Abstract
Background
Wild edible plants (WEPs) are integral to food security, nutrition, healthcare, and cultural identity in rural northeastern Thailand. However, systematic ethnobotanical documentation of WEP diversity, cultural importance, and economic roles in Pa Tio District, Yasothon Province, has been limited. This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of WEPs in the district, highlighting their multifunctional roles within local food systems, traditional medicine, and livelihoods.
Methods
Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews, group discussions, and guided field walks with 50 Lao-Isan informants selected using purposive and snowball sampling. Recorded species were categorized by use, and quantitative indices—Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), Fidelity Level (FL), and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)—were applied to evaluate cultural prominence and medicinal consensus. One-year market surveys were conducted to estimate the economic value (EV) of traded WEPs, while cross-regional similarity was assessed using the Jaccard Similarity Index.
Results
A total of 100 WEP species from 48 families were recorded, with vegetables and fruits dominating local diets. CFSI values showed strong differentiation among taxa; Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. had the highest value (140,625.00), reflecting its role as a daily staple. FL values ranged from 8.70% to 80.00%, and consistently high ICF values (0.857–0.955) indicated strong agreement among informants and a well-structured traditional knowledge system. Fifty-one species were traded in local markets, with Limnophila geoffrayi Bonati generating the highest annual economic return. Species similarity with neighboring regions was low (8.6–14.8%), underscoring pronounced local specificity.
Conclusion
WEPs in Pa Tio District form a resilient biocultural system linking food security, health, cultural continuity, and livelihoods. Supporting community-based management and sustainable use is essential for strengthening rural food systems and biodiversity conservation.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-026-00898-1.
Keywords: Ethnobotany, Medicinal plants, Pa Tio District, Wild edible plants, Yasothon Province
Background
Wild edible plants (WEPs) constitute an integral component of local food systems, traditional healthcare, and rural livelihoods across tropical and subtropical regions. They provide essential micronutrients, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds, thereby supporting household food security and nutritional well-being [1]. In addition, WEPs are increasingly discussed within the framework of the food–medicine continuum, wherein plant species simultaneously function as both dietary resources and therapeutic agents, blurring the boundary between nutrition and healthcare.
Beyond subsistence, WEPs often generate economic value through informal trade in local markets, supplementing rural incomes and contributing to community resilience [2]. These roles are closely linked to socio-ecological resilience, as WEPs serve as adaptive resources that buffer communities against environmental variability and economic uncertainty. Their collection, preparation, and exchange reflect complex networks of traditional ecological knowledge, gendered labor divisions, and socio-cultural identity [3]. Such knowledge systems are dynamic and context-dependent, forming a crucial component of biocultural diversity. However, ongoing processes such as modernization, agricultural intensification, and land-use change continue to erode natural habitats and traditional foraging practices. Consequently, the documentation and quantitative evaluation of WEPs are increasingly important for both biodiversity conservation and sustainable rural development [4].
Globally, ethnobotanical studies have highlighted the dual nutritional and economic significance of WEPs. In Asia, wild vegetables, fruits, and mushrooms are integral to local cuisines and are often marketed as “green heritage foods” that embody traditional knowledge and cultural identity [5, 6]. In addition to enhancing dietary diversity, these species function as economic buffers, particularly during agricultural off-seasons or periods of environmental stress, thereby reinforcing household resilience and livelihood stability [7]. Recent studies further emphasize the role of WEPs in sustaining local knowledge systems and enhancing adaptive capacity under rapid socio-environmental change. Collectively, these findings underscore the broader socio-ecological importance of WEPs and highlight the need for comprehensive assessments that integrate nutritional, economic, and cultural dimensions [8].
Thailand, recognized as one of Southeast Asia’s biodiversity hotspots, harbors more than 12,000 vascular plant species, many of which are traditionally harvested and consumed as WEPs [9, 10]. The northeastern region (Isan), characterized by dry dipterocarp forests, rice agroecosystems, seasonal wetlands, and dynamic local food systems, maintains a particularly rich ethnobotanical heritage. In this region, WEPs function not only as everyday dietary components but also as supplementary sources of income, elements of local healthcare practices, and key components of food–medicine interactions embedded within traditional knowledge systems and cultural identity [11]. Recent studies from Maha Sarakham [12], Sakon Nakhon [13], Surin [14], and other provinces confirm the continued relevance of WEPs, particularly in local markets where wild-foraged plants are commercialized and integrated into seasonal food traditions.
Despite this growing body of research, many ethnobotanical studies—especially in northeastern Thailand and surrounding regions—remain largely descriptive or rely on a limited set of ethnobotanical indices. Systematic quantitative approaches that integrate cultural, ecological, and economic dimensions are still relatively scarce. Moreover, limited attention has been given to conceptual frameworks such as resilience, food–medicine linkages, and knowledge system dynamics in interpreting ethnobotanical data. Cross-regional comparative analyses are also rarely conducted, limiting broader contextual understanding [15].
Yasothon Province, located in the Lower Northeast of Thailand, represents a distinctive ecological and cultural setting where traditional knowledge of wild plant use persists alongside ongoing agricultural transitions [16]. Within this province, Pa Tio District is particularly notable for its reliance on WEPs for both household consumption and local market exchange. However, the ethnobotanical knowledge, economic value, and comparative significance of WEPs in this district have not yet been systematically documented. This gap constrains our understanding of how cultural traditions, ecological availability, and economic practices interact in shaping the use of wild food resources in the region.
To address this gap, the present study adopts an integrated quantitative ethnobotanical approach that combines ecological, cultural, and economic perspectives. The Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) is used to evaluate the cultural and dietary importance of each species, while the Fidelity Level (FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) assess knowledge consistency and agreement among informants. The Jaccard Similarity Index (JI) is applied to compare species composition and utilization patterns across neighboring regions. In addition, the economic value of major WEP species is analyzed based on market price, trade frequency, and contributions to household income, thereby linking ethnobotanical knowledge with tangible socio-economic outcomes [13]. In this study, the term “ethnomedicinal uses of WEPs” specifically refers to the therapeutic applications of edible plant species within local knowledge systems.
Accordingly, this study tests the hypothesis that WEPs in Pa Tio District constitute a bioculturally significant resource that contributes not only to local diets but also to cultural continuity, livelihood strategies, and regional ethnobotanical patterns in northeastern Thailand. The specific objectives are:
-
(i)
to analyze the diversity, traditional knowledge, and utilization patterns of WEPs used by local communities, including their cultural roles and modes of use;
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(ii)
to examine the socio-economic importance of WEPs within local livelihood systems, particularly in relation to household use and market integration;
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(iii)
to explore cross-regional patterns of WEP utilization by assessing similarities and differences in ethnobotanical knowledge.
To achieve these objectives, this study employs quantitative ethnobotanical indices, market-based analyses, and cross-regional comparative approaches.
Methods
Study area
Pa Tio District is located in the southeastern part of Yasothon Province, Northeastern Thailand. The province covers approximately 4,200 km² and is characterized by flat to gently undulating lowlands at elevations of 100–200 m above sea level (mean ~ 145 m), with no major mountain ranges. The landscape comprises plains and low hills in the north and fertile floodplains associated with the Chi River in the south, which support rice-based agriculture. Yasothon lies within the Khorat Plateau and is underlain by sedimentary formations, with predominantly sandy-loam soils (rhodic ferralsols) of moderate drainage. Although generally acidic and low in fertility, these soils are suitable for drought-tolerant crops such as rice and cassava [17].
The climate is classified as tropical savanna (Köppen Aw), with three distinct seasons: a hot dry season (February–May), a rainy season (May–October), and a cool dry season (November–January). Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1,300 to 1,500 mm, with precipitation concentrated during the monsoon period. This seasonal pattern, together with the lowland topography and alluvial plains of the Chi River basin, supports the predominance of rain-fed rice cultivation [18].
Agriculture is the primary economic activity in Yasothon Province, with approximately 80% of agricultural land (about 245,558 ha) dedicated to paddy rice. Other crops, including cassava, rubber, and sugarcane, are also cultivated. Rural households commonly engage in home gardening, livestock rearing, and small-scale agro-processing [19].
The population is predominantly rural and belongs largely to the Lao-Isan cultural group. This socio-ecological setting—defined by monsoonal climate, soil characteristics, lowland terrain, and rice-based agricultural systems—creates a suitable context for ethnobotanical research. In particular, the mosaic of land-use types, including rice fields, fallows, home gardens, and remnant vegetation, provides diverse habitats for wild edible plants (WEPs).
Overall, Pa Tio District represents a typical landscape of the Khorat Plateau, combining low-elevation plains, a monsoonal climate, and rice-based livelihoods. These characteristics make it a representative and appropriate study area for investigating the diversity, utilization, and seasonal availability of WEPs in Northeastern Thailand (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
Map of the study area. The left panel shows Yasothon Province highlighted in brown within Thailand, with an inset indicating Pa Tio District within Yasothon Province. The right panel presents the specific locations surveyed in Pa Tio District. (Map created using QGIS ver. 3.34; geographic coordinate system: WGS 84, EPSG 4326 [20])
Ethnolinguistic and cultural context
The majority of inhabitants in Pa Tio District belong to the Lao-Isan ethnic group, the predominant ethnolinguistic population of Northeastern Thailand. The local language is Isan, a Southwestern Tai (Tai–Kadai) language closely related to Lao [21]. Livelihoods are traditionally based on subsistence agriculture, particularly rain-fed glutinous rice cultivation, supplemented by home gardening, cassava and other minor crops, livestock rearing, and seasonal foraging. This agrarian system is embedded in a community-oriented social structure characterized by cooperation, kinship networks, and mutual-help practices (e.g., collective labor during rice cultivation) [22].
Wild plants—edible, medicinal, and multipurpose—remain integral to daily diet, healthcare, and cultural practices. Studies in nearby provinces, including Maha Sarakham and Sakon Nakhon, demonstrate that Lao-Isan communities retain extensive knowledge of local flora and actively use wild plants in domestic life [23]. Traditional ecological knowledge—covering plant identification, habitat, seasonality, preparation, and use—is transmitted across generations through oral traditions and everyday practices. This process supports both biodiversity use and the continuity of cultural identity despite ongoing socioeconomic change [24].
Given these regional continuities, Pa Tio District can be expected to share similar ethnolinguistic and cultural characteristics. Thus, it provides an appropriate context for examining plant use patterns, traditional knowledge systems, and their links to livelihoods and cultural identity.
Field survey and plant collection
A preliminary botanical survey was conducted in Pa Tio District from March 2025 to February 2026 to document WEP diversity and collect voucher specimens for taxonomic verification. This phase focused on ecological observation, specimen collection, and identification prior to ethnobotanical data collection.
Field surveys covered major habitat types, including community forests, rice fields and margins, fallows, roadsides, wetlands, and home garden areas. Sampling routes were designed to include both intensively used landscapes and less-disturbed vegetation to ensure representative coverage of species diversity.
Specimens were collected following standard botanical procedures. For each specimen, data on habitat, growth form, phenology, associated species, and GPS coordinates were recorded. Duplicate specimens were prepared for herbarium deposition. Photographs of diagnostic characters and habitats were taken, and field data were recorded using standardized forms.
All collected specimens were processed and mounted using standard herbarium techniques and deposited at the Vascular Plant Herbarium, Mahasarakham University (VMSU) in Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province. Taxonomic identification was performed using the Flora of Thailand and relevant regional botanical literature, and all scientific names were verified and updated using authoritative online databases includes Plants of the World Online database (https://powo.science.kew.org) (accessed on 15 September 2025) [25] and the World Flora Online (WFO) Plant List (https://wfoplantlist.org/) (accessed on 15 September 2025) [26].
This survey produced a verified checklist of WEP species in the study area, forming the basis for subsequent ethnobotanical investigation.
Ethnobotanical study
Ethnobotanical data were collected to document traditional knowledge and uses of WEPs in Pa Tio District. A total of 50 informants (25 men and 25 women) were selected from five subdistricts using purposive sampling [27] and the snowball technique [28]. Four participants (two men and two women) were selected per village to capture gender-specific knowledge (Table 1).
Table 1.
Description of study sites and informant demographics in Pa Tio District
| Sub-district | GPS coordinates | No. of informants | Ethnicity | Language | Religion | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latitude (N) | Longitude (E) | M | F | ||||
| Chiang Pheng | 15°49′44.3″N | 104°26′23.5″E | 5 | 5 | Lao Isan | Isan | Theravāda Buddhism |
| Khok Na Ko | 15°56′07.8″N | 104°27′11.9″E | 5 | 5 | Lao Isan | Isan | Theravāda Buddhism |
| Krachai | 15°46′49.4″N | 104°18′28.8″E | 5 | 5 | Lao Isan | Isan | Theravāda Buddhism |
| Pho Sai | 15°50′06.4″N | 104°23′27.1″E | 5 | 5 | Lao Isan | Isan | Theravāda Buddhism |
| Si Than | 15°46′35.9″N | 104°20′02.7″E | 5 | 5 | Lao Isan | Isan | Theravāda Buddhism |
Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews using standardized questionnaires, supplemented by small group discussions. Information recorded included vernacular names, plant parts used, preparation methods, and cultural significance. Group discussions facilitated cross-validation of information and improved data reliability. All responses were documented using standardized data sheets.
Prior informed consent was obtained from all participants in accordance with the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics [29] and the Nagoya Protocol [30]. Participants were informed of their rights, including voluntary participation and withdrawal without consequence. Although formal institutional ethical approval was not required, the study adhered to international ethical standards to ensure transparency, respect, and reciprocity.
Local market survey
A local market survey was conducted to assess the economic value (EV) of WEPs traded in Pa Tio District. The study combined market observation with botanical verification to ensure accurate species identification.
Surveys were conducted in periodic local markets and included both vendors and consumers. Only species actively traded during the study period were recorded. For each species, data included vernacular name, plant part sold, sale form (fresh or processed), source, and market availability. Species identity was confirmed by comparison with voucher specimens.
Market price data were collected monthly from March 2025 to February 2026 to capture seasonal variation. The average price (AP; THB/kg) was calculated from the mean of recorded price ranges. Sales volume (SM; kg) and duration of availability (SP; months) were estimated through vendor interviews and observation. To minimize bias due to variation in vendor participation and species availability, all EV parameters were calculated from aggregated mean values across vendors and survey periods.
Data analysis
Cultural food significance index (CFSI)
The Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) was applied to assess the cultural relevance of Bignoniaceae species utilized for both nutritional and medicinal purposes. Originally developed by Pieroni (2001) [31], this index synthesizes seven dimensions of food-related importance into a single composite measure, calculated as:
 |
The Quotation Index (QI) represents the proportion of informants who mentioned a given species. The Availability Index (AI) indicates how abundant the species is in the local environment, ranging from very common (4.0) to rare (1.0), while also accounting for the extent of its geographic accessibility. The Frequency of Utilization Index (FUI) describes how often a species is consumed, with scores spanning from more than once per week (5.0) to not used for over 30 years (0.5). The Parts Used Index (PUI) reflects the diversity of plant organs consumed—such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The Multifunctional Food Use Index (MFFI) captures the range of culinary applications, including raw use, boiling, frying, roasting, and use as condiments. The Taste Score Appreciation Index (TSAI) evaluates sensory perception, with scores from 4.0 (very poor) to 10.0 (excellent). Lastly, the Food-Medicinal Role Index (FMRI) assesses the degree to which a species is regarded as both food and medicine, with values from 1.0 (“not recognized”) to 5.0 (“very high”).
Fidelity level (FL)
The Fidelity Level (FL) measures how strongly a particular plant species is linked to a specific medicinal use within a community. It indicates the proportion of informants who report using a species for the same ailment, thereby reflecting the precision and reliability of its traditional application. FL is determined according to [32]:
 |
where Ip is the number of informants who cited the species for a particular health condition, and Iu is the total number of informants who mentioned the species for any medicinal purpose. Higher FL values denote greater uniformity in the reported use and emphasize a species’ well-established therapeutic importance in local knowledge.
Informant consensus factor (ICF)
The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) measures how consistently informants report the use of medicinal plants for specific illness categories. It helps reveal which health issues are associated with strong, shared traditional knowledge within the community. ICF is computed following [33]:
 |
where Nur is the total number of use-reports recorded for a given ailment category, and Nt is the number of plant species mentioned for that category. ICF values vary from 0 to 1; higher scores indicate stronger agreement among informants and suggest that certain ailments have well-established and widely recognized plant-based treatments.
Economic value (EV)
The Economic Value (EV) assessment was carried out from a local economic standpoint to examine the interaction between vegetable vendors and consumers in Pa Tio District, Yasothon Province. This approach combined quantitative market analysis with botanical verification to ensure accurate identification of all vegetable species traded in local markets. Participants included both sellers and buyers, and the evaluation focused solely on plant species actively exchanged during the study period. Market price data were recorded monthly in 2025.
To estimate the economic value, the average price that consumers were willing to pay for each species was calculated by taking the mean of its highest and lowest recorded market prices. Annual economic value was then derived using the equation:
 |
where EV represents the yearly economic value of locally traded vegetables; AP is the average price per kilogram (THB/kg); SM is the total monthly sales volume (kg); and SP denotes the number of months each species was available for sale. This calculation reflects the total annual market value of each edible plant species and approximates the yearly income vendors obtained from selling these local vegetables [13].
Jaccard similarity index (JI)
To compare the composition of utilized plant species in Pa Tio District with those reported in previously published ethnobotanical studies from adjacent areas, the Jaccard Similarity Index (JI) was employed as a standard metric to quantify the degree of species overlap between datasets. The index was calculated as follows [34]:
 |
where a is the number of species recorded in study area A, b is the number of species documented in study area B, and c represents the species common to both areas. The Jaccard Index (JI) ranges from 0, indicating no similarity, to 1, indicating complete similarity. When multiplied by 100, the JI is expressed as a similarity measure (SM), providing a more intuitive percentage-based representation of the extent of species overlap between the study sites.
Results
Diversity and composition of WEPs in Pa Tio District
A total of 100 WEP species were documented in Pa Tio District, representing 84 genera and 51 families (Table 2). Fagaceae was the most species-rich family (14 species), followed by Annonaceae (7 species), Apocynaceae (5 species), and Dioscoreaceae (4 species). Six families—Anacardiaceae, Ebenaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Moraceae, Phyllanthaceae, and Zingiberaceae—were each represented by three species. Eight additional families contained two species each, while the remaining 30 families were represented by a single species.
Table 2.
Ethnobotanical characteristics of wild edible plant species recorded in Pa Tio District, Yasothon Province
| No. | Family | Scientific name | Vernacular name | DiT | GH | Used part | Utilization | Preparation methods | CFSI | Voucher no. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Acanthaceae | Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson | อ่อมแซ่บ (Om Saep) | Native | Cl | IF | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetable or used in curries | 24.05 | TJY412 |
| 2. | Achariaceae | Hydnocarpus castaneus Hook.f. & Thomson | บักกระเบา (Bak Krabao) | Native | Tr | LV, SE | MP | Used medicinally | 6.19 | TJY446 |
| 3. | Amaranthaceae | Amaranthus blitum L. | ผักโขม (Phak Khom) | Introduced | Hb | LV | VG | Boiled and eaten as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 41.58 | TJY371 |
| 4. | Amaranthaceae | Amaranthus viridis L. | ผักโขมหัด (Phak Khom Hat) | Introduced | Hb | LV | VG | Boiled and eaten as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 49.50 | TJY372 |
| 5. | Anacardiaceae | Buchanania lanzan Spreng. | มะม่วงหัวแมงวัน (Mamuang Hua Maeng Wan) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Unripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 10.46 | TJY442 |
| 6. | Anacardiaceae | Buchanania siamensis Miq. | ธนนไชย (Thanonchai) | Native | Tr | BK, RT | MP | Used medicinally | 15.44 | TJY443 |
| 7. | Anacardiaceae | Mangifera caloneura Kurz | บักม่วงป่า (Bak Muang Pa) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Unripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 31.59 | TJY384 |
| 8. | Annonaceae | Dasymaschalon lomentaceum Finet & Gagnep. | บักควยลิง (Bak Khuea Ling) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 6.41 | TJY415 |
| 9. | Annonaceae | Polyalthia debilis (Pierre) Finet & Gagnep. | ก้นครก (Kon Khrok) | Native | Sh | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 6.08 | TJY399 |
| 10. | Annonaceae | Polyalthia evecta (Pierre) Finet & Gagnep. | ต้องแล่ง (Tong Laeng) | Native | Sh | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 22.48 | TJY400 |
| 11. | Annonaceae | Uvaria ferruginea var. cherrevensis (Pierre ex Finet & Gagnep.) Meade & J.Parn. | บักติดตั่ง (Bak Tit Tang) | Native | Sh | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 11.14 | TJY364 |
| 12. | Annonaceae | Uvaria rufa (Dunal) Blume | ผีผ่วน (Phi Phuan) | Native | Cl | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 50.40 | TJY365 |
| 13. | Annonaceae | Uvaria siamensis (Scheff.) L.L.Zhou, Y.C.F.Su & R.M.K.Saunders | ลำดวน (Lamduan) | Native | Cl | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 14.18 | TJY366 |
| 14. | Annonaceae | Xylopia vielana Pierre | บักกล้วยน้อย (Bak Kluai Noi) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 6.44 | TJY361 |
| 15. | Apocynaceae | Amphineurion marginatum (Roxb.) D.J.Middleton | เครือไส้ตัน (Khuea Sai Tan) | Native | Cl | LV, RT | MP | Used medicinally | 12.38 | TJY437 |
| 16. | Apocynaceae | Finlaysonia pierrei (Costantin) Venter | บักตำยาน (Bak Tam Yan) | Native | Cl | FT | FR | Unripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 10.46 | TJY440 |
| 17. | Apocynaceae | Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) Sm. | จมูกปลาหลด (Chamoek Pla Lot) | Native | Cl | LV | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 80.19 | TJY394 |
| 18. | Apocynaceae | Urceola polymorpha (Pierre ex Spire) D.J.Middleton & Livsh. | ส้มลม (Som Lom) | Native | Cl | FT, LV | CF, FR | Unripe fruit eaten as a fruit; leaf: used in boiled dishes or curries to add sourness | 261.00 | TJY375 |
| 19. | Apocynaceae | Willughbeia edulis Roxb. | บักยาง (Bak Yang) | Native | Cl | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 34.02 | TJY367 |
| 20. | Araceae | Amorphophallus brevispathus Gagnep. | อีรอก (I Rok) | Native | Hb | SM | VG | Used in cooking; the outer skin is peeled off, cleaned, and boiled until cooked. Often combined with sour-tasting vegetables or fruits to reduce itchiness | 79.65 | TJY368 |
| 21. | Araceae | Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson | อีบุก (I Buk) | Native | Hb | SM | VG | Used in cooking; the outer skin is peeled off, cleaned, and boiled until cooked. Often combined with sour-tasting vegetables or fruits to reduce itchiness | 82.35 | TJY369 |
| 22. | Arecaceae | Calamus caesius Blume | หวาย (Wai) | Native | Cl | FT, SM | FR, VG | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit; shoot: Used in cooking, especially in curries | 103.28 | TJY434 |
| 23. | Asteraceae | Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. | ผักลิ้นปี่ (Phak Lin Pi) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 15.80 | TJY447 |
| 24. | Burseraceae | Canarium subulatum Guillaumin | บักเหลี่ยม (Bak Liam) | Native | Tr | SE | SW | Eaten as a snack | 5.40 | TJY435 |
| 25. | Campanulaceae | Lobelia nummularia Lam. | ผักลืมผัว (Phak Luem Phua) | Native | Hb | LV, SM | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetables with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 27.84 | TJY382 |
| 26. | Celastraceae | Salacia chinensis L. | กำแพงเจ็ดชั้น (Kamphaeng Chet Chan) | Native | Cl | RT, SM | MP | Used medicinally | 17.33 | TJY405 |
| 27. | Cleomaceae | Cleome gynandra L. | ผักเสี้ยน (Phak Sian) | Native | Hb | LV, SM | FP | Used for pickling; pressed with salt and mixed with cooked sticky rice, then stored in a tightly sealed container | 279.00 | TJY424 |
| 28. | Combretaceae | Terminalia chebula Retz. | ส้มมอ (Som Mo) | Native | Tr | FT | FP, FR | Unripe fruit eaten as a fruit or used for pickling | 15.69 | TJY378 |
| 29. | Commelinaceae | Commelina diffusa Burm.f. | ผักปราบใบแคบ (Phak Prap Bai Khaep) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 12.29 | TJY449 |
| 30. | Commelinaceae | Cyanotis axillaris (L.) D.Don ex Sweet | ผักปราบใบแหลม (Phak Prap Bai Laem) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten as fresh vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 7.90 | TJY453 |
| 31. | Convolvulaceae | Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. | ผักบุ้ง (Phak Bung) | Native | Hb | LV, SM | VG | Boiled or eaten fresh as vegetables, served with chili paste, and used in soups, curries, and stir-fried dishes | 1406.25 | TJY429 |
| 32. | Cucurbitaceae | Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt | ตำลึง (Tamlueng) | Native | Cl | LV | VG | Used as an ingredient in boiled dishes | 220.32 | TJY416 |
| 33. | Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea hispida Dennst. | กลอย (Kloi) | Native | Cl | TU | SW | Peeled and sliced thinly, soaked in water to reduce itchiness, steamed until cooked, and used for making desserts | 38.70 | TJY433 |
| 34. | Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea pierrei Prain & Burkill | มันน้ำ (Man Nam) | Native | Cl | TU | SF | Boiled or steamed and consumed as a staple food | 35.10 | TJY418 |
| 35. | Dioscoreaceae | Dioscorea pseudotomentosa Prain & Burkill | มันแซง (Man Saeng) | Native | Cl | TU | SF | Boiled or steamed and consumed as a staple food | 29.70 | TJY436 |
| 36. | Dioscoreaceae | Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze | เท้ายายม่อม (Thao Yai Mom) | Native | Hb | TU | SF, SW | Used for preparing food or desserts. Preparation method: peel and wash thoroughly, cut into small pieces, grind finely, strain through a muslin cloth to obtain the starch water, allow it to settle, repeat the sedimentation process 2–3 times, then dry the starch sediment | 51.03 | TJY379 |
| 37. | Ebenaceae | Diospyros filipendula Pierre ex Lecomte | บักคันจ้อง (Bak Khan Chong) | Native | Tr | SE | SW | Seeds of young fruit are eaten as a snack | 0.90 | TJY451 |
| 38. | Ebenaceae | Diospyros mollis Griff. | บักเกลือ (Bak Kluea) | Native | Tr | FT, RT | MP | Used medicinally | 12.79 | TJY421 |
| 39. | Ebenaceae | Diospyros rhodocalyx Kurz | บักโกนา (Bak Ko Na) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 2.10 | TJY448 |
| 40. | Elaeocarpaceae | Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz | บักแซว (Bak Saeo) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 16.54 | TJY423 |
| 41. | Euphorbiaceae | Suregada multiflora (A.Juss.) Baill. | ขันทองพยาบาท (Khan Thong Phaya Bat) | Native | Sh | BK, SM | MP | Used medicinally | 13.61 | TJY414 |
| 42. | Fabaceae | Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth | บักถั่วแฮ (Bak Thua Hae) | Introduced | Sh | FT | VG | Boiled and eaten as a vegetable, usually served with chili dip | 13.50 | TJY455 |
| 43. | Fabaceae | Clitoria ternatea L. | อัญชัน (Anchan) | Introduced | Cl | IF | BV, VG | The fresh flowers are eaten as a vegetable with chili dip; when dried, they are used to prepare a beverage or herbal tea | 111.78 | TJY459 |
| 44. | Fabaceae | Dialium cochinchinense Pierre | เค็ง (Kheng) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 3.65 | TJY432 |
| 45. | Fabaceae | Hultholia mimosoides (Lam.) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis | ผักกาดย่า (Phak Kat Ya) | Native | Sh | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip | 109.35 | TJY445 |
| 46. | Fabaceae | Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit | กระถิน (Krathin) | Introduced | Sh | FT, LV | VG | Fruit, leaf: Eaten fresh as vegetables with chili dip | 622.08 | TJY380 |
| 47. | Fabaceae | Neptunia oleracea Lour. | ผักกะเฉดน้ำ (Phak Ka Chet Nam) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Boiled and eaten with chili dip, and used as an ingredient in boiled dishes or spicy salads (Yam) | 132.84 | TJY390 |
| 48. | Fabaceae | Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. | บักขามแป (Bak Kham Pae) | Introduced | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 16.38 | TJY398 |
| 49. | Fabaceae | Senegalia comosa (Gagnep.) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger | หนามหัน (Nam Han) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 4.68 | TJY406 |
| 50. | Fabaceae | Senegalia rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose | ส้มป่อย (Som Poi) | Native | Tr | LV | CF, MP | Used in cooking to add sour flavor; also used as a medicinal herb | 40.50 | TJY407 |
| 51. | Fabaceae | Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | ขี้เหล็ก (Khi Lek) | Native | Tr | IF, LV | VG | Used in curry dishes; boiled first to reduce bitterness before cooking | 361.80 | TJY408 |
| 52. | Fabaceae | Sesbania javanica Miq. | โสน (Sa No) | Native | Sh | IF | VG | Used in stir-fried or fried dishes | 41.51 | TJY409 |
| 53. | Fabaceae | Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq. | แต้ (Tae) | Native | Tr | SE | SW | The fruits are roasted until cooked, and the inner seeds are eaten as a snack | 1.36 | TJY417 |
| 54. | Fabaceae | Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) W.Theob. | แดง (Daeng) | Native | Tr | BK, IF, SM | MP | Used medicinally | 15.88 | TJY360 |
| 55. | Fagaceae | Castanopsis piriformis Hickel & A.Camus | บักก่อ (Bak Kor) | Native | Tr | SE | SW | Fruits are roasted until cooked, and the inner seeds are eaten as a snack | 2.49 | TJY439 |
| 56. | Hydrocharitaceae | Blyxa echinosperma (C.B.Clarke) Hook.f. | สันตะวาใบข้าว (Santa Wa Bai Khao) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 39.64 | TJY430 |
| 57. | Hydrocharitaceae | Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L. | ผักตับเต่านา (Phak Tap Tao Na) | Introduced | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 32.81 | TJY428 |
| 58. | Hydrocharitaceae | Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. | ผักโหบเหบ (Phak Hop Heb) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 43.74 | TJY393 |
| 59. | Hypericaceae | Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Dyer | ผักติ้ว (Phak Tio) | Native | Tr | IF, LV | CF | Used in curry dishes to add a sour flavor | 218.70 | TJY450 |
| 60. | Irvingiaceae | Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex A.W.Benn. | บักบก (Bak Bok) | Native | Tr | SE | SW | Eaten as a snack; can be roasted to enhance aroma and richness | 9.45 | TJY422 |
| 61. | Lecythidaceae | Careya arborea Roxb. | ผักกระโดน (Phak Kra Don) | Native | Tr | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 174.96 | TJY438 |
| 62. | Malvaceae | Microcos tomentosa Sm. | บักคอม (Bak Khom) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 12.15 | TJY387 |
| 63. | Marsileaceae | Marsilea crenata C.Presl | ผักแว่น (Phak Waen) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 51.64 | TJY385 |
| 64. | Menispermaceae | Cissampelos pareira L. | เครือหมาน้อย (Khuea Man Noi) | Native | Cl | LV | VG | The leaves are blended with water and strained to obtain the liquid, which is left to set into a jelly-like form and then used in cooking | 157.95 | TJY458 |
| 65. | Menispermaceae | Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels | ย่านาง (Ya Nang) | Native | Cl | LV | CF | The leaves are blended with water, strained, and the liquid is used in cooking to enhance thickness and impart a distinctive flavor | 291.60 | TJY377 |
| 66. | Molluginaceae | Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. | ผักแก่นขม (Phak Kaen Khom) | Native | Hb | LV | CF | Used in cooking to add bitterness | 83.84 | TJY427 |
| 67. | Moraceae | Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. | บักหาด (Bak Hat) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 14.18 | TJY454 |
| 68. | Moraceae | Ficus racemosa L. | บักเดื่อ (Bak Duea) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 4.05 | TJY425 |
| 69. | Moraceae | Streblus asper Lour. | ข่อย (Khoi) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 2.63 | TJY413 |
| 70. | Myrtaceae | Syzygium antisepticum (Blume) Merr. & L.M.Perry | เม็ก (Mek) | Native | Tr | FT, LV | FR, VG | Ripe fruits are consumed fresh as fruits; leaf: eaten raw as fresh vegetables with chili paste | 626.40 | TJY373 |
| 71. | Myrtaceae | Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels | บักหว้า (Bak Wa) | Native | Tr | FT | BV, FR | Ripe fruits are eaten fresh or processed into beverages | 37.06 | TJY374 |
| 72. | Nymphaeaceae | Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. | บัวเผื่อน (Bua Phuean) | Native | Hb | IF | VG | Inflorescence stalk used in soups and spicy salads, or eaten raw as fresh vegetables | 104.49 | TJY391 |
| 73. | Nymphaeaceae | Nymphaea pubescens Willd. | บัวสาย (Bua Sai) | Native | Hb | IF | BV, VG | Inflorescence stalk used in soups and spicy salads, or eaten raw as fresh vegetables; petals are used to prepare beverages | 165.24 | TJY392 |
| 74. | Onagraceae | Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara | แพงพวยน้ำ (Phaeng Phuai Nam) | Native | Hb | LV, SM | VG | Eaten raw as fresh vegetables with chili paste | 76.05 | TJY383 |
| 75. | Opiliaceae | Melientha suavis Pierre | ผักหวาน (Phak Wan) | Native | Tr | LV | VG | Used as an ingredient in curry dishes | 157.95 | TJY386 |
| 76. | Passifloraceae | Passiflora foetida L. | กะทกรก (Ka Thok Rok) | Introduced | Cl | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 9.45 | TJY396 |
| 77. | Phyllanthaceae | Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. | บักเม่านก (Bak Mao Nok) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 14.58 | TJY431 |
| 78. | Phyllanthaceae | Hymenocardia punctata Wall. ex Lindl. | บักหูลิง (Bak Hu Ling) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 1.10 | TJY444 |
| 79. | Phyllanthaceae | Phyllanthus emblica L. | บักขามป้อม (Bak Kham Pom) | Native | Tr | FT | MP | Used medicinally | 83.53 | TJY397 |
| 80. | Plantaginaceae | Limnophila geoffrayi Bonati | ผักขะแยง (Phak Kha Yaeng) | Native | Hb | LV | CF | Used in boiled dishes or curries to enhance aroma | 129.60 | TJY381 |
| 81. | Pontederiaceae | Pontederia elata (Ridl.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn | ผักหลอดใหญ่ (Phak Lot Yai) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Leaves and leaf stalks are eaten raw as fresh vegetables with chili paste | 24.30 | TJY401 |
| 82. | Pontederiaceae | Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f. | ผักอีฮีน (Phak I Hin) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten raw as fresh vegetables with chili paste | 78.98 | TJY402 |
| 83. | Portulacaceae | Portulaca oleracea L. | ผักเบี้ยใหญ่ (Phak Bia Yai) | Introduced | Hb | LV | VG | Boiled and eaten with chili paste, or used as an ingredient in curries and stir-fried dishes | 2.23 | TJY403 |
| 84. | Rhamnaceae | Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. | บักทัน (Bak Than) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 14.04 | TJY362 |
| 85. | Rhamnaceae | Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill. | เล็บแมว (Lep Maeo | Native | Sh | FT | BV, FR | Ripe fruits are eaten fresh as fruits or used to prepare beverages | 22.68 | TJY363 |
| 86. | Rubiaceae | Canthium berberidifolium E.T.Geddes | เงี่ยงปลาดุก (Ngiang Pla Duk) | Native | Sh | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 4.05 | TJY456 |
| 87. | Rubiaceae | Ridsdalea wittii (Craib) J.T.Pereira | บักหม้อ (Bak Mo) | Native | Tr | FT, RT, SM | MP | Used medicinally | 29.22 | TJY404 |
| 88. | Rutaceae | Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. | สมัดน้อย (Samat Noi) | Native | Sh | BK, IF, RT | MP | Used medicinally | 17.88 | TJY388 |
| 89. | Salicaceae | Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. | บักเบ็น (Bak Ben) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 8.12 | TJY441 |
| 90. | Sapindaceae | Cardiospermum halicacabum L. | โคกกระออม (Khok Kra Om) | Native | Cl | FT | VG | Eaten raw as a vegetable or used in curry dishes | 44.55 | TJY457 |
| 91. | Sapindaceae | Nephelium hypoleucum Kurz | บักแงว (Bak Ngaeo) | Native | Tr | FT | FR | Ripe fruit eaten as a fruit | 29.16 | TJY389 |
| 92. | Smilacaceae | Smilax prolifera Roxb. | เขือง (Khueang) | Native | Cl | SM | VG | Young shoots are used in curry dishes | 35.10 | TJY411 |
| 93. | Sphenocleaceae | Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. | ผักปอดนา (Phak Pot Na) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Eaten raw as fresh vegetables with chili paste | 10.94 | TJY410 |
| 94. | Stemonaceae | Stemona tuberosa Lour. | หนอนตายหยาก (Non Tai Yak) | Native | Hb | RT | MP | Used medicinally | 7.31 | TJY419 |
| 95. | Typhaceae | Typha angustifolia L. | ธูปฤาษี (Thup Rue Si) | Native | Hb | SM | VG | Young shoots are used in curry dishes | 4.10 | TJY376 |
| 96. | Vitaceae | Ampelocissus martini Planch. | อีโก่ย (I Goi) | Native | Cl | FT | FR | Eaten as a fruit, often mashed with unripe banana (Musa sp.) or Noni (Morinda citrifolia L.) and seasoned to reduce itchiness | 4.10 | TJY370 |
| 97. | Vitaceae | Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. | เถาคัน (Thao Khan) | Introduced | Cl | FT | FR | Used in curry dishes; ripe fruits are also used to prepare beverages | 21.06 | TJY395 |
| 98. | Zingiberaceae | Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. | กระเจียวแดง (Kra Chiao Daeng) | Native | Hb | IF | VG | Blanched or eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 189.00 | TJY426 |
| 99. | Zingiberaceae | Curcuma singularis Gagnep. | กระเจียวขาว (Kra Chiao Khao) | Native | Hb | IF | VG | Blanched or eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik) | 243.00 | TJY452 |
| 100. | Zingiberaceae | Kaempferia marginata Carey ex Roscoe | ตูบหมูบ (Tub Mub) | Native | Hb | LV | VG | Blanched or eaten fresh as a vegetable with chili dip (Nam Prik), or used in cooking to enhance aroma | 214.14 | TJY420 |
Growth habit: Cl, climber; Hb, Herb; Sh, Shrub; Tr, Tree. Used parts: BK, bark; FT, fruit; IF, inflorescence; LV, leaf; RT, root; SE, seed; SM, shoot; TU, tuber. Utilization: BV, beverage; CF, condiments and flavouring; FP, fermented or preserved products; FR, used as fruit; MP, medicinal edible plant; SF, staple food; SW, sweets, desserts, or snacks; VG, vegetables
The table presents the family, scientific and vernacular names, distribution status in Thailand (DiT), growth habit (GH), used parts, utilization categories, preparation methods, Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), and voucher specimen numbers
Of the recorded species, 90 (90%) were native to Thailand, whereas 10 species (10%) were introduced (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Proportional distribution of wild edible plants documented in Pa Tio District illustrating (A) distribution status in Thailand; (B) growth habit; and (C) plant parts used
In terms of growth habit, trees accounted for the largest proportion (37 species; 37%), followed by herbs (30 species; 30%), climbers (22 species; 22%), and shrubs (11 species; 11%) (Fig. 2).
Eight plant parts were recorded. Fruits were the most frequently used (33.61%), followed by leaves (29.51%). Shoots accounted for 10.66%, inflorescences for 9.02%, roots for 5.74%, and seeds for 4.92%, while bark and tubers each represented 3.27% (Fig. 2).
Utilization of WEPs in Pa Tio District
WEPs recorded in Pa Tio District were classified into eight major utilization categories. Vegetables comprised the largest category (41 species), followed by fruits (35 species). Medicinal edible plants accounted for 12 species. Sweets, desserts, and snack foods included 7 species, while condiments and flavoring agents comprised 6 species. Beverages were represented by 5 species. Fermented or preserved foods and staple food sources were the least represented categories, each with 2 species.
WEPs used as beverage
A total of five WEP species were recorded for beverage preparation in the study area (Table 2; Fig. 3). These species are primarily utilized for their flowers or fruits. Clitoria ternatea is dried and infused to prepare herbal tea. The ripe fruits of Syzygium cumini and Ziziphus oenopolia are processed into beverages, typically by crushing or soaking to obtain juice. The petals of Nymphaea pubescens are used in traditional drinks, and the ripe fruits of Parthenocissus quinquefolia are also consumed in beverage form.
Fig. 3.
Representative wild edible plant species consumed as beverage in the study area. Photographs by Tammanoon Jitpromma
WEPs used as condiments and flavouring
Six WEP species were documented as being used as condiments and flavouring agents in local cuisine (Table 2; Fig. 4). These species are primarily incorporated into dishes to enhance sourness, bitterness, aroma, or texture. The young parts of Cratoxylum formosum and Senegalia rugata are commonly added to curry dishes to impart a sour flavour. Glinus oppositifolius is used in cooking to provide a characteristic bitter taste, while Limnophila geoffrayi is incorporated into boiled dishes or curries to enhance aroma. The leaves of Tiliacora triandra are traditionally blended with water and strained, with the resulting liquid used as a natural thickening agent that also contributes a distinctive flavour to various dishes. In addition, the leaves of Urceola polymorpha are used in boiled dishes or curries to add sourness. Overall, sour and aromatic flavour profiles were the most frequently cited culinary functions among condiment and flavouring WEPs.
Fig. 4.
Representative wild edible plant species consumed as condiments and flavouring in the study area. Photographs by Tammanoon Jitpromma
WEPs used as fermented or preserved products
Two WEP species were recorded as being used in fermented or preserved forms in the study area (Table 2). Cleome gynandra is traditionally prepared through pickling by pressing the plant material with salt, mixing it with cooked sticky rice, and storing the mixture in a tightly sealed container to allow fermentation. In contrast, the unripe fruits of Terminalia chebula are used primarily for pickling as a preservation method. These practices reflect local knowledge of fermentation and preservation techniques aimed at extending shelf life while enhancing flavour and edibility.
WEPs used as fruit
A total of 35 WEP species were recorded as being used primarily as fruits by the local community (Table 1; Fig. 5). These species are consumed either ripe or unripe. Most fruits are eaten fresh without processing.
Fig. 5.
Representative wild edible plant species consumed as fruits in the study area. Photographs by Tammanoon Jitpromma
Species such as Antidesma ghaesembilla, Artocarpus lacucha, Ficus racemosa, Syzygium cumini, Uvaria spp., and Ziziphus mauritiana are typically consumed when ripe. In contrast, Buchanania lanzan, Finlaysonia pierrei, Mangifera caloneura, Terminalia chebula, and Urceola polymorpha are commonly consumed at the unripe stage.
Some fruits require simple preparation before consumption. For example, the fruits of Ampelocissus martini are mashed with unripe banana (Musa spp.) or Morinda citrifolia and seasoned.
Several species have additional culinary uses. The fruits of Syzygium cumini, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, and Ziziphus oenopolia are also used for beverage preparation. Calamus caesius provides edible fruits and shoots used in curry dishes, while Syzygium antisepticum and Urceola polymorpha are used for both fruits and leaves.
WEPs used as medicinal edible plant
A total of 12 WEP species were recorded as being used as medicinal edible plants, highlighting the close linkage between food and traditional medicine in local knowledge systems (Tables 2 and 3; Fig. 6). These species belong to diverse taxonomic groups and represent a wide range of genera, reflecting considerable botanical diversity within this use category. The recorded species include Amphineurion marginatum, Buchanania siamensis, Diospyros mollis, Hydnocarpus castaneus, Micromelum minutum, Phyllanthus emblica, Ridsdalea wittii, Salacia chinensis, Senegalia rugata, Stemona tuberosa, Suregada multiflora, and Xylia xylocarpa.
Table 3.
Toxic or potentially harmful wild edible plants and traditional precautionary practices in the study area
| Scientific name | Toxic parts / compounds | Effects / precautions toxic or harmful components and detoxification methods |
|---|---|---|
| Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson | Corm; calcium oxalate crystals | The tubers contain calcium oxalate crystals that may induce oral and throat irritation, including burning sensations and swelling, when consumed raw. Detoxification is therefore achieved through thorough peeling, cutting into small pieces, and boiling. In some cases, extended cooking or the addition of acidic or alkaline agents (e.g., tamarind or lime water) is employed to further minimize irritation [35] |
| Ampelocissus martini Planch | Fruit; irritating compounds | May cause itchiness and mouth irritation; traditionally mixed with banana or other ingredients to reduce irritation [13] |
| Dioscorea hispida Dennst | Tuber; toxic alkaloids (e.g., dioscorine) | The tubers contain high concentrations of alkaloids, particularly dioscorine, which may cause dizziness, nausea, and neurotoxic effects if inadequately processed. Detoxification involves peeling and thinly slicing the tubers, followed by prolonged soaking in running water or repeated water changes to leach out toxins, and subsequent steaming or boiling prior to consumption [36] |
| Diospyros mollis Griff | Fruit; potent bioactive compounds | According to traditional healers, this plant should not be used in children under 10 years of age, pregnant or postpartum women, or patients with pre-existing diseases. In addition, fully ripe fruits with yellow or black coloration are considered harmful and are strictly avoided for medicinal or dietary use |
| Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch | Fruit; irritant compounds | Local villagers advised that excessive consumption may cause gastrointestinal discomfort; therefore, the plant is used cautiously and only in specific preparations |
Fig. 6.
Representative wild edible plant species consumed as medicinal edible plants in the study area. Photographs by Tammanoon Jitpromma
WEPs used as staple food
WEPs used as staple foods were represented by three species (Table 2). Two yam species, Dioscorea pierrei and D. pseudotomentosa, were commonly prepared by boiling or steaming and consumed directly as staple foods. In contrast, Tacca leontopetaloides was primarily utilized for starch production. Its preparation involved peeling and thoroughly washing the tubers, cutting them into small pieces, finely grinding the material, and straining it through a muslin cloth to extract starch-rich liquid. The starch was allowed to settle, with the sedimentation process repeated two to three times before the final starch sediment was dried and used for food or dessert preparation.
WEPs used as sweets, desserts, or snacks
Several WEP species were documented as being used as sweets, desserts, or snacks, reflecting both simple consumption practices and more elaborate traditional processing techniques (Table 2). Some species were consumed directly as snacks with minimal preparation. For example, Canarium subulatum and Irvingia malayana were eaten as snacks, with the latter sometimes roasted to enhance aroma and richness. Similarly, seeds of young fruits of Diospyros filipendula were consumed as snacks.
Roasting was a common preparation method for nut- or seed-bearing species. Fruits of Castanopsis piriformis and Sindora siamensis were roasted until cooked, after which the inner seeds were eaten as snacks, indicating the importance of heat processing in improving palatability and safety.
More complex preparation methods were associated with species used for desserts. Dioscorea hispida required careful processing to reduce itchiness; the tubers were peeled, thinly sliced, soaked in water, steamed until cooked, and then used in dessert preparations. Tacca leontopetaloides was notable for its labor-intensive processing, in which the tubers were peeled, washed, finely ground, and strained to obtain starch-rich water. This was allowed to settle, with sedimentation repeated several times before drying the starch for use in food or dessert products. Overall, WEPs used as sweets, desserts, or snacks illustrate a spectrum of traditional knowledge ranging from simple snack consumption to sophisticated starch extraction techniques.
WEPs used as vegetables
A wide range of WEPs were recorded as being used as vegetables (Table 2; Fig. 7). Many species are consumed fresh or lightly processed and commonly served with chili dip (nam prik), including Amaranthus blitum, A. viridis, Blyxa echinosperma, Careya arborea, Commelina diffusa, Cyanotis axillaris, Emilia sonchifolia, Marsilea crenata, Ottelia alismoides, Oxystelma esculentum, and Sphenoclea zeylanica.
Fig. 7.
Representative wild edible plant species consumed as vegetables in the study area. Photographs by Tammanoon Jitpromma
Several species are cooked prior to consumption, mainly by boiling or in curry and soup preparations. These include Cajanus cajan, Ipomoea aquatica, Melientha suavis, Neptunia oleracea, Portulaca oleracea, and Typha angustifolia, while Sesbania javanica and Smilax prolifera are used in stir-fried or curry dishes. Amorphophallus brevispathus and A. paeoniifolius require peeling and thorough boiling before use.
Aquatic and semi-aquatic species are also used as vegetables, such as Hydrocharis morsus-ranae, Ludwigia adscendens, Nymphaea nouchali, N. pubescens, Pontederia elata, and P. vaginalis. In addition, species such as Hultholia mimosoides, Leucaena leucocephala, Syzygium antisepticum, Asystasia gangetica, and Kaempferia marginata are consumed either fresh or cooked. Cissampelos pareira is prepared by processing its leaves into a jelly-like form for cooking.
Toxic or potentially harmful WEPs in Pa Tio District
A small proportion of recorded WEPs were identified by informants as toxic or potentially harmful, requiring specific knowledge for safe use (Table 3). These species are utilized under defined conditions related to plant part selection, preparation methods, and user restrictions.
Reported practices for safe use include cooking, soaking, or combining plant materials with other ingredients. Informants also noted that certain species are avoided at specific developmental stages or when particular morphological characteristics are present.
Knowledge regarding these species, including identification and preparation, was consistently reported among informants.
Cultural food significance index (CFSI) of WEPs
The Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) values of WEPs documented in the study area showed a wide range, reflecting marked differences in their cultural relevance, frequency of use, availability, and versatility in local diets. CFSI values ranged from 0.90 to 1,406.25, indicating strong variation in the degree to which individual species contribute to food culture and subsistence practices (Table 2; S1).
Ipomoea aquatica exhibited an exceptionally high CFSI value (1,406.25), clearly demonstrating its dominant role as a staple wild vegetable widely consumed on a daily basis. Other species with very high CFSI values included Syzygium antisepticum (626.40), Leucaena leucocephala (622.08), and Senna siamea (361.80), all of which are commonly used, easily accessible, and culturally embedded in traditional food systems.
A group of species with moderately high CFSI values (approximately 200–300), such as Tiliacora triandra, Cleome gynandra, Urceola polymorpha, Curcuma singularis, Coccinia grandis, and Cratoxylum formosum, were frequently cited as important vegetables, flavoring agents, or multifunctional food resources. These plants are regularly harvested from both wild and semi-managed habitats and play a significant role in dietary diversity.
Species with intermediate CFSI values (50–200) comprised a large proportion of the recorded taxa, including aquatic plants (e.g., Nymphaea pubescens, Neptunia oleracea, Limnophila geoffrayi), climbers and herbs (e.g., Cissampelos pareira, Melientha suavis, Clitoria ternatea), and several tuber-producing species (e.g., Amorphophallus paeoniifolius and Dioscorea hispida). These species were typically consumed seasonally or prepared for specific dishes, contributing to food security and culinary diversity rather than daily sustenance.
In contrast, species with low CFSI values (below 10), such as Diospyros filipendula, Hymenocardia punctata, and Sindora siamensis, were cited infrequently and tended to be associated with restricted availability, specialized preparation methods, or declining traditional knowledge. Their lower scores suggest limited current use, although they may still hold ethnobotanical significance or potential for future revitalization.
Ethnomedicinal uses of WEPs
Condition of plants used and routes of administration
Most WEPs used for ethnomedicinal purposes in Pa Tio District were administered in fresh form (Table 4). A total of 26 use reports (78.79%) involved fresh plant materials, prepared as raw remedies, decoctions, or freshly cooked formulations. In contrast, 7 use reports (21.21%) involved dried plant materials.
Table 4.
Medicinal uses of wild edible plants, including fidelity level (FL), used parts, condition of preparation (CoP), preparation methods, routes of administration (RoA), applications, and therapeutic categories
| Scientific name | FL | Used parts | CoP | Preparation methods | RoA | Applications | Therapeutic Categories |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amphineurion marginatum (Roxb.) D.J.Middleton | 64.71 | Root | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used for treating urinary tract disorders | Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorder |
| 23.53 | Root | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to restore strength and vitality during convalescence | Musculoskeletal Disorder | |
| 11.76 | Leaf | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used for treating hemorrhoids | Gastrointestinal Disorder | |
| Buchanania siamensis Miq. | 45.00 | Bark | Fresh | The tree bark is boiled with salt and used as a mouth rinse to relieve oral discomfort | Oral rinse | Used for treating oral thrush (candidiasis) and mouth ulcers | Integumentary Disorder |
| 30.00 | Bark | Fresh | The tree bark is simmered to prepare a decoction, which is then applied topically to the affected area | Dermal | Used for treating herpes infections | Integumentary Disorder | |
| 25.00 | Root | Fresh | Pounded and mixed with water, then taken orally | Oral | Used for treating abdominal abscesses or intra-abdominal boils | Gastrointestinal Disorder | |
| Diospyros mollis Griff. | 75.00 | Root | Fresh | Pounded and mixed with rice washing water (rice water), then taken orally or used as directed | Oral | Used for relieving vomiting and abdominal discomfort (flatulence) | Gastrointestinal Disorder |
| 25.00 | Fruit | Fresh | The material is pounded and mixed with coconut milk; only the liquid part is taken to mask the bitter taste. It should be consumed on an empty stomach: Do not use ripe yellow or black fruits | Oral | Used as an anthelmintic to expel tapeworms, roundworms, hookworms, and pinworms | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder | |
| Hydnocarpus castaneus Hook.f. & Thomson | 56.52 | Seed | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used as a carminative and for detoxification | Poisoning and Toxicology |
| 34.78 | Seed | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used as an anthelmintic (to expel intestinal parasites) | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder | |
| 8.70 | Leaf | Fresh | Crushed thoroughly, and the extracted juice is applied topically to the affected skin area | Dermal | Used as an anthelmintic (to expel intestinal worms) | Integumentary Disorder | |
| Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex A.W.Benn. | 75.00 | Seed | Fresh | Consumed fresh / eaten raw | Oral | Used to strengthen tendons, nourish joints, and relieve joint stiffness | Musculoskeletal Disorder |
| 25.00 | Shoot | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used for relieving cough | Respiratory Disorder | |
| Micromelum minutum (G.Forst.) Wight & Arn. | 52.63 | Root | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used for treating hemorrhoids | Gastrointestinal Disorder |
| 31.58 | Bark | Dry | Burned to produce smoke, which is inhaled through the nose | Nasal | Used for treating nasal polyps or nasal hemorrhoids | Respiratory Disorder | |
| 15.79 | Inflorescence | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to expel phlegm (expectorant) | Respiratory Disorder | |
| Phyllanthus emblica L. | 66.67 | Fruit | Fresh | The juice is extracted from the fruits, or the whole fruits are boiled and the decoction is consumed occasionally as a substitute for drinking water | Oral | Used to relieve cough, soothe sore throat, and alleviate dryness of the mouth and throat | Respiratory Disorder |
| 33.33 | Fruit | Fresh | The fruits are cut open and the seeds removed. About ten fruits are mixed with chili, salt, and sugar, pounded lightly, and consumed as a fruit snack | Oral | Used to relieve constipation | Gastrointestinal Disorder | |
| Ridsdalea wittii (Craib) J.T.Pereira | 66.67 | Root | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to reduce fever | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder |
| 22.22 | Fruit | Fresh | The fruit is macerated in alcohol, and the resulting tonic is taken once daily in a shot-sized dose | Oral | Used to relieve muscle pain and relax tendons | Musculoskeletal Disorder | |
| 11.11 | Shoot | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to relieve constipation | Gastrointestinal Disorder | |
| Salacia chinensis L. | 75.00 | Shoot | Fresh | The shoot is macerated in alcohol, and the resulting tonic is taken once daily in a shot-sized dose | Oral | Used to relieve muscle pain and relax tendons | Musculoskeletal Disorder |
| 25.00 | Root | Fresh | The root is macerated in alcohol, and the resulting tonic is taken once daily in a shot-sized dose | Oral | Used to promote menstruation and nourish the blood | Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorder | |
| Senegalia rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose | 50.00 | Fruit | Dry | The material is lightly roasted, brewed with water, and taken in small sips as a traditional remedy | Oral | Used for relieving cough | Respiratory Disorder |
| 38.89 | Leaf | Fresh | Boiled in water and mixed with honey, then consumed as a medicinal drink | Oral | Used as a diuretic | Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Urinary Disorder | |
| 11.11 | Leaf | Fresh | It is pounded into a paste, mixed with a small amount of vegetable oil, warmed over low heat, and then applied as a poultice to the affected area | Dermal | Used to treat abscesses, reduce infection and inflammation, and promote faster rupture or resolution of the abscess | Integumentary Disorder | |
| Stemona tuberosa Lour. | 80.00 | Root | Dry | Detoxification is required prior to use. The roots are cleaned, blanched or steamed until the white inner core disappears, then dried and sliced into small pieces. The processed material is subsequently decocted in water and taken as a medicinal drink | Oral | Used to eliminate flatworms, including threadworms, liver flukes, hookworms, and Gnathostoma spp. | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder |
| 20.00 | Root | Dry | The toxin must be removed before use. The roots are thoroughly washed and then blanched or steamed until the white core is no longer visible. They are then dried and cut into small pieces before being prepared as medicine and boiled in water for bathing | Dermal | Used to treat skin diseases | Integumentary Disorder | |
| Suregada multiflora (A.Juss.) Baill. | 78.95 | Shoot | Dry | The material is sun-dried and subsequently boiled in water to be taken as a medicinal drink | Oral | Used to reduce fever | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder |
| 21.05 | Bark | Dry | The material is decocted and used as a poultice, or crushed and the expressed juice is applied topically to the affected site | Dermal | Used to treat skin diseases, rashes and itching, as well as leprosy and fungal infections such as ringworm | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder | |
| Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) W.Theob. | 52.63 | Shoot | Dry | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to detoxify the blood and counteract internal toxins | Poisoning and Toxicology |
| 31.58 | Inflorescence | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to reduce fever | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder | |
| 15.79 | Bark | Fresh | The plant material is boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is strained and consumed as a beverage | Oral | Used to treat diarrhea | Infection, Parasite and Immune Disorder |
In terms of routes of administration (Fig. 8), oral intake accounted for 26 use reports (78.79%). Dermal application, including topical treatments and poultices, was reported in 5 cases (15.15%). Nasal administration and oral rinsing were each recorded in 1 use report (3.03%).
Fig. 8.
Proportional distribution of wild edible plants documented in Pa Tio District illustrating (A) use conditions and (B) modes of administration
Fidelity level (%FL) of WEPs
Fidelity Level (%FL) was calculated to assess agreement among informants regarding the use of WEPs for specific ailments (Table 4). The %FL values ranged from 8.70% to 80.00%.
High %FL values were recorded for several species. Stemona tuberosa showed the highest value (80.00%) for anthelmintic use. Suregada multiflora had a %FL of 78.95% for fever treatment. Irvingia malayana showed a %FL of 75.00% for tendon strengthening and joint-related conditions. Similar values (75.00%) were recorded for Diospyros mollis in the treatment of vomiting and flatulence, and Salacia chinensis for muscle and tendon-related uses.
Moderate %FL values (approximately 50–69%) were observed for Phyllanthus emblica (66.67%) for respiratory conditions, Ridsdalea wittii (66.67%) for fever, and Amphineurion marginatum (64.71%) for urinary disorders. Hydnocarpus castaneus (56.52%) and Xylia xylocarpa (52.63%) were also recorded within this range.
Lower %FL values (< 40%) were recorded for less frequently reported uses. Micromelum minutum showed a %FL of 31.58% for nasal polyps, while Buchanania siamensis exhibited low values across multiple uses. The lowest %FL (8.70%) was recorded for the dermal use of Hydnocarpus castaneus.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) of WEPs
The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was calculated to evaluate agreement among informants across seven therapeutic categories (Table 5). ICF values ranged from 0.857 to 0.955.
Table 5.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) values of wild edible plants across therapeutic categories
| Therapeutic categories | Number of use report (Nur) | Number of taxa (Nt) | ICF |
|---|---|---|---|
| Poisoning and toxicology | 23 | 2 | 0.955 |
| Infection, parasite and immune disorder | 68 | 6 | 0.925 |
| Respiratory disorder | 33 | 4 | 0.906 |
| Obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorder | 20 | 3 | 0.895 |
| Musculoskeletal disorder | 29 | 4 | 0.893 |
| Integumentary disorder | 23 | 4 | 0.864 |
| Gastrointestinal disorder | 36 | 6 | 0.857 |
The highest ICF value was recorded for poisoning and toxicology (0.955), followed by infection, parasite, and immune disorders (0.925; Nur = 68, Nt = 6). Respiratory disorders (0.906), obstetrics, gynaecology and urinary disorders (0.895), and musculoskeletal disorders (0.893) also showed high ICF values.
Gastrointestinal disorders (Nur = 36, Nt = 6) had an ICF value of 0.857, while integumentary disorders showed an ICF of 0.864.
Comparative of WEPs from Pa Tio District and surrounding regions
A comparison of WEPs recorded in Pa Tio District with those documented in surrounding regions revealed relatively low levels of species similarity (Table 6). The present study recorded 100 WEP species in Pa Tio District. When compared with Akat Amnuai District (Sakon Nakhon Province), 23 species were shared, resulting in a Jaccard Index (JI) of 0.148 and a similarity measure (SM) of 14.8%. A comparable level of similarity was observed with Mueang District, Yasothon Province, where 34 common species yielded a JI of 0.144 (SM = 14.4%).
Table 6.
Comparison of wild edible plants in Pa Tio District and adjacent regions, presenting total species numbers (SN), number of shared species (CS), Jaccard Index (JI), similarity measure (SM, %), and corresponding reference sources
| Study area | SN | CS | JI | SM | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | 100 | - | - | - | - |
| Akat Amnuai District, Sakon Nakhon Province | 78 | 23 | 0.148 | 14.8 | [13] |
| Mueang District, Yasothon Province | 170 | 34 | 0.144 | 14.4 | [37] |
| Pho Chai District, Roi Et Province | 317 | 41 | 0.109 | 10.9 | [38] |
| Roi-Et Province | 162 | 25 | 0.105 | 10.5 | [39] |
| Khong Chai District, Kalasin Province | 291 | 31 | 0.086 | 8.6 | [40] |
Lower similarity values were found when Pa Tio District was compared with Pho Chai District, Roi Et Province (41 common species; JI = 0.109; SM = 10.9%) and with the overall flora of Roi Et Province (25 common species; JI = 0.105; SM = 10.5%). The lowest similarity was recorded with Khong Chai District, Kalasin Province, which shared 31 species with Pa Tio District, corresponding to a JI of 0.086 and an SM of 8.6%. Overall, these results indicate limited overlap in WEP species composition between Pa Tio District and neighboring areas, highlighting pronounced local variation in WEP diversity and use.
Economic value of WEPs
A total of 51 WEP species were recorded as being sold in local traditional markets and roadside stalls in Pa Tio District (Table 7). Supermarkets and large-scale commercial markets were not included in the survey. Market prices ranged from approximately 10 to 150 THB/kg, depending on species, plant part, and season.
Table 7.
Economic valuation of wild edible plants marketed in Pa Tio District, presenting price ranges, monthly sales volume, market availability, and average annual income per trader
| Scientific name | Price (THB/kg)* | Monthly sales volume (kg) | Availability (Months/Year) | Average yearly income (THB/a Trader) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| max | min | ||||
| Limnophila geoffrayi Bonati | 90 | 70 | 12 | 12 | 11,520 |
| Tiliacora triandra (Colebr.) Diels | 80 | 70 | 10 | 12 | 9,000 |
| Cissampelos pareira L. | 60 | 35 | 15 | 12 | 8,550 |
| Cleome gynandra L. | 45 | 30 | 17 | 12 | 7,650 |
| Cratoxylum formosum (Jack) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Dyer | 150 | 100 | 12 | 5 | 7,500 |
| Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex A.W.Benn. | 120 | 100 | 5 | 12 | 6,600 |
| Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) Kuntze | 70 | 50 | 17 | 6 | 6,120 |
| Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | 50 | 40 | 11 | 12 | 5,940 |
| Pontederia elata (Ridl.) M.Pell. & C.N.Horn | 35 | 30 | 14 | 12 | 5,460 |
| Pontederia vaginalis Burm.f. | 40 | 30 | 13 | 12 | 5,460 |
| Melientha suavis Pierre | 100 | 50 | 16 | 4 | 4,800 |
| Nephelium hypoleucum Kurz | 70 | 60 | 12 | 6 | 4,680 |
| Neptunia oleracea Lour. | 60 | 50 | 7 | 12 | 4,620 |
| Clitoria ternatea L. | 60 | 25 | 9 | 12 | 4,590 |
| Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. | 70 | 50 | 12 | 6 | 4,320 |
| Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. | 25 | 20 | 16 | 12 | 4,320 |
| Hultholia mimosoides (Lam.) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis | 40 | 30 | 10 | 12 | 4,200 |
| Nymphaea pubescens Willd. | 50 | 20 | 10 | 12 | 4,200 |
| Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson | 50 | 100 | 13 | 4 | 3,900 |
| Syzygium antisepticum (Blume) Merr. & L.M.Perry | 30 | 20 | 13 | 12 | 3,900 |
| Amaranthus blitum L. | 40 | 20 | 10 | 12 | 3,600 |
| Amaranthus viridis L. | 40 | 20 | 10 | 12 | 3,600 |
| Amorphophallus brevispathus Gagnep. | 50 | 100 | 12 | 4 | 3,600 |
| Dioscorea hispida Dennst. | 100 | 60 | 14 | 3 | 3,360 |
| Calamus caesius Blume | 50 | 35 | 13 | 6 | 3,315 |
| Curcuma singularis Gagnep. | 80 | 45 | 15 | 3 | 2,812.5 |
| Dioscorea pierrei Prain & Burkill | 100 | 50 | 12 | 3 | 2,700 |
| Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. | 25 | 20 | 10 | 12 | 2,700 |
| Elaeocarpus hygrophilus Kurz | 80 | 75 | 11 | 3 | 2,557.5 |
| Phyllanthus emblica L. | 50 | 35 | 10 | 6 | 2,550 |
| Dioscorea pseudotomentosa Prain & Burkill | 100 | 50 | 11 | 3 | 2,475 |
| Sesbania javanica Miq. | 100 | 50 | 8 | 4 | 2,400 |
| Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. | 50 | 40 | 11 | 4 | 1,980 |
| Careya arborea Roxb. | 40 | 30 | 11 | 5 | 1,925 |
| Senegalia rugata (Lam.) Britton & Rose | 35 | 30 | 9 | 6 | 1,755 |
| Ficus racemosa L. | 50 | 30 | 7 | 6 | 1,680 |
| Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara | 30 | 20 | 5 | 12 | 1,500 |
| Willughbeia edulis Roxb. | 40 | 35 | 10 | 4 | 1,500 |
| Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt | 20 | 15 | 7 | 12 | 1,470 |
| Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit | 15 | 10 | 9 | 12 | 1,350 |
| Buchanania lanzan Spreng. | 30 | 25 | 12 | 4 | 1,320 |
| Mangifera caloneura Kurz | 40 | 20 | 7 | 6 | 1,260 |
| Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. | 30 | 25 | 9 | 4 | 990 |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels | 30 | 20 | 12 | 3 | 900 |
| Ampelocissus martini Planch. | 40 | 30 | 6 | 4 | 840 |
| Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. | 30 | 20 | 6 | 4 | 600 |
| Terminalia chebula Retz. | 30 | 20 | 5 | 4 | 500 |
| Uvaria rufa (Dunal) Blume | 20 | 10 | 10 | 3 | 450 |
| Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. | 20 | 15 | 5 | 4 | 350 |
| Dialium cochinchinense Pierre | 25 | 20 | 5 | 3 | 337.5 |
| Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. | 20 | 10 | 5 | 4 | 300 |
*Exchange rate — 1 USD = 31.04 THB (as of 25 February 2026)
Limnophila geoffrayi showed the highest economic value (EV = 11,520), with market prices of 70–90 THB/kg. This was followed by Tiliacora triandra (EV = 9,000) and Cissampelos pareira (EV = 8,550). Other species with relatively high economic values included Cleome gynandra, Cratoxylum formosum, and Irvingia malayana.
In contrast, Ficus racemosa, Terminalia chebula, and Pithecellobium dulce had lower economic values, each with annual returns below 600 THB.
Seasonal availability varied among species, with some recorded only during specific periods of the year.
Novel reports
This study is the first report of WEPs in Pa Tio District. A total of 100 species were recorded, together with information on their diversity, growth forms, plant parts used, and patterns of utilization.
The study also documents local knowledge related to the use of these plants. This includes how different species are prepared and consumed in daily life, such as being used as vegetables, fruits, beverages, condiments, and snacks. Some species were reported to have multiple roles, being used both as food and as medicine.
In addition, ethnomedicinal uses of WEPs in this area are reported for the first time. Information on preparation methods and routes of administration was recorded from local informants. Quantitative indices, including Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI), Fidelity Level (%FL), and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), are also presented to show the relative importance of each species and the level of agreement among informants.
Overall, this study provides baseline information on WEPs and associated traditional knowledge in the study area, which has not been previously documented.
Discussion
Biocultural significance and food system roles of WEPs
The diversity of WEPs in Pa Tio District represents a critical foundation for local food systems, extending beyond dietary supplementation to underpin food sovereignty and long-term resilience. By maintaining access to a wide spectrum of species across seasons and habitats, local communities retain a degree of autonomy over food resources that is less dependent on external markets or industrial agriculture [41, 42]. This autonomy is particularly significant under conditions of climate variability and economic instability, where WEPs function as fallback foods that stabilize household consumption and reduce vulnerability to supply disruptions [43].
The observed dominance of vegetables and fruits indicates that WEPs are embedded in routine dietary practices rather than being reserved for emergency use. This integration suggests that local food systems are structured around flexible and diversified resource use, enabling adaptive responses to seasonal fluctuations [44, 45]. The inclusion of specialized categories such as condiments, fermented products, and staple substitutes further demonstrates that WEPs contribute not only to caloric intake but also to sensory diversity, culinary identity, and micronutrient balance [46–48].
Importantly, the presence of medicinal edible plants reinforces the role of WEPs within a food–medicine continuum, where daily consumption contributes to preventive healthcare [49, 50]. Such practices may reduce dependence on formal healthcare systems, particularly in rural settings where access to medical services is limited [51, 52]. From a public health perspective, this integration of diet and therapy supports low-cost, culturally appropriate health maintenance strategies.
The variation in CFSI values highlights a stratified food system in which a limited number of species sustain daily needs, while a broader pool enhances resilience and adaptability [53, 54]. The loss of low-frequency species—often associated with seasonal or specialized uses—could therefore reduce the adaptive capacity of the system [55, 56]. Consequently, conservation efforts should not focus solely on dominant species but also consider the preservation of less frequently used taxa that contribute to system redundancy and long-term food security [57, 58].
Ecological patterns and sustainability implications
The predominance of native WEP species in Pa Tio District indicates a strong linkage between local food systems and in situ biodiversity, with important implications for environmental sustainability [59, 60]. Reliance on indigenous plant resources suggests that ecosystem integrity directly underpins food availability, making biodiversity conservation a prerequisite for maintaining food security at the local level [61].
The diversity of growth forms—particularly the dominance of trees alongside herbs and climbers—reflects a multi-layered foraging system that distributes resource extraction across different ecological niches. Such structural diversity enhances ecosystem resilience by reducing pressure on any single plant group and promoting functional redundancy within the landscape [62].
Harvesting practices further reinforce sustainability. The preferential use of renewable plant parts, such as fruits and leaves, minimizes ecological disturbance and allows for continued regeneration [63]. In contrast, the relatively limited use of roots, bark, and tubers reduces destructive harvesting pressure and supports long-term population persistence [64]. However, species identified as having high cultural and economic value may face increased harvesting pressure, potentially leading to localized depletion if not properly managed [65].
Future environmental strategies should therefore integrate community-based monitoring and sustainable harvesting guidelines, particularly for high-demand species. Strengthening the link between traditional practices and formal conservation policies could enhance both ecological integrity and local participation in biodiversity management [66, 67].
Ethnomedicinal knowledge and risk management systems
Ethnomedicinal use of WEPs in Pa Tio District reflects an integrated knowledge system in which food and medicine function along a continuum. The predominance of fresh plant materials and oral administration indicates that therapeutic practices are closely aligned with everyday dietary behaviors, reinforcing preventive healthcare through regular consumption [68].
From a public health perspective, the high levels of agreement indicated by Fidelity Level (%FL) and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) values suggest that local knowledge is both reliable and widely shared [69]. This consistency enhances the effectiveness of traditional remedies and indicates a form of community-based healthcare system that operates alongside formal medical services [70].
The management of toxic or potentially harmful WEPs further illustrates the sophistication of local knowledge systems. Rather than excluding these species, communities employ detailed detoxification and preparation techniques, transforming potentially hazardous plants into safe and valuable resources. This approach reflects a culturally embedded risk-management framework that expands the usable resource base while minimizing health risks [13, 23].
Importantly, the erosion of such knowledge—due to socio-economic change and reduced intergenerational transmission—could have significant public health implications. Loss of ethnomedicinal knowledge may reduce access to locally available treatments and increase dependence on external healthcare systems [66]. Therefore, preserving and documenting this knowledge is essential for sustaining both cultural heritage and community health resilience [71].
Socio-economic roles and regional context
WEPs in Pa Tio District play a significant role in livelihood diversification and rural economic resilience. Income generated from the sale of WEPs provides financial flexibility, particularly for households with limited access to stable employment [72]. Species with higher economic value typically combine ecological availability with strong cultural demand, reflecting the interaction between environmental resources and local market systems [73].
From a food sovereignty perspective, the commercialization of WEPs presents both opportunities and challenges. While market integration can enhance household income and incentivize the maintenance of traditional knowledge, it may also increase harvesting pressure and shift resource use toward market-driven priorities [74]. Balancing subsistence use with commercial exploitation is therefore essential for long-term sustainability [75].
Comparative analysis with surrounding regions reveals low species similarity, underscoring the context-dependent nature of ethnobotanical knowledge systems. These differences reflect not only ecological variation but also culturally mediated preferences, land-use practices, and methodological differences among studies [76, 77]. This highlights the need for site-specific conservation and development strategies rather than generalized regional approaches.
Taken together, WEPs function as multifunctional biocultural resources that integrate environmental sustainability, food systems, public health, and local economies. Future strategies should adopt an integrated approach that supports sustainable harvesting, strengthens local markets without undermining subsistence use, and promotes the transmission of traditional knowledge. Such efforts will be essential for addressing emerging challenges related to environmental change, food security, and public health in rural communities.
Conclusions
This study demonstrates that WEPs remain integral to food systems, health practices, and livelihoods in Pa Tio District, reflecting a resilient biocultural system grounded in local ecological knowledge. The diversity of species, growth forms, habitats, and modes of utilization highlights that WEPs are not marginal or emergency resources, but multifunctional components of everyday life that contribute to dietary diversity, seasonal food security, preventive healthcare, and supplementary income.
Patterns of use reveal a structured yet flexible knowledge system in which vegetables and fruits dominate daily consumption, while medicinal edible plants, condiments, beverages, fermented products, and starch-producing species fulfill specialized nutritional, therapeutic, and cultural roles. The preference for non-destructive plant parts, together with sophisticated processing and detoxification techniques, indicates that sustainability considerations are embedded within traditional practices rather than imposed externally. At the same time, species with high cultural and economic importance are subject to greater harvesting pressure, underscoring the need for targeted management.
The strong integration of food and medicine, high informant consensus, and context-specific plant selection emphasize that WEP knowledge is locally adapted and cannot be fully understood through generalized or cross-regional comparisons alone. Consequently, the erosion of WEP use would represent not only a loss of plant resources but also a decline in culturally embedded strategies for risk management, health maintenance, and livelihood resilience.
From a policy and conservation perspective, these findings highlight the importance of recognizing WEPs as biocultural resources. Community-based conservation, support for sustainable harvesting practices, and the transmission of traditional knowledge across generations are essential to maintaining both biodiversity and food security. Integrating WEPs into local food policies, conservation planning, and development strategies can therefore contribute to more resilient, culturally grounded, and sustainable rural food systems.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Mahasarakham University for financial support. We thank the Walai Rukhavej Botanical Research Institute, Mahasarakham University for logistical support and research facilities. We are grateful to Sa-ngad Jitpromma, Saisamorn Jitpromma, and Santi Jitpromma for fieldwork assistance, and to Kamonwan Koompoot for guidance in QGIS training. We also thank the members of the Saensouk Laboratory for their assistance throughout the study. Finally, we appreciate the cooperation and knowledge shared by the local communities of Pa Tio District, Yasothon Province, Thailand.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, methodology, validation, and writing—review and editing were contributed T.J., P.S. S.W. and S.S.; investigation, resources, data curation, software, formal analysis, writing—original draft preparation, visualization, and project administrationwere performed T.J.; supervision was done by P.S. S.W. and S.S.; funding acquisition was responsible for S.S. All authors reviewed the final manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by Mahasarakham University, Thailand.
Data availability
The original contributions presented in this study are contained within the article. Any further inquiries may be directed to the first or corresponding author.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All participants provided prior free and informed consent before taking part in the study, with assurance that no personal information would be disclosed or used to identify individuals. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee for Research Involving Human Subjects, Mahasarakham University, Thailand (Approval No. 045–905/2026).
Consent for publication
Informed consent was obtained from all participants for the use of anonymized data in publications.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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