. All correlations were statistically significant at the p < .001 level.

Research questions result

A parallel multiple mediation analysis was conducted to examine the direct and indirect effects of Fear of Missing Out (MFears) and Social Phobia (Mphobia) on Mobile Addiction (Mpho), with Academic Procrastination (MAPS) as the mediating variable. This approach enabled simultaneous testing of two predictors (MFears and Mphobia), one mediator (MAPS), and a single outcome variable (Mpho), all treated as continuous. Model fit indices demonstrated acceptable explanatory power. The mediator model accounted for 17.0% of the variance in MAPS, while the dependent model (Mpho) accounted for 24.1% of the variance. When both predictors and the mediator were entered together, the full model explained 48.3% of the variance in Mobile Addiction, indicating a robust model structure (see Table 5).

Table 5.

Standardized regression coefficients for direct effects on mobile addiction (Mpho)

Predictor Variable	Estimate	SE	β	t	p
MFears → Mpho	0.262	0.031	0.240	8.36	< 0.001 ***
Mphobia → Mpho	0.060	0.026	0.062	2.29	< 0.05 *
MAPS → Mpho	0.471	0.024	0.539	19.45	< 0.001 ***

SE Standard Error, β Standardized Coefficient

p < .05 (), p < .001 (**)

Research question 1

To what extent do Fear of Missing Out (MFears), Social Phobia (Mphobia), and Academic Procrastination (MAPS) exert statistically significant direct effects on Mobile Addiction (Mpho)?

The first step of the analysis aimed to examine the direct predictive relationships between MFears, Mphobia, and MAPS on Mobile Addiction (Mpho). As shown in Table 1, all three predictors demonstrated statistically significant direct effects on Mpho.

Academic Procrastination (MAPS) emerged as the strongest predictor (β = 0.54, p < .001), suggesting that students who habitually delay academic responsibilities are more likely to report higher levels of mobile addiction. Fear of Missing Out (MFears) also showed a significant positive relationship with Mpho (β = 0.24, p < .001), indicating that students with a higher tendency to fear social exclusion or missing experiences are more inclined to exhibit compulsive smartphone use. Although smaller in magnitude, Social Phobia (Mphobia) still contributed significantly to Mpho (β = 0.06, p < .05), demonstrating that socially anxious students may also rely on mobile devices as an avoidance or coping mechanism. These findings support the theoretical model proposing direct pathways from both psychological traits and behavioral habits to mobile addiction.

The direct effects of the study variables on mobile addiction (Mpho) are presented in Table 5.

These direct effect results highlight the critical role of academic procrastination as the primary behavioral predictor of mobile addiction, even when controlling for key psychological factors like FoMO and social phobia. The statistical strength of this relationship (β = 0.54) underscores the importance of addressing procrastinatory behaviors in interventions aimed at reducing mobile dependency among university students.

Research question 2

To what extent do Fear of Missing Out (MFears) and Social Phobia (Mphobia) influence Mobile Addiction (Mpho) indirectly through the mediator Academic Procrastination (MAPS)?

To evaluate whether academic procrastination mediates the relationship between MFears, Mphobia, and Mpho, a parallel multiple mediation analysis was conducted. The model tested the indirect effects of each predictor via the mediating variable MAPS while controlling for their direct paths to mobile addiction.

As presented in Table 6, both MFears and Mphobia exhibited statistically significant indirect effects on Mpho through MAPS. Specifically, the indirect effect of MFears was substantial (β = 0.196, p < .001), indicating that students experiencing greater fear of missing out were more likely to procrastinate on academic tasks, which in turn significantly increased their levels of mobile addiction. Similarly, Mphobia showed a smaller but still significant indirect effect via MAPS (β = 0.0564, p = .002), suggesting that socially anxious students tend to avoid academic demands, which contributes to problematic smartphone use.

Table 6.

Indirect and total effects of MFears and Mphobia on Mobile Addiction (Mpho) through Academic Procrastination (MAPS)

Pathway	Type	Estimate	SE	β	z	p
MFears → MAPS → Mpho	Indirect	0.214	0.022	0.196	9.37	< 0.001 ***
Mphobia → MAPS → Mpho	Indirect	0.055	0.018	0.056	3.03	= 0.002 **
MFears → Mpho (Total Effect)	Total	0.477	0.035	0.437	13.40	< 0.001 ***
Mphobia → Mpho (Total Effect)	Total	0.115	0.031	0.118	3.63	< 0.001 ***

SE Standard Error, β Standardized Coefficient

p < .01 (), p < .001 (*)

These findings reinforce the theoretical model proposing procrastination as a behavioral conduit through which underlying emotional vulnerabilities translate into technology dependence. Notably, the indirect pathway from MFears was more robust than that of Mphobia, emphasizing FoMO’s stronger influence in this mediation process.

The indirect and total effects among the study variables are presented in Table 6.

These results confirm that Academic Procrastination functions as a significant mediating mechanism linking both Fear of Missing Out and Social Phobia to Mobile Addiction. The full model explained 48.3% of the variance in Mpho, underscoring the mediator’s central role in shaping the pathway from emotional traits to digital behavioral outcomes. Figure 1 depicts the proposed mediating relationship explored in this study, offering a concise visual representation of the structural model and the interconnections among the constructs.

Fig. 1.

The sequential mediation model. Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001

Discussion

In line with our hypothesis, academic procrastination emerged as the strongest direct predictor of smartphone addiction and significantly mediated the effects of FoMO and social phobia on this behavior.

Although previous research has highlighted smartphone addiction, the psychological mechanisms explaining its development remain underexplored. Many studies focus on direct correlations, often overlooking mediating variables that clarify how behavioral outcomes occur. Academic procrastination, as an intermediary factor, may help explain the sequential process through which FoMO and social phobia contribute to smartphone overuse.

Much of the existing literature on FoMO, social anxiety, and smartphone addiction is grounded in global or Western contexts, which may not fully capture the sociocultural dynamics shaping these relationships in Jordan. Jordanian society is characterized by collectivist values, strong family expectations, and social norms that emphasize academic achievement and social reputation. These factors may intensify experiences of FoMO and social anxiety, thereby increasing reliance on smartphones as a coping or avoidance strategy. Empirical evidence from Jordan supports this culturally specific pattern. Family-based social support has been shown to play a protective role by reducing both smartphone addiction and social anxiety among Jordanian individuals [89]. Similarly, FoMO related to social media use has been found to be significantly associated with self-esteem levels in Jordanian samples, suggesting that psychological vulnerability contributes to maladaptive technology use [90]. At the behavioral level, smartphone addiction has been linked to increased social isolation among Jordanians, further reinforcing negative psychosocial outcomes [91]. Moreover, studies indicate that Jordanian university students report high levels of smartphone addiction, which are associated with adverse mental health consequences, including psychological distress and reduced well-being [92, 93]. In light of these findings, the present study tested a mediation model in which academic procrastination explains the direct effects of FoMO and social phobia on smartphone addiction. By situating this model within the Jordanian context, the study provides a more culturally grounded understanding of the psychosocial pathways underlying smartphone overuse and offers implications for culturally sensitive interventions aimed at improving student mental health and academic performance. These findings indicate that, although procrastination is a robust predictor, its influence may vary across cultural and age-related contexts [94, 95]. In context the mediation, academic procrastination shows a positive association with smartphone addiction. This result is consistent with multiple studies [77, 79, 96, 97], which collectively highlight a significant positive correlation between smartphone addiction and procrastination. Smartphone addiction has been found to considerably impair students’ academic performance [96]. Path analysis further indicates that problematic smartphone use serves as an important indicator of academic procrastination, suggesting that excessive smartphone engagement disrupts students’ academic progress [98]. Moreover, the risk of smartphone addiction among university students is correlated with perceived stress and negatively related to academic achievement [7, 28].

It is evident that college students face numerous risk factors for smartphone addiction [29, 60]. Excessive smartphone use has been associated not only with academic procrastination but also with mental health challenges, including depression, anxiety, and stress [97]. Smartphone addiction can affect multiple domains of students’ lives, such as mental well-being, campus engagement, and personal relationships [63]. Key dimensions identified among university populations include excessive use, technological dependence, psychosocial consequences, preoccupation with smartphones, and negative health outcomes [99]. Importantly, research indicates that students addicted to smartphones frequently experience interruptions from other apps while studying, undermining their ability to sustain attention and regulate learning processes [100]. These patterns indicate deficits in self-regulated learning, which undermine study flow, academic efficiency, and overall academic performance. Accordingly, interventions for smartphone addiction should go beyond usage restrictions, focusing on enhancing self-regulation, reducing distractions, and supporting students’ mental health and academic outcomes.

From a theoretical standpoint, smartphone addiction is commonly explained through behavioral addiction frameworks, which posit that compulsive technology use arises from unmet psychological needs related to social connectedness and emotional regulation. These models are supported by empirical findings showing that psychological variables associated with social anxiety and cognitive preoccupation explain substantial variance in problematic smartphone use among university students. These findings imply that interventions aimed at reducing smartphone addiction should not focus solely on limiting device access but also on addressing underlying motivational and emotional drivers. In this context, Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) emerges as a central construct, as it reflects persistent concerns about social exclusion and lost opportunities that motivate excessive smartphone engagement and reinforce addictive use patterns. Recognizing FoMO as both a predictor and potential target for intervention highlights its practical relevance for educators, counselors, and policymakers seeking to enhance students’ self-regulated learning and academic performance.

Given the increasing prevalence of FoMO among university students and its documented psychological consequences, such as heightened anxiety, decreased well-being, and compulsive technology use, a more nuanced understanding of its effects is crucial.

FoMO shows a positive association with smartphone addiction among university students. Previous research consistently concludes that FoMO acts as a significant driver of increased social media use, leading individuals to engage more frequently and intensely with their devices. This heightened engagement often contributes to problematic smartphone behaviors and addiction. In the context of academic environments, FoMO can disrupt students’ focus and engagement during lectures. Students may experience difficulty resisting the urge to check their smartphones during class, fearing that they might miss out on important social media updates [101]. Furthermore, FoMO’s association with neuroticism has been shown to influence smartphone use, with studies indicating that FoMO traits and neuroticism indirectly promote smartphone use through FoMO [102]. The presence of FoMO is also connected to negative life outcomes, such as lower self-esteem and loneliness, particularly among individuals who engage heavily with social media [103].

This result is in line with previous research. According to the “structural equation model,” it shows that fear of missing out significantly influences smartphone addiction. Fear of missing out in social settings significantly influences interaction anxiety, and interaction anxiety significantly influences smartphone addiction [104]. research has highlighted the predictive role of Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) in relation to problematic technology use—particularly smartphone addiction [4, 105].

FoMO has negative psychological consequences at the individual level, such as compulsive social media use, as well as negative behavioral outcomes, including decreased work performance and procrastination [57]. This finding aligns with the results of [106], which highlighted the significant effects of the strong link between fear of missing out (FoMO) and academic procrastination, leading university students to experience fatigue and exhaustion.

However, this result differs in terms of FoMO’s role as a mediating variable. Path analysis in a study exploring the potential links between university students’ academic motivation, FoMO, and social media engagement in academic settings confirmed the hypothesis that externally motivated students are more likely to use social media tools available in the classroom. However, when these relationships were mediated by FoMO, no significant direct links were found between the aforementioned academic motivations and social factors [107].

This finding is consistent with a study employing structural equation modeling, which indicated that procrastination mediates the relationship between social impulsivity and problematic social media use. Furthermore, FoMO mediated the effects of both maximization and procrastination [108].

Similarly, path analysis supports the mediating role of FoMO in both university life maladaptation and social media engagement [109]. Moreover, FoMO significantly mediates the relationship between depression and smartphone use intensity [110].

Given that smartphone addiction can harm students’ academic performance, healthcare professionals should aim to reduce students’ feelings of loneliness and enhance their academic performance by implementing practical strategies to help them manage their time and control their smartphone use [24]. The presence of smartphones among university students negatively affects cognitive functioning, with a stronger impact observed among individuals with higher levels of FoMO [5].

Additionally, FoMO and problematic smartphone use among university students mediate the relationship between social support through online networking sites and addiction to these platforms [11].

Furthermore, Excessive smartphone use driven by FoMO—which reflects anxiety about missing social experiences—can reduce face-to-face interactions, potentially hindering students’ personal growth and social development. This pattern may create a reinforcing cycle. Additionally, persistent fear of negative evaluation in social situations can contribute to social phobia. Together, these factors may strengthen maladaptive smartphone behaviors, as individuals increasingly rely on digital platforms to maintain social connections and manage social anxiety.

Social phobia, which frequently manifests as intense fear of public speaking or giving classroom presentations [45], further exacerbates these behaviors. Students with social anxiety often perceive their fears as detrimental to academic performance [51] and may avoid evaluative situations such as presentations or group discussions. This avoidance commonly contributes to academic procrastination, particularly in tasks requiring peer or instructor evaluation.

The results of the current study further indicate that social phobia may serve as a foundational factor contributing to addictive smartphone behaviors. This finding is consistent with prior research demonstrating that smartphone addiction significantly impacts students’ mental health, campus engagement, and personal relationships [63]. Negative emotional states, including anxiety and depression, have consistently been identified as key predictors of smartphone addiction among university students [64, 111, 112]. For individuals experiencing social anxiety, social media functions as a double-edged sword: it offers opportunities for connection and interaction, yet simultaneously amplifies feelings of inadequacy and exclusion. This paradox often heightens Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and increases anxiety, as users engage in social comparisons and become more aware of social situations from which they feel disconnected [25]. Consequently, social media use can both alleviate and exacerbate social anxiety, creating a complex dynamic in which compulsive engagement reinforces negative emotions. Empirical evidence further links this cycle of comparison and dissatisfaction to poor mental health outcomes, including anxiety, depression, and isolation, highlighting the negative psychological consequences of FoMO [113].

These findings imply that interventions aimed at reducing smartphone addiction should address not only device usage but also underlying emotional and social vulnerabilities. Targeted strategies could include coping skills training, anxiety management, and structured academic support to reduce procrastination and improve both psychological well-being and academic performance.

Limitations and future directions

This study has several limitations that future research should address.

First, reliance on self-report measures may introduce bias. Future studies should combine self-reports with objective data sources, such as smartphone usage logs or third-party observations, to improve measurement accuracy.

Second, the cross-sectional design limits the ability to draw causal inferences. Longitudinal or experimental research is necessary to verify the temporal and causal relationships within the proposed mediation model.

Third, the sample included only university students aged 19–22, limiting generalizability, as smartphone addiction may differ in younger adolescents or older adults, and broader age, cultural, and educational diversity would improve the model’s applicability.

Fourth, this study did not consider other potentially influential variables, such as personality traits, coping strategies, social support, or mental health conditions (e.g., depression, anxiety). Incorporating these factors could help develop more comprehensive models of smartphone addiction.

Finally, cultural and technological contexts may shape FoMO, academic procrastination, and smartphone addiction. Future cross-cultural comparisons and platform-specific investigations are recommended to better understand these influences.

Despite these limitations, this research contributes valuable insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying smartphone addiction among university students and lays the groundwork for interventions to reduce problematic technology use.

Recommendations and implications

Extend the current model by examining clinical populations, particularly individuals diagnosed with social anxiety disorder, to clarify the pathological mechanisms connecting FoMO, academic procrastination and smartphone addiction. Studying clinical groups would help differentiate normative social concerns from clinically significant impairment and support the refinement of targeted intervention strategies. Given the influence of socio-cultural dynamics on digital behavior, it is also important to include participants from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cross-cultural studies may reveal how cultural norms, access to technology and attitudes toward digital engagement shape the interplay among FoMO, social phobia, procrastination and smartphone addiction.

Because the present findings are correlational, longitudinal research designs are needed to determine the temporal ordering of these relationships. Following students over time would clarify whether FoMO-driven increases in smartphone use heighten academic procrastination and social phobia, or whether pre-existing social phobia and procrastination increase vulnerability to smartphone addiction. The strong overall influence of FoMO and the central mediating role of academic procrastination highlight the importance of developing prevention programs that focus on reducing FoMO-related cognitive distortions and improving students’ self-regulation skills.

Should also identify protective factors that buffer students from the detrimental effects of FoMO and problematic smartphone use. Variables such as self-regulation, digital well-being practices and perceived social support may contribute to healthier patterns of smartphone engagement. Although procrastination served as a key behavioral mechanism in this study, its broader function within the digital ecosystem warrants additional investigation. Understanding whether procrastination emerges as a coping response to FoMO or as a consequence of excessive smartphone use would support the development of more precise psychological interventions. Advancing research in these areas will contribute to more effective, evidence-based strategies for preventing and reducing smartphone addiction among university students.

Furthermore, from a preventive perspective, universities should integrate mental health and behavioral assessments that identify students who exhibit high levels of social anxiety, FoMO or procrastination. Because these variables interact to elevate the risk of smartphone addiction, early identification can support timely intervention. Programs that aim to reduce FoMO and improve students’ time management and self-regulation skills may be particularly effective, given their strong predictive influence in the model.

Intervention strategies should therefore extend beyond efforts to restrict smartphone use and focus instead on mitigating the psychological triggers that sustain it. Training students in coping strategies for managing social anxiety, strengthening resilience against FoMO and enhancing executive functioning may collectively reduce academic procrastination and, by extension, smartphone addiction. Educators and counselors should also promote awareness of how social anxiety and FoMO influence academic behaviors and digital habits. Psychoeducational workshops that target fear of negative evaluation or low social confidence may help reduce students’ reliance on smartphones as a means of avoidance or emotional regulation.

Finally, the findings point to the need for research to develop integrative models that capture the interplay of emotional, cognitive and behavioral determinants of technology use. Such models can inform comprehensive intervention frameworks that support both academic performance and psychological well-being. Overall, reducing smartphone addiction among university students requires addressing the underlying drivers—particularly procrastination and FoMO—and implementing holistic strategies that promote healthier patterns of engagement.

Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive examination of the psychological mechanisms underlying smartphone addiction among university students, highlighting academic procrastination as the principal behavioral driver linking Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and social phobia to problematic smartphone use. Although FoMO and social phobia exert direct effects, procrastination serves as the primary pathway through which these emotional vulnerabilities translate into digital dependency, with FoMO demonstrating the strongest overall influence within the structural model.

By elucidating how emotional and cognitive factors interact to shape maladaptive smartphone behaviors, the findings advance the understanding of technology-related addictions in higher education contexts. The results underscore the need for multifaceted interventions that target procrastination, address FoMO-related cognitive and emotional patterns, and promote self-regulation and digital well-being. Implementing such strategies may reduce excessive smartphone use, enhance academic performance, and support students’ mental health. Future research should extend these insights by developing and evaluating integrated programs that combine emotional regulation, digital literacy, and academic self-management to mitigate smartphone-related risks.

Authors’ contributions

Z.A. and A.A. contributed equally to this study. They jointly conceptualized and designed the research, collected and analyzed the data, and drafted all sections of the manuscript. Both authors critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content, ensured its linguistic and grammatical accuracy, and were responsible for compiling and formatting the references. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and accept responsibility for the integrity of the work.

Funding

No.

Data availability

Data that support the results of this study can be obtained from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request, subject to any applicable privacy or ethical restrictions.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of The Hashemite University in Zarqa, Jordan, approved this study in accordance with internationally recognized ethical guidelines for research involving human participants, including the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was issued under protocol number 21/2/2024/2025 on January 14, 2025. Continued approval was subject to strict adherence to the approved protocol, with any amendments requiring prior IRB approval.

All individuals who participated in this study provided informed consent after being fully informed about the study’s purpose, procedures, and their rights as participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.