Growth mindset and subjective well-being in adolescents: the sequential mediating roles of personal growth initiative and hope

Abstract

Background

Growth mindset is a positive psychological resource associated with better mental health, yet how it relates to adolescents’ subjective well-being remains unclear. Guided by the organismic valuing process (OVP) framework, we tested whether personal growth initiative (PGI) and hope sequentially mediate this association.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, 559 adolescents were recruited through cluster sampling and completed measures of growth mindset, PGI, hope, and subjective well-being.

Results

Growth mindset was positively related to PGI, hope, and subjective well-being. Both PGI and hope showed significant indirect effects, and a significant sequential pathway emerged (growth mindset → PGI → hope → subjective well-being). After accounting for the mediators, the direct effect was no longer significant.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that a growth mindset is indirectly associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being via PGI and hope. The results highlight the potential relevance of self-directed growth and hopeful thinking in understanding how growth-oriented beliefs relate to adolescent well-being. Longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to further clarify causal directionality.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04367-y.

Background

Adolescence is a critical developmental stage in which individuals progressively shift from dependence toward autonomy, and during this period they are particularly vulnerable to academic pressure, interpersonal challenges, and future uncertainty [1]. According to the Report on National Mental Health Development in China (2021–2022), approximately 14.8% of Chinese adolescents experience varying degrees of depressive symptoms [2]. These alarming statistics underscore the urgent need to identify protective psychological resources that can buffer stress and support adolescents’ subjective well-being.

Within the framework of positive psychology, growth mindset, defined as the belief that abilities can be developed through effort and effective strategies, has been proposed as an important psychological resource [3, 4]. Previous research indicates that growth mindset is associated with greater academic motivation and self-regulation [5], better academic achievement and related academic outcomes [6, 7], stronger resilience [8], and more favorable mental well-being and related mental health indicators [8–10]. More recent evidence further suggests that growth mindset may function as a psychological buffer under conditions of social stress. For example, Jiang et al. found that a stronger growth mindset was positively associated with adolescents’ life satisfaction and attenuated the adverse impact of peer pressure on well-being (i.e., demonstrating a buffering effect) [11].

Subjective well-being is a core indicator of mental health, reflecting individuals’ life satisfaction and affective experiences [12]. Relative to those holding a fixed mindset, individuals endorsing a growth mindset tend to show more adaptive responses to setbacks and challenges and report higher levels of well-being [13, 14]. Recent studies have consistently shown that a growth mindset is positively associated with psychological well-being and a range of favorable mental health indicators [8, 9, 15, 16]. Moving beyond these direct links, a growing body of work has examined the mechanisms underlying this association by testing indirect pathways. Across studies, proposed mediators tend to cluster into three broad categories: (a) resilience- and coping-related processes (e.g., resilience and coping styles) [8, 17], (b) motivational and agentic factors (e.g., grit/persistence, learning engagement, and academic self-efficacy) [16, 18, 19], and (c) interpersonal resources (e.g., perceived social support) [20]. Overall, these studies provide valuable insights into potential mechanisms, but they often test single mediators or parallel mediators rather than specifying an ordered, theory-guided sequential process that explains how growth mindset translates into adolescents’ SWB [8, 16–20].

Consequently, the literature has rarely articulated how growth-oriented beliefs may promote adolescents’ SWB through successive changes in self-regulation and future-oriented motivation [8, 16, 17]. Accordingly, to address this gap, we propose a theory-driven model in which growth mindset is indirectly associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being through personal growth initiative (PGI) followed by hope. This sequential specification complements prior single- or parallel-mediator approaches by distinguishing a proximal self-regulatory orientation (PGI) from a more distal, future-oriented motivational resource (hope), thereby providing a more comprehensive and theoretically coherent account of the growth mindset–well-being association.

The proposed ordering is grounded in the Organismic Valuing Process (OVP) framework and complemented by Self-Determination Theory (SDT). OVP links growth-oriented meaning with self-regulation and psychological wellness, suggesting that well-being is more likely when experiences are appraised as congruent with an inherent tendency toward growth [21–23]. From this perspective, growth mindset functions as a meaning system that promotes growth-congruent appraisals and motivates intentional self-directed growth regulation. SDT further posits that malleability beliefs facilitate the internalization of growth goals and autonomous self-regulation [24]. Accordingly, growth mindset may be indirectly associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being through an ordered pathway in which greater PGI fosters hope, which in turn relates to higher subjective well-being. Based on this framework, we propose the following hypotheses.

More specifically, we propose that PGI represents a proximal self-regulatory pathway linking growth mindset to adolescents’ SWB. According to OVP theory, individuals evaluate whether experiences are congruent with growth and self-actualization and adjust behavior accordingly [21–23]. Within this framework (and consistent with SDT), growth mindset functions as a growth-oriented meaning system that shapes how adolescents interpret challenges and setbacks—such as valuing effort as instrumental for improvement and viewing failures as informative feedback rather than fixed indicators of ability. These growth-congruent appraisals increase the perceived value and attainability of intentional self-improvement and therefore are likely to foster proactive engagement in self-development, which is captured by PGI [4, 5, 24]. PGI reflects a conscious, intentional, and proactive tendency toward self-improvement [25], and individuals higher in PGI are more likely to set developmental goals, seek change, and mobilize resources to facilitate growth [25, 26]. Empirical research has linked PGI to positive psychological outcomes, including higher hope and meaning in life [27–29], and evidence from student and adolescent samples suggests that PGI is positively associated with life satisfaction and may further contribute to subjective well-being via positive resources such as meaning in life and hope [29, 30]. Taken together, these findings support PGI as a theoretically grounded mediator through which growth mindset may be indirectly associated with adolescents’ subjective well-being.

• Hypothesis 1 (H1): PGI mediates the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being.

According to hope theory, hope represents a goal-directed cognitive system consisting of two components—agency (goal-directed motivation) and pathways (perceived routes to goal attainment) [31, 32]. Hope plays a crucial role in promoting positive affect and life satisfaction. Individuals with a growth mindset are more likely to interpret setbacks as opportunities for learning and self-improvement, which fosters optimism and enhances their sense of hope [32, 33]. Empirical studies further indicate that growth mindset enhances resilience, self-efficacy, and goal persistence, contributing to better psychological adjustment and happiness [4, 8, 16–18]. Meanwhile, hope has been identified as a robust predictor of positive affect and life satisfaction and is strongly associated with subjective well-being [31–33].

• Hypothesis 2 (H2): Hope mediates the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being.

Furthermore, PGI and hope are theoretically and empirically distinct yet dynamically related constructs that may operate sequentially. Adolescents with higher PGI tend to engage intentionally in self-development (e.g., setting growth goals and planning goal-directed actions), which may strengthen their confidence and perceived pathways toward goal attainment and thereby foster hope [31, 34]. Empirical evidence also supports this ordering: PGI is positively associated with hope [27, 35], and PGI-related intentional self-change processes have been linked to psychological adjustment and well-being [36]. Collectively, these findings suggest that PGI may strengthen adolescents’ capacity to set goals, pursue change, and sustain confidence, thereby cultivating hope and ultimately supporting subjective well-being [37]. This proposed process is consistent with the OVP framework, which emphasizes that growth-congruent appraisals are intertwined with self-regulatory and motivational–emotional processes that jointly relate to well-being [21–23].

• Hypothesis 3 (H3): PGI and hope sequentially mediate the relationship between growth mindset and subjective well-being.

In the present study, we examined whether PGI and hope sequentially mediate the association between adolescents’ growth mindset and subjective well-being. By testing this proposed process model, we aimed to extend prior research that has largely focused on direct associations by identifying potential psychological mechanisms through which growth mindset may contribute to well-being during adolescence. Clarifying these pathways may help advance theoretical understanding of growth-oriented belief systems and provide an empirical foundation for future longitudinal and intervention research aimed at promoting adolescent well-being.

Methods

Participants

Participants were recruited using a cluster sampling method from two secondary schools in Lanzhou, China, with intact classes as the sampling units. After obtaining informed consent from school administrators, parents/guardians, and students, two classes were randomly selected from each grade in each school (12 classes in total). Data were collected during scheduled self-study periods using anonymous, self-administered questionnaires. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, of which 559 were retained after excluding invalid responses based on predefined criteria including excessively short completion times, substantial missing data, or clearly patterned responding (effective response rate = 93.16%). Participation was voluntary.

The final sample included 227 males (40.61%) and 332 females (59.39%), aged 15–19 years (M = 16.62, SD = 1.00), with relatively balanced representation across Grade 10 (n = 195), Grade 11 (n = 183), and Grade 12 (n = 181). The study protocol was approved by the institutional ethics committee, and written informed consent was obtained from students and their legal guardians.

Measures

Growth mindset

Growth mindset was assessed using the Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale developed by Dweck [3], which has been widely used in Chinese student samples [38]. The scale consists of six items, including statements reflecting a fixed mindset (e.g., “My intelligence is something very basic about me that I can’t change very much”) and a growth mindset (e.g., “I can substantially change my intelligence through effort”). All items were rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). Fixed mindset items were reverse-coded, and a composite growth mindset score was calculated by summing all items, with higher scores indicating a stronger growth mindset. In the present study, the scale demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.84).

PGI

PGI was measured using the Personal Growth Initiative Scale–II (PGIS-II) [34], which has demonstrated good reliability and validity in Chinese populations [26]. The PGIS-II contains 16 items spanning four dimensions: readiness for change, planfulness, intentional behavior, and use of resources. Example items include “I know when I need to make specific changes in myself” (readiness for change), “When I try to change myself, I make a realistic plan for my personal growth” (planfulness), “I look for opportunities to grow as a person” (intentional behavior), and “When I try to change myself, I seek help from others” (use of resources). Items were rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater proactive engagement in self-development. In the present study, Cronbach’s α coefficients for readiness for change, planfulness, intentional behavior, use of resources, and the total scale were 0.82, 0.85, 0.82, 0.80, and 0.95, respectively.

Hope

Hope was assessed using the Adult Hope Scale (AHS) [31], which consists of 12 items, including four agency items, four pathway items, and four filler items. Example items include “I energetically pursue my goals” (agency), “I can think of many ways to get out of a jam” (pathways), and “I worry about my health” (filler). In the present study, items were rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). The four filler items were not included in scoring, and higher scores reflected higher levels of hope. The AHS has demonstrated strong reliability and cultural applicability among Chinese adolescent samples [39]. In the present study, Cronbach’s α coefficients were 0.84 for agency, 0.82 for pathways, and 0.89 for the total scale.

Subjective well-being (SWB)

Subjective well-being was assessed using a composite index derived from the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) [40] and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) [41]. The SWLS consists of five items assessing global life satisfaction, whereas the PANAS includes 20 items measuring positive and negative affect. To compute the composite SWB score, life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and negative affect (NA) were first z-standardized within the analytic sample. The SWB composite was then computed as SWB = Z[PA] + Z[LS] − Z[NA], such that higher scores indicate greater subjective well-being. In the present study, Cronbach’s α coefficients were 0.89 for life satisfaction, 0.89 for positive affect, and 0.87 for negative affect.

Data analysis

All analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0 and Python 3.9. Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations were first computed for all study variables. Common method bias was assessed using Harman’s single-factor test and confirmatory factor analysis comparing a one-factor model with the hypothesized four-factor model.

Then, mediation and serial mediation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS macro [42], with age and gender included as covariates. Bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals based on 5,000 resamples were used to test the significance of indirect effects; an indirect effect was considered statistically significant if the 95% bootstrap confidence interval did not include zero.

Results

Common method bias test

To evaluate the potential threat of common method variance (CMV), we conducted Harman’s single-factor test. Exploratory factor analysis extracted nine factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, the first of which explained 32.43% of the total variance, which was below the conventional 40% threshold.

In addition, we assessed common method bias (CMB) using the CFA-based common latent factor (CLF) approach recommended in the literature. The baseline measurement model included growth mindset, PGI, hope, and SWB, with SWB treated as an observed composite (Z[PA] + Z[LS] − Z[NA]) consistent with the primary PROCESS analyses; the model showed acceptable fit, CFI = 0.84, TLI = 0.84, RMSEA = 0.06, 90% CI [0.062, 0.066], SRMR = 0.09. We then added an orthogonal CLF with all self-report items (i.e., growth mindset, PGI, and hope items) loading on it; the CLF model fit was CFI = 0.85, TLI = 0.85, RMSEA = 0.06, 90% CI [0.060, 0.064], SRMR = 0.11. The incremental changes were trivial (ΔCFI = 0.01; RMSEA decreased by 0.002), suggesting that common method bias is unlikely to pose a serious threat.

Normality and multicollinearity assumption test

Normality was examined because many parametric statistical procedures assume that the data are approximately normally distributed. Normality was assessed by inspecting skewness and kurtosis coefficients, which were all within the acceptable range of − 2 to + 2 for the study variables (See Table 1), indicating no substantial departure from normality [43].

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables

Variable	M	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis	1	2	3	4	5	6
1Sex	1.59	0.49	-0.38	-1.86	1
2Age	16.62	1.00	0.23	-0.72	0.02	1
3GM	4.01	0.96	0.13	-0.20	-0.04	-0.02	1
4PGI	4.84	0.98	0.01	-0.01	0.03	0.12**	0.38***	1
5HP	5.11	0.90	-0.09	0.23	0.02	0.11**	0.38***	0.82***	1
6SWB	—	—	0.27	0.10	0.01	0.10*	0.32***	0.67***	0.67***	1

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001; n = 559. Sex was coded as 1 = male and 2 = female. GM growth mindset, PGI personal growth initiative, HP hope, SWB subjective well-being. SWB was computed as a standardized composite score (Z[PA] + Z[LS] − Z[NA]); therefore, its mean and standard deviation are not reported. the same below

Before conducting the regression analysis, multicollinearity among the independent variables was examined. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values for all predictors ranged from 1.18 to 3.05, and all tolerance values were above 0.32, indicating that there was no serious multicollinearity among the variables [44].

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations among the study variables. Growth mindset was positively correlated with PGI, hope, and subjective well-being. PGI and hope were also positively correlated with subjective well-being (all p < .001), providing initial support for the proposed mediation model.

Serial mediation analysis

A serial mediation analysis was conducted to examine whether PGI and hope sequentially mediated the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being. Growth mindset, PGI, and hope were standardized prior to analysis, and sex and age were included as covariates.

Direct and indirect effects

Growth mindset significantly predicted subjective well-being (total effect: β = 0.32, SE = 0.08, t = 7.92, p < .001). However, when PGI and hope were included in the model, the direct effect of growth mindset on subjective well-being was not significant (β = 0.04, SE = 0.07, t = 1.29, p = .20), suggesting that the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being was largely indirect through PGI and hope in the specified model. The detailed results are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Path model of the influence of growth mindset on subjective well-being

Regression path coefficients

To further clarify the sequential process, the regression path coefficients were examined (see Table 2). Growth mindset significantly predicted PGI (β = 0.38, p < .001) and hope (β = 0.08, p = .001). PGI significantly predicted hope (β = 0.78, p < .001) and subjective well-being (β = 0.36, p < .001), and hope also significantly predicted subjective well-being (β = 0.36, p < .001).

Table 2.

Indirect effects of growth mindset on subjective well-being

Path	Estimate |	Proportion of total effect (%)	| 95% Confidence Interval
			Lower	Upper
Indirect Effect	0.28	87.50	0.216	0.334
Path1	0.14	43.75	0.089	0.194
Path2	0.03	9.38	0.006	0.061
Path3	0.11	34.37	0.069	0.148

Note. Path 1 = Growth mindset → PGI → Subjective well-being; Path 2 = Growth mindset → Hope → Subjective well-being; Path 3 = Growth mindset → PGI → Hope → Subjective well-being. Estimates are completely standardized indirect effects. Confidence intervals are 95% bias-corrected bootstrap CIs based on 5,000 resamples

The total indirect effect via PGI and hope was statistically significant (β = 0.28, 95% CI [0.216, 0.334]). Overall, the results are consistent with a largely indirect association in the specified model, with PGI and hope accounting for most of the total effect (see Fig. 1).

Bootstrap-based pairwise contrasts indicated that the indirect effect through PGI alone (Ind1) was significantly stronger than the indirect effect through hope alone (Ind2) (C1 = Ind1 − Ind2 = 0.108, 95% Boot CI [0.040, 0.175]). The difference between the indirect effect through PGI alone (Ind1) and the sequential indirect effect (Ind3) was not significant (C2 = Ind1 − Ind3 = 0.032, 95% Boot CI [− 0.038, 0.106]), indicating comparable magnitudes of these two PGI-related pathways. Finally, the sequential indirect effect (Ind3) was significantly stronger than the indirect effect through hope alone (Ind2) (C3 = Ind2 – Ind3 = -0.076, 95% Boot CI [-0.126, -0.032]).

Discussion

This study examined whether personal growth initiative (PGI) and hope mediate the association between adolescents’ growth mindset and subjective well-being. The findings suggest that this association is largely indirect via PGI and hope, including the sequential indirect pathway through PGI and then hope.

Consistent with previous findings [8, 9, 15, 16], the present study found that adolescents’ growth mindset was positively associated with subjective well-being. Adolescents with a growth mindset believe that abilities and personal qualities can be developed through effort and effective strategies; therefore, when encountering academic pressure, interpersonal setbacks, or temporary failures, they are more likely to interpret difficulties as opportunities for improvement and learning, which helps them maintain more positive emotional experiences and greater life satisfaction [8, 15]. Accordingly, growth mindset may represent an important psychological resource for promoting adolescents’ subjective well-being and positive mental health, such that higher levels of growth mindset are associated with stronger well-being and more positive psychological functioning.

Consistent with Hypothesis 1 (H1), the results supported PGI as a significant mediator in the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being. Adolescents with a stronger growth mindset demonstrated greater self-improvement motivation, higher persistence when encountering challenges, and more adaptive coping when faced with academic or life stressors. Such proactive engagement may buffer the psychological impact of stress and support self-regulatory functioning [13, 17]. Individuals high in PGI tend to integrate their capabilities with developmental goals and maintain a positive attitude toward both task completion and self-enhancement, which is associated with higher well-being [36, 45]. Furthermore, this growth-directed process may satisfy the fundamental needs for autonomy and competence, as proposed by Self-Determination Theory (SDT) [24]. Individuals with higher levels of PGI also tend to formulate growth-oriented goals, proactively pursue self-change, and draw on available resources to support their personal development [25]. Collectively, these findings suggest that PGI serves as a motivational bridge linking growth-oriented belief systems with positive psychological outcomes, facilitating the translation of growth-oriented intentions into adaptive action.

Consistent with Hypothesis 2 (H2), the present findings indicated that hope mediated the association between growth mindset and subjective well-being. Adolescents who endorse a growth mindset are more likely to maintain a long-term goal orientation and to engage in goal-directed self-regulation, which may support the development of hope-related cognitions [31–33]. Specifically, such individuals are more confident in their ability to achieve desired outcomes and actively seek strategies to pursue goals—core elements of hope, namely agency thinking and pathways thinking [31, 32]. Through continuous self-encouragement and adaptive adjustment, they may maintain confidence and positive expectations about the future, which are consistently linked to better psychological adjustment and subjective well-being [32, 33]. From a meaning-system perspective, individuals who view intelligence as malleable tend to attribute setbacks to controllable causes (e.g., effort) and to employ constructive coping strategies, thereby sustaining motivation and hope even under stress [13, 14]. In addition, research based on Snyder’s Hope Theory has shown that hope is closely tied to goal pursuit and psychological adjustment, and is associated with lower distress and better well-being when facing stressors [32, 33]. Collectively, these findings suggest that hope may represent a key psychological component within the proposed explanatory process through which growth-oriented beliefs are associated with adolescents’ sustained well-being.

Moreover, the study provided empirical support for Hypothesis 3 (H3), showing that growth mindset indirectly affected subjective well-being through the sequential mediation of PGI and hope. This finding aligns with the OVP framework, suggesting that adolescents with a higher growth mindset may evaluate experiences in terms of their potential for self-development and actively seek positive change [21–23]. Such a self-directed orientation is consistent with PGI as an intentional tendency toward personal change and growth [25, 34], which may be associated with clearer goal-related cognition and greater perceived clarity regarding ways of pursuing those goals. In turn, this growth-directed engagement may co-occur with higher levels of hope—characterized by agency and pathways thinking—and ultimately relate to greater subjective well-being [31, 32]. Furthermore, this sequential association is consistent with an interpretive account in which PGI reflects sustained motivational engagement in personal development [25, 34], while hope supports goal-directed adjustment and psychological well-being in the face of challenges [32, 33]. Hence, integrating PGI and hope into growth mindset frameworks may provide a more comprehensive understanding of how growth-oriented beliefs relate to adolescents’ well-being.

Although PGI and hope were highly correlated, they represent conceptually distinct psychological constructs with complementary functions [27, 35]. PGI primarily reflects a self-directed motivational orientation toward intentional self-development, emphasizing proactive goal setting, sustained effort, and active engagement in growth-related behaviors [25, 34]. In contrast, hope is a future-oriented motivational–cognitive resource characterized by agency thinking and perceived pathways toward desired goals, reflecting individuals’ expectations and confidence regarding goal attainment [31, 32]. From this perspective, PGI captures the motivational enactment of growth goals, whereas hope reflects a future-oriented cognitive appraisal of goal pursuit, including agency and pathways thinking, and is closely related to positive expectancies for mental health [31–33]. Their sequential association is therefore theoretically plausible rather than redundant, with PGI supporting active engagement in self-development [25, 34] and hope sustaining goal-directed striving in the face of obstacles over time [32, 33].

Taken together, the present study enriches the literature by identifying a key psychological pathway linking growth mindset to adolescents’ subjective well-being. Importantly, these findings do not imply causal conclusions; rather, they support the theoretical plausibility of a sequential motivational chain in which growth mindset, as a growth-oriented core belief, is associated with higher levels of personal growth initiative (PGI), which is in turn related to stronger hope—defined as future-oriented agency and pathways thinking—and together these factors are linked to higher subjective well-being. This framework highlights the complementary roles of self-development motivation and hopeful goal-directed cognition in translating growth-oriented beliefs into well-being-related resources. Overall, the study offers a clearer and more actionable process account of how growth-oriented beliefs may relate to well-being, and it suggests that efforts to promote adolescents’ well-being may benefit from simultaneously strengthening growth mindset, PGI, and hope to better support positive development.

Limitations and future directions

Despite its theoretical and methodological contributions, several limitations should be acknowledged.

First, the sample included only adolescents recruited from secondary schools in Northwest China, which may constrain the generalizability of the findings to other cultural or socioeconomic contexts. Future research should replicate the proposed model in more diverse populations and across cultural settings to evaluate its robustness and cultural applicability.

Second, from a methodological perspective, the present study relied exclusively on a cross-sectional design. Accordingly, the observed associations and indirect effects should not be interpreted as evidence of causal directionality or developmental sequencing. Longitudinal and experimental studies are warranted to establish temporal precedence and to examine the dynamic interplay among growth mindset, PGI, hope, and well-being over time.

Third, all constructs were assessed via self-report measures, which may be subject to social desirability and self-perception biases. Future work would benefit from multi-method approaches—such as behavioral indicators, peer or teacher reports, or objective markers (e.g., physiological or neurocognitive measures)—to strengthen measurement validity and ecological relevance.

Finally, although PGI and hope were treated as key components of the proposed explanatory process, other positive psychological resources (e.g., resilience and self-efficacy) may also be relevant for understanding the association between growth mindset and well-being. Integrating these constructs into a broader, multi-level framework may yield a more comprehensive account of how growth-oriented beliefs relate to subjective well-being across development.

Practical implications

Practically, these findings may inform efforts to promote adolescents’ subjective well-being in educational and family contexts. Given that growth mindset was linked to subjective well-being primarily through personal growth initiative (PGI) and hope, interventions may benefit from cultivating growth-oriented beliefs while also strengthening the self-regulatory and future-oriented resources that help translate such beliefs into everyday functioning. In school settings, teachers can foster a supportive climate that normalizes setbacks as part of development, emphasizes improvement through effort and effective strategies, and provides process-oriented feedback focused on strategy use, persistence, and learning progress, thereby helping students interpret challenges as opportunities for growth. Building on the identified role of PGI, school-based programs can incorporate structured activities that develop intentional self-change skills. For example, students can be guided to set personally meaningful growth goals, break long-term goals into manageable steps, monitor progress, and mobilize internal and external resources (e.g., seeking guidance from teachers, peers, or family), alongside goal-mapping and strategy-revision exercises after setbacks to sustain proactive engagement. Because hope served as a more proximal mechanism linking growth-directed processes to well-being, interventions may also include hope-enhancement components grounded in agency and pathways thinking, such as generating multiple routes toward goals, anticipating barriers, preparing “if–then” plans, and reinforcing agency through attainable milestones and self-efficacy–supportive feedback to maintain future-oriented confidence and adaptive persistence. At the institutional level, where feasible, schools may embed growth-oriented practices into daily routines, curriculum design, and teacher professional development so that consistent messages about malleability, the value of effort, and adaptive responses to failure are paired with concrete tools for goal setting and pathway planning, thereby better supporting adolescents’ well-being.

Conclusion

The present study, by examining the mediating roles of personal growth initiative (PGI) and hope, provided empirical support for a potential sequential psychological process linking growth mindset to adolescents’ subjective well-being. Consistent with the OVP framework, the findings suggest that growth-oriented beliefs may be associated with well-being through the activation of two key psychological resources: a self-development motivational process (i.e., more proactive and intentional engagement in self-improvement and growth-related actions) and a future-oriented hopeful stance (i.e., agency and pathways thinking regarding goal pursuit, accompanied by positive expectations). These resources appear to operate in a connected manner and are jointly related to higher adaptive functioning and more positive emotional experiences. Although the cross-sectional design does not allow causal inferences, the current results advance a process-oriented conceptual understanding of how growth mindset may relate to subjective well-being and highlight the relevance of active self-development and a hopeful future orientation as important psychological foundations for adolescents’ well-being.

Authors’ contributions

Tingting Yang: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing-original draft. Jing Qu: Investigation, Resources. Saisai Hu: Supervision, Project administration, Validation, Writing-review & editing, Funding acquisition.

Funding

This study was supported by the General Project of the 2025 Annual Plan of the 14th Five-Year Educational Science Program of Gansu Province (GS[2025]GHB1512), the Gansu Provincial University Innovation Fund Project (2026 A-011) and the Soft Science Special Project of Gansu Basic Research Plan (26JRZA067).

Data availability

The primary data are available as supplementary material.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Review Committee of the School of Psychology at Northwest Normal University (Approval No. psynwnu-052). All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. The research was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, and all data were anonymized to protect participant privacy.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.