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. 2026 May 14;16:22001. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-50097-x

Research and case studies for the transformation from extensive mining to green mining

Jianwen Zhao 1,2, Shuai Li 3,✉, Qun Jiang 2, Zhenyu Dan 3, Qingtao Luo 2
PMCID: PMC13365521  PMID: 42129424

Abstract

Ninety percent of China’s mining enterprises are small and medium-sized mines, which have long relied on extensive mining, causing severe resource waste, prominent safety hazards, serious environmental pollution, and bottlenecks in sustainable development. Single tailings backfilling also has limitations in meeting the high-standard requirements of green mine construction. This study first takes the Shishudi Gold Mine and Xiadian Gold Mine as typical cases to systematically analyze the common problems and hazards of extensive mining. Then it conducts an empirical study on Xinheng Mining’s green transformation measures, including mining method optimization, mechanization upgrading, and the “backfilling and brick-making” synergistic tailings utilization mode. The results show that extensive mining led to a 45.43% total ore loss rate in the Shishudi Gold Mine, and only 60% ore recovery rate with 50% dilution rate in Xinheng’s original mining mode. After transformation, Xinheng’s ore recovery rate rose to 88%~92%, dilution rate dropped to 5%~8%, mining capacity significantly improved, and zero tailings discharge was achieved. This study provides a replicable technical pathway for the green transformation of similar mines.

Subject terms: Energy science and technology, Engineering, Environmental sciences, Environmental social sciences

Introduction

Although China is a global mining powerhouse, small and medium-sized mining enterprises account for up to 90% of its mining structure1. These mines often face challenges such as outdated production concepts, small scale, and obsolete technology. Under the objective constraints of complex ore conditions and low grades, they predominantly adopt extensive mining practices. Relevant research indicates that this model has significant problems, typically characterized by low resource recovery rates, high safety and environmental risks, and low production organization efficiency2,3.

With the continuous advancement of national green mine construction policies in China, domestic scholars and engineering institutions have carried out extensive research and engineering practice on the transformation and upgrading of mining technology and mechanized equipment, forming a series of technical achievements to improve resource recovery efficiency, ensure production safety, and reduce ecological disturbance4,5. Among them, backfill mining has been widely recognized as a core technology for tailings resource utilization and goaf control, and domestic studies have verified its effectiveness in improving stope stability and resource recovery through a large number of engineering cases4,5.

However, most existing studies focus on the optimization of a single technical link, such as backfill material ratio improvement or single mining method parameter optimization, while lacking systematic research on the full-chain collaborative transformation from the overall extensive mining mode to green mine, especially the in-depth coupling of mining method optimization and multi-path comprehensive utilization of tailings. Even for the widely used backfill mining technology, existing domestic studies mostly focus on backfill performance improvement, but rarely consider the mismatch between the actual tailings absorption capacity of the backfill system and the full tailings discharge requirements of mines, especially for low-grade mines where tailings production is much higher than backfill demand. Constrained by this mismatch, the single backfill mode is difficult to fully meet the high-standard requirements of green mine construction for tailings reduction, harmless disposal and full resource utilization, which is also the core technical bottleneck faced by most small and medium-sized mines in the green transformation process.

Addressing the limitations of single backfilling methods in tailings comprehensive utilization, Lottermoser proposed a multi-path resource disposal concept centered on tailings reprocessing, reuse, and recycling6. This concept has been widely researched and validated in practice globally. In terms of reprocessing, deep recovery of residual valuable components in tailings through beneficiation processes has been engineered and applied in multiple mining areas7,8. International research further confirms its strategic value and technical feasibility. For example, using flotation, magnetic separation, and other processes to recover high-grade iron concentrate from iron ore tailings9, or employing innovative technologies to extract rare earth elements10,11; recovery technologies for critical minerals11 and even precious metals like gold are becoming increasingly mature12. Meanwhile, advanced process control and life cycle assessment studies as well as emerging technologies like in-situ leaching are driving the reprocessing process towards higher efficiency and sustainability13–16.

In terms of reuse, tailings are gradually being expanded into fields such as backfill materials, construction materials, and ceramic raw materials, forming a systematic and diversified utilization model. Research not only emphasizes the fundamental role of mineralogical characterization in optimizing utilization but also specifically validates the feasibility of using tailings as road base materials17, concrete aggregate, or ceramic raw materials18. Innovative reuse pathways such as geopolymer preparation and its application in 3D printing and structural engineering demonstrate high value-added potential19–21. Relevant strategic reviews and environmental benefit assessments also provide support for large-scale application, although high-value applications still face challenges, such as the technical difficulties of using phosphate tailings in asphalt22–24.

At the broader level of recycling, research covers integrated processing systems for base metal tailings, chemical-mineralogical recovery processes, to separation and chemical treatment technologies for specific tailings like vanadium-titanium magnetite and nickel tailings25–27. The geochemical principles of pollution control, emerging applications like nanotechnology, and overall strategy evaluations together constitute the complete technological spectrum for tailings recycling28–31. This multi-level resource utilization system not only helps achieve near-zero discharge of tailings but also simultaneously enhances economic, social, and safety benefits.

The aforementioned technological concepts and transformation pathways ultimately need to be validated and optimized in the production practices of specific mines. Therefore, this paper first systematically elaborates on the characteristics and problems of extensive mining by analyzing the cases of the Shishudi Gold Mine and the Shandong Xiadian Gold Mine. Then, combining the practice of Xinheng Mining’s transformation from extensive mining to a green mine, it focuses on analyzing its specific measures and effectiveness in mining method optimization and tailings comprehensive utilization, aiming to provide practical reference for the green transformation of similar mines.

Case studies of mines with extensive stoping practices

Shishudi Gold Mine, Henan

The Shishudi Gold Mine of Henan Zhongkuang Energy Co., Ltd. is located in Niutougou, Dazhang Township, Song County, Henan Province. It is an underground mining operation with a designed production capacity of 120,000 t/a. Currently, stoping operations from the + 633 m to + 860 m levels have been completed. Stoping is being organized for levels below + 633 m, while levels above 860 m have lost safe stoping conditions due to surface subsidence induced by goaf collapse.

The mine employs the room and pillar method but lacks a supporting backfill system, leaving the mined-out areas in a long-term untreated state, and processing tailings are not used for goaf backfilling. This, on one hand, allows the goafs to persistently constitute safety hazards, and on the other hand, exacerbates the pressure for surface disposal of tailings. As shown in Fig. 1, the existing tailings pond is nearing its capacity limit, while constructing a new tailings pond faces constraints such as high investment, difficulties in land acquisition, and long construction cycles, severely impacting the mine’s sustainable development.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Current status and location diagram of the Shishudi Gold Mine tailings pond (map created using Google Earth Pro, version [7.3.6], https://earth.google.com).

At the stoping process level, due to a lack of systematic planning and crude operational methods, two prominent problems are exposed: First, within individual stopes, the commonly adopted top-down stoping sequence (Fig. 2c) is obviously inconsistent with the rational bottom-up sequence (Fig. 2b). This reverse mining order causes premature exposure of the stope roof, seriously threatening operational safety, resulting in frequent stope shutdowns and substantial orebody loss.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Standard room and pillar method schematic (a and b) and current construction status at Shishudi (c).

Under the aforementioned stoping method, a large number of goafs were formed after completion of stoping in the + 633 m ~ + 860 m levels. Due to the absence of backfilling and effective maintenance, goaf stability continued to decline, eventually leading to collapse. The goaf collapse damaged the rock mass structure below, and its effects gradually propagated upwards, ultimately inducing surface subsidence above the + 860 m level. This rendered the resources in this section unrecoverable even before stoping, becoming the area with the most concentrated ore loss.

Extensive stoping directly led to severe resource loss. Figure 3 summarizes the resource and loss situation for the + 633 m ~ + 860 m mined levels and the collapsed levels above + 860 m. The data shows that for the + 633 m ~ + 860 m levels, the geological resource was 1.7176 million tons, with lost ore amounting to 648,400 tons, resulting in a loss rate of 37.74%. This indicates that even in the mined areas, resource wastage remains a prominent issue.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Distribution map of ore loss and recovery in completed stoping levels.

In contrast, the loss above the + 860 m level is more severe: For the + 860 m ~ + 976 m level, the geological reserve was 1.5652 million tons, with lost ore amounting to 1.2573 million tons, a loss rate as high as 80.33%. For the level above + 976 m, the geological reserve was 1.5358 million tons, with lost ore amounting to 1.1518 million tons, a loss rate of 74.99%. Detailed resource quantities and loss amounts for all levels are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Resource quantity, ore loss, and goaf volume distribution by level.

Mining level(m) Total resources (104 t) Ore Loss(104 t) Goaf volume (m3)
>+976 153.58 115.18 426,611
+ 860 ~ + 976 156.52 125.73 465,650
+ 835 ~ + 860 19.09 3.01 11,130
+ 808 ~ + 835 20.09 8.92 33,050
+ 773 ~ + 808 21.77 11.06 40,950
+ 738 ~ + 773 23.27 9.87 36,550
+ 703 ~ + 738 22.85 6.68 24,750
+ 668 ~ + 703 33.61 10.21 37,800
+ 633 ~ + 668 31.08 15.09 55,879
+ 598 ~ + 633 33.88 3.16 11,717
+ 563 ~ + 598 32.17 3.71 13,730
+ 528 ~ + 563 26.95 1.94 7194
+ 193 ~ + 528 (unmined) 117.53 0.00 0
Total 692.39 314.55 1,165,011
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The long-term use of non-backfilled open stoping methods is the root cause of forming large volumes of goafs and triggering collapses. Goafs not only constrain stoping operations during production but their collapse directly renders resources above + 860 m entirely worthless and causes surface environmental damage. Investigation shows that the mine has formed 98 goafs with a total volume of 1.165 million m³ (goaf volume distribution by level is shown in Table 1), resulting in a total ore loss of 3.1455 million tons, accounting for 45.43% of the total geological reserve. Among these, collapsed goaf volume is approximately 631,600 m³, accounting for 54.21%; non-collapsed, accessible goaf volume is approximately 533,400 m³, accounting for 45.79%.

Furthermore, mine production once lacked scientific planning, leading to simultaneous operations on multiple levels, resulting in low production efficiency. Concurrently, the connected goaf network caused severe air leakage underground, making it difficult to establish a complete and effective ventilation system, further exacerbating the contradiction between safe production and resource recovery.

Xiadian Gold Mine, Shandong

The Xiadian Gold Mine is located near Xizhixia Village, Xiadian Town, south of Zhaoyuan City, Shandong Province, administratively under Xiadian Town, Zhaoyuan City. The mining area geographical coordinates range from 120°18′34″ to 120°20′43″ East longitude, and 37°06′16″ to 37°07′46″ North latitude. The rock mass stability coefficient (f) is 8–12.

During production at this mine, despite the overall low strength of the surrounding rock, the point pillar upward horizontal cut and fill mining method was still employed. In the specific stoping process, to maintain goaf stability, numerous pillars were retained, supplemented by rock bolt support. However, during the next cut’s stoping, rock bolts needed to be cut to recover the ore from the previous cut. This process not only resulted in incomplete ore recovery (see Fig. 4) but also significantly increased construction complexity and production costs.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Current stoping status at −980 m level of Orebody VII, Xiadian Gold Mine.

Based on comprehensive analysis of deposit occurrence characteristics and mining technical conditions, the upward horizontal drift cut and fill mining method is recommended (as shown in Fig. 5). This method can achieve full recovery of the orebody while effectively controlling surrounding rock movement, clearly superior to the existing extensive stoping plan.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Recovery plan diagram using upward drift method at −980 m level, Xiadian Gold Mine.

Main characteristics and hazards of extensive stoping

Main characteristics of extensive stoping

  1. Mismatched Mining Method Selection

    Mines practicing extensive stoping often fail to adequately consider deposit occurrence conditions and surrounding rock stability requirements when selecting mining methods, making it difficult to ensure stoping safety and improve production efficiency.

  2. Improper Implementation of Mining Methods

    During implementation, strategies like “mining the rich and discarding the poor, mining the easy and discarding the difficult” are commonly adopted, prioritizing the recovery of high-grade or easily minable ore. As goafs expand, this ultimately leads to permanent loss of large amounts of ore.

  3. Low Production Efficiency

    Due to unreasonable application of mining methods, stope preparation time is long while actual recovered ore quantity is limited. Additionally, the level of mechanization is generally low, often relying on non-mechanized equipment like scrapers, significantly reducing overall stoping efficiency.

Main hazards of extensive stoping

  1. Prominent Safety Risks

    To meet annual production targets, mines often adopt simultaneous stoping on multiple levels and multiple working faces, significantly increasing production organization and management difficulties and embedding serious safety hazards. Taking Xiadian Gold Mine as an example, to meet annual production demands, over 80 working faces needed to be maintained simultaneously.

  2. Significant Environmental Hazards

    In terms of environmental impact, the lack of systematic treatment measures leads to surface stockpiling of waste rock and tailings occupying large areas of land and polluting soil, water bodies, and air. Simultaneously, goafs can easily induce surface subsidence, landslides, and other geological hazards, further threatening the regional ecological environment8,32,33.

  3. Severe Loss of Mineral Resources

    Under extensive stoping conditions, the formation of large volumes of untreated goafs directly leads to a significant decrease in ore recovery rate and prominent resource wastage.

In summary, extensive stoping is a mining model lacking systematic coordination and scientific planning. Problems such as mismatch and non-standard practices are common in the selection and implementation of mining methods, leading to low stoping efficiency, prominent safety risks, and substantial loss of mineral resources. Goafs formed after stoping, if not treated promptly, can easily evolve into long-term safety hazards and environmental risks, severely constraining the mine’s safe production and sustainable development.

Green mine transformation and synergistic tailings treatment at Xinheng Mining

Mine overview

The Xingan Fluorite Mine is located within the territory of Xingan County, Jiangxi Province, in the Dakeng Village area approximately 29 km in a 115° direction from the county center. The geographical center coordinates are approximately 115°38′16″ East longitude, 27°39′29″ North latitude. The mine is a typical “under three” mining operation (under structures, water bodies, railways/roads). The surface features dense villages, large areas of farmland, streams, and roads (see Fig. 6). The mine uses the shrinkage stoping method for ore recovery. The average ore grade is about 20%. The ore-rock structure is fragmented, with medium to poor rock mass stability. The southern part is a low-lying valley and paddy field area with significant topographic water catchment conditions, complicating hydrogeological conditions and posing a water inrush risk where surface water could seep into the mine through caving zones and water-conducting fracture zones. Additionally, the Xingan Fluorite Mine tailings pond has undergone closure treatment, and there is no available space on the surface for new tailings stockpiling.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Schematic diagram of the location of the mine (map created using Google Earth Pro, version [7.3.6], https://earth.google.com).

Problems faced by extensive stoping

Xinheng Mining adopted an extensive mining model, using the shrinkage stoping method for stoping operations. Limited by the stope structure characteristics of this mining method, the mine could only configure low-end excavation equipment, resulting in low stoping efficiency. Production increases relied primarily on a large workforce, increasing management difficulty and safety risks34,35. Simultaneously, ore recovery rate was low and dilution rate high, with a comprehensive ore recovery rate of 60% and a dilution rate as high as 50%, causing significant resource wastage5,36. Long-term extensive mining led to large-scale accumulation of goafs. After continuous expansion, some goafs collapsed to the surface, and some became connected with surface water channels, triggering water inrush incidents underground. Rock mass stability significantly decreased, seriously threatening production safety (see Figs. 7 and 8). Furthermore, the lack of a tailings treatment system further constrained mine production efficiency, creating dual pressure from environmental and production aspects.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Schematic diagram of legacy issues from extensive mining (goafs + water inrush).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Goaf distribution map of the mining area.

Given the drawbacks of extensive mining, Xinheng Mining once attempted to promote backfill method transformation and mechanization upgrades. However, this transformation merely added subsequent backfilling to the original mining method and upgraded the bottom structure for LHD ore removal (see Fig. 9). Due to insufficiently comprehensive design of the backfill method transformation plan, the ore removal structure did not consider ore-rock stability, employing an exposed ore removal method. During subsequent LHD ore removal operations, unfortunately, a fatal accident occurred.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Shrinkage stoping with subsequent backfilling method and its drilling/ore removal equipment.

Green mine construction at Xinheng Mining

Mining method optimization

The ore-rock structure at the Xinheng Mining area is fragmented, with poor rock mass stability. Traditional extensive stoping methods could no longer meet the needs of efficient and safe mining. Therefore, based on actual deposit characteristics, Xinheng Mining adopted two stoping schemes: blasting stoping and non-blasting stoping, aiming to enhance stoping efficiency and safety.

  1. Blasting Stoping Scheme

    Based on analysis of the mining technical conditions of the ore-rock, and through systematic comparison of multiple mining methods (see Table 2), the upward horizontal cut and fill method was ultimately selected as the primary mining method (see Fig. 10). This method, by effectively controlling the exposed area and height of ore-rock during stoping operations, significantly improved the safety and stability of stoping operations. This transformation not only enhanced the mine’s safety defense but also provided a solid foundation for long-term stable green mining. Relevant technical-economic indicators show that the upward horizontal cut and fill method can achieve a recovery rate of 88%~92%, with a dilution rate controlled at 5%~8%, and production capacity also significantly improved.

  2. Non-Blasting Stoping Scheme

    For areas with fragmented ore-rock, the non-blasting stoping method is employed, using a roadheader to complete rock breaking operations. This method not only avoids risks like roadway collapse potentially induced by blasting vibration but also significantly improves the integrity and stability of the roadway surrounding rock (compare Figs. 11 and 12).

Table 2.

Comprehensive evaluation and comparison table for technical-economic, safety-efficacy, and engineering adaptability of mining methods.

Mining methods Production capacity/(t/d) Recovery rate/% Dilution rate/% Cutting ratio/(m/kt) Strata control effectiveness Difficulty of implementation
Upward horizontal layered filling method 200–300 88–92 5–8 8–15 Effective Easy
Shrinkage stoping with delayed backfill 100–150 85–90 10–15 4–7 Satisfactory Moderate
Sublevel Stoping with delayed backfill 500–600 80–85 15–20 5–7 Marginal Difficult
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Fig. 10.

Fig. 10

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Upward horizontal cut and fill method.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 11

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Roadway collapse condition with drill-and-blast method.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 12

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Roadway from non-blasting stoping method.

To ensure the credibility and traceability of the technical and economic indicators, all relevant data are derived from 60 consecutive working days of field industrial tests in the designated test stope, excluding non-production time such as equipment maintenance, shutdown for material preparation and regular safety inspection. The statistical scope of mining cost adopts a unified caliber for both the non-blasting method and the traditional drill-and-blast method, covering rock breaking/drilling consumables, blasting materials (only applicable to the drill-and-blast method), mucking and transportation, roadway support, equipment depreciation and maintenance, labor cost and on-site management cost, while excluding the cost of subsequent links such as mineral processing, backfilling and tailings disposal, to ensure the consistency and comparability of the comparative analysis.

The comparative results show that the non-blasting stoping method has clear technical and economic advantages over the traditional drill-and-blast method: the average driving efficiency of the non-blasting method increased to 12.01 m/d, which is 3 times the 4.00 m/d benchmark efficiency of the traditional drill-and-blast method; the unit stoping cost was reduced to 14.78 CNY/ton, which is 21.89 CNY/ton lower than the 36.67 CNY/ton benchmark cost of the drill-and-blast method. Based on the mine’s annual approved production capacity of 100,000 tons, the annual mining cost saving is approximately 2.189 million CNY.

Equipment upgrading

The mechanization upgrade of stoping equipment is a crucial aspect of green mine construction. It not only enhances production efficiency but also further ensures operational safety. Based on differences in ore fragmentation and rock mass stability, Xinheng Mining adopted two mechanized stoping processes: mechanized drill-and-blast stoping and mechanized non-blasting stoping.

For drill-and-blast stoping, the mine mechanized the traditional stoping process, including drilling, charging, mucking, and hauling. After mechanization, the efficiency of the drill-and-blast method significantly increased, with actual stoping capacity rising from the original 100 t/d to 250 t/d, while notably improving operational safety. For areas with fragmented orebody, the non-blasting upward horizontal cut and fill method is used, employing mechanized mine roadway repair machines for stoping operations and mine trucks for ore haulage (see Fig. 13). After this transformation, mining capacity increased to 500.13 t/d, a 400% increase compared to traditional stoping methods. This change not only improved production efficiency but also provided a guarantee for the safe and stable operation of the mine.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 13

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Equipment configuration for conventional drill-blast and mechanical cutting operations (A-1 to A-4 are the four segments of mechanized drilling and blasting method of mining, corresponding to: rock drilling, charging, ore discharge, and ore transportation, while B-1 and B-2 correspond to the two segments of non-blasting method of mining, crushing and ore transportation).

Tailings management

Research reports indicate that fluorite tailings pollute groundwater, and people drinking such water can suffer from dental and skeletal diseases. Furthermore, literature points out that high fluoride intake damages soft tissues like the liver, kidneys, and cerebellum. Fluoride accumulation in the brain impairs the central nervous system37–39. Forján, Baragaño et al. pointed out that in areas where fluorite mining occurs, mercury contamination can happen due to the inability to properly treat fluorite processing waste40.

Given the harm of fluorite mine tailings to the environment and human health, and the fact that Xinheng Mining has no available space on the surface for tailings stockpiling, the tailings generated from ore processing must achieve full resource utilization. Although the process upgrade to backfill methods achieved partial consumption of tailings, due to the low ore grade (approximately 20%), backfilling operations still cannot completely absorb all tailings. Addressing this issue, scholars have proposed various tailings reuse schemes, such as using them as concrete aggregate, or raw material for glass or ceramics41,42.

Xinheng Mining, considering the physical and chemical characteristics of the tailings, adopted a graded utilization strategy: fine-grained tailings are used for underground goaf backfilling, while coarse-grained tailings are used to produce environmentally friendly building bricks (see Figs. 14 and 15). Through the synergistic “backfilling + brick-making” model, the enterprise not only resolved goaf safety hazards and avoided environmental risks from surface stockpiling but also achieved the green mine construction goal of zero tailings discharge. This model combines environmental and economic benefits, providing an innovative pathway for sustainable mine development while protecting the surface ecosystem.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 14

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Tailings comprehensive utilization scheme diagram (C-1 deep cone thickener, C-2 mixing drum, C-3 horizontal mixer, C-4 filling process visualization platform).

Fig. 15.

Fig. 15

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Tailings to make bricks.

Community harmony in mining areas

While enhancing production efficiency through technological means, ensuring safe production, preventing hidden dangers in the mining area, and eliminating the hazards of surface accumulation of tailings, the mine also attaches great importance to the harmonious co-construction of the community. Relevant work mainly includes the implementation of greening of the mining area, strengthening the ecological protection of the ground surface, and actively integrating the humanistic elements of the surrounding area. For example, external cultural resources, such as the neighboring General Li Jikai Memorial Hall, have been incorporated into the humanistic co-construction system of the mine.

Conclusion

  1. Widespread hazards of the extensive stoping model in China’s mining industry

    Small and medium-sized mines account for up to 90% of China’s mining industry, and most of these mines have long adopted extensive stoping practices. This model has caused industry-wide pain points including low resource recovery rates, high safety risks, severe environmental pollution, and inability to meet the requirements of green mine construction and sustainable development.

  2. Severe resource loss and safety hazards caused by extensive stoping

    Typical case studies show that extensive non-backfilled open stoping led to a total goaf volume of 1.165 million m³ and a total ore loss rate of 45.43% in the Shishudi Gold Mine, with the loss rate of unmined levels above 860 m exceeding 75%. The mismatched mining method in the Xiadian Gold Mine resulted in incomplete ore recovery, increased construction complexity and safety hazards. The original extensive shrinkage stoping mode of Xinheng Mining only achieved a 60% ore recovery rate with a dilution rate as high as 50%, accompanied by goaf collapse, water inrush accidents and other major safety risks.

  3. Significant technical and economic benefits achieved through systematic green transformation

    After the systematic green transformation, Xinheng Mining achieved a substantial leap in core technical and economic indicators: the ore recovery rate increased from 60% to 88%~92%, the dilution rate decreased from 50% to 5%~8%, and the mining capacity increased from 100 t/d to 250 ~ 500 t/d. Meanwhile, the “backfilling + brick-making” graded utilization strategy of tailings realized zero tailings discharge, completely eliminating the environmental risks caused by surface tailings stockpiling, and achieving the coordinated improvement of safety, economic and environmental benefits.

  4. Research significance and promotion value

    This study reveals the root causes of the hazards of extensive mining through systematic case analysis, and forms a complete technical system for green transformation of small and medium-sized extensive mines through full-process engineering empirical research. The phased implementation framework proposed in this paper has strong replicability and scalability for similar small and medium-sized mines in China, and can provide practical reference and clear implementation path for the green transformation and high-quality development of the domestic mining industry.

Author contributions

J.Z. and S.L. conceived and designed the research; J.Z., Q.J. and Q.L. conducted field investigations and collected case data of mines; S.L. and Z.D. analyzed the research data and optimized the technical schemes of green mine transformation; J.Z. wrote the original draft of the manuscript, and S.L. revised and polished the manuscript; Z.D. prepared all the figures and tables in the manuscript; Q.J. and Q.L. sorted out the references and verified the technical and economic indicators. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

Major National Science and Technology Project for Deep Earth of China (Grant No. 2024ZD1003808); Science and Technology Innovation Program of Hunan Province (Grant No. 2023RC3035).

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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