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. 2026 Apr 7;40(3):568–573. doi: 10.1111/mve.70071

Field evaluation of Nzi and modified Nzi traps for sampling of Stomoxys calcitrans at dairy farms in Uruguay

Pablo Parodi 1,✉, Anderson Saravia 1, Pablo Fresia 2, Federico Viera 3, Pedro Santoro 3, Steve Mihok 4, Franklin Riet‐Correa 5, Alejo Menchaca 1, Rodrigo F Krüger 6
PMCID: PMC13436539  PMID: 41947320

Abstract

Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus, 1758), the stable fly, is a hematophagous pest that affects animal livestock worldwide by lowering productivity and mechanically transmitting pathogens. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Nzi trap and a modified version (with and without bait) for capturing stable flies on two dairy farms in southwestern Uruguay, under conditions of natural infestation by these flies. The study used a 4 × 4 Latin square design with five replicates conducted independently at each dairy farm. Traps at each dairy were emptied daily to identify and count stable flies before being rotated and reset at the next planned location. Among all configurations, standard Nzi traps captured the highest number of S. calcitrans compared to the other trap evaluated, regardless of whether an attractant was used. This study represents the first evaluation in South America of Nzi traps for S. calcitrans used in combination with a commercial bait. Findings indicate that Nzi traps are a potentially effective tool for capturing S. calcitrans at dairy farms.

Keywords: biting flies, dairy production, economic losses, stable fly

  • First evaluation of Nzi and modified Nzi traps for capturing stable flies under natural dairy farm infestations in Uruguay.

  • Nzi traps yielded the greatest captures of stable flies.

  • Findings support trap‐based monitoring as part of integrated fly management strategies in livestock systems.

graphic file with name MVE-40-568-g001.jpg

INTRODUCTION

The stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a cosmopolitan blood‐feeding pest of livestock, with both sexes feeding on blood and nectar (Duvallet & Hogsette, 2023; Foil & Hogsette, 1994). Their bites cause discomfort, stress and losses in weight gain and milk production, raising animal welfare concerns (Rochon et al., 2021). Beyond these direct effects, they may act as mechanical vectors of numerous viruses, bacteria and parasites, highlighting their veterinary and epidemiological importance (Baldacchino et al., 2013).

Monitoring S. calcitrans is essential to evaluate control strategies. Adhesive traps capture many flies but hinder species identification and pathogen studies (Onju et al., 2020; Phasuk et al., 2025; Taylor & Berkebile, 2006). In contrast, blue/black traps such as Nzi and Vavoua allow live captures and perform well for S. calcitrans and other Stomoxyinae (Lehane et al., 2016; Lendzele et al., 2020; Mihok, 2002; Sharif et al., 2020; Solórzano et al., 2015; Tunnakundacha et al., 2017). However, there is considerable room for improvement of capture efficiency relative to other biting flies such as tabanids (Lendzele & Mavoungou, 2019; Mihok et al., 2006; Mihok et al., 2007; Schofield, 1998).

The effectiveness of traps for S. calcitrans can be enhanced by host‐mimicking baits, such as CO2, animal odours and chemical lures containing 1‐3‐octenol (Cilek, 1999; Kovacs et al., 2024; Mihok et al., 1996; Warnes & Finlayson, 1985). Other studies have evaluated simple attractants, including manure and sugarcane byproducts (vinasse), which increase fly captures when applied in large amounts (Jelvez Serra et al., 2017; Souza et al., 2021; Tangtrakulwanich et al., 2015). Comparative trials show that baited traps, whether with CO2, dung–urine mixtures or other lures, consistently catch more stable flies (Phasuk et al., 2015). Considering their cost, understanding bait efficiency is essential for practical and economical control strategies.

Despite the widespread use of traps, direct comparisons of their performance with and without attractants are few as most studies have evaluated them separately. Understanding how baits influence captures in applied settings is critical for optimizing strategies to improve stable fly control. This study assessed the relative performance of four trap types—standard and modified Nzi traps—with and without volatile chemical baits for S. calcitrans. Our aim was twofold: (i) to evaluate the performance of stable fly traps for capturing adults and (ii) to explore their potential use for control, based on efficiency and cost–benefit considerations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted during the southern hemisphere summer (January and February 2023) at two dairy farms 3.1 km apart (Farm 1: −34.369338° S −57.879860° W, Farm 2: −34.345090° S −57.895231° W, Colonia, Uruguay, Figure S1; Parodi et al., 2026). The sampling period was based on previous work by Pérez (2021) which showed a seasonal peak between December and February. These dairies were small‐scale farms, with 60 (Farm 1) and 80 (Farm 2) lactating Holstein cows. In previous years, farm owners reported severe stable fly infestations, which led to decreased weight gain, lower milk yields and skin lesions in their cattle.

Traps, bait and experimental design

Two traps were evaluated: a typical Nzi trap (Mihok, 2002) and a locally assembled modified version (dataset D1 and Figure S2; Parodi et al., 2026). Both were constructed with a local blue vinyl fabric, the modified trap had the same the blue surface area as the Nzi but incorporated three side entrances. Each trap was tested with or without a new commercial bait for S. calcitrans (Adios Moscas‐ Stomoxys calcitrans™, Products P651‐Lure, Batch: 175.731, Chemtica International S.A, Costa Rica). It contains two ingredients in a plastic bag, (1) 1‐octen‐3‐ol (formulated as a solid tablet‐like matrix) and (2) a proprietary mixture of other chemicals in powder form (not yet disclosed). The bait was reconstituted in water at room temperature (300–350 mL/per container). The attractant package was affixed to the upper section of each trap.

The experimental design followed a 4 × 4 Latin square arrangement with five replicates conducted independently at each farm. Four different trap types were evaluated: the standard Nzi trap, a modified Nzi trap and both versions equipped with bait. At each farm, four fixed sampling points were established. Sampling points were located near the dairy, with sites separated by more than 50 m. Traps were rotated daily among the four points in such a way that each trap occupied each position once during a 4‐day cycle. This rotation scheme was repeated five times (i.e., five full Latin square replicates), ensuring that each trap was tested at each location a total of five times. The same protocol was implemented identically at both farms, allowing for replication and comparison under different environmental conditions. At the end of the experiment, a total of 40 collections were obtained for each trap type (20 at each farm), resulting in 160 trap collections overall (4 trap types × 40 collections per trap).

Species identification

Identification of stable flies was carried out using a stereomicroscope (Zeiss, model Stemi 508, Jena, Germany) according to Zumpt (1973). For each capture, we classified and quantified the specimens.

Characterization of the blue fabric

All traps were made from an opaque, shiny vinyl as a local alternative to phthalogen blue IF3GM cotton. A FORS (Fibre Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy) spectrum for this blue vinyl indicated that the main colourant was similar but not identical to the spectrum of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) or Pigment Blue 15 (Poldi & Caglio, 2013), the exception being a lower peak in the blue at 450 nm. Spectra were taken with an Ocean Optics USB‐4000 spectrophotometer using a deuterium‐halogen light source (Florida, USA) and a Spectralon WS‐1‐SL white standard (Labsphere, USA). Full details are provided in supplementary material D2 and Figure S3 (Parodi et al., 2026).

Statistical analysis

All analyses were performed using Generalized Linear Mixed Models with a negative binomial distribution using Navure software (Navure Team, 2023). To select the best model, data normality and AIC/BIC fits were compared. Trap performance was evaluated based on the number of flies captured, with trap type (Nzi and modNzi), bait (with or without) and their interaction included as fixed factors, while farm, trap position, day and week were included as random effects. Differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. To address the distance hypothesis, the exact distance (m) from the dairy was included as a fixed quantitative factor in this model. To assess the stability of capture rates over time, an interaction term between distance and date was tested using a likelihood ratio (LR) test.

The raw data and analysis code are available in the Dryad Digital Repository (Parodi et al., 2026).

RESULTS

In total, 4456 S. calcitrans were captured. A total of 1236, 1584, 918 and 718 stable flies were captured across four different trap types: Nzi, Nzi with bait, modNzi and modNzi with bait, respectively (see Table S1; Parodi et al., 2026).

Daily mean fly captures differed significantly according to trap type and attractant use, as determined by a generalized linear mixed model with a negative binomial distribution. For Stomoxys calcitrans, the Nzi trap captured significantly more flies than the modified Nzi (25.8 ± 13.8 vs. 13.1 ± 7.0 flies per trap per day, respectively; p < 0.0004). In contrast, the use of bait did not significantly affect capture rates, with mean values of 19.38 ± 10.3 flies per trap per day with bait and 17.5 ± 9.4 without bait (p = 0.5763).

The highest mean daily capture of S. calcitrans was recorded with the Nzi trap without bait (27.6 flies per day), followed by the Nzi with bait (24.2 flies per day), the unbaited modified Nzi (13.6 flies per day) and the baited modified Nzi (12.6 flies per day). We found that the standard Nzi trap, regardless of bait presence, outperformed the modified design (p < 0.05). Results are presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

Mean ± SE daily number of Stomoxys calcitrans captured in the two traps with or without bait, based on the interaction of trap with attractant in the generalized linear mixed model with negative binomial distribution.

Flies/trap Nzi SE p value
Nzi 27.6a 15.2 <0.0001
modNzi 13.6b 7.5
Nzi_bait 24.2a 13.4
modNzi_bait 12.6b 6.9
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Note: Means with common letters are not significantly different (p > 0.05).

Abbreviation: mod, modified.

At Farm 1, the number of S. calcitrans captured decreased with increasing distance from the dairy facility (456, 455, 297 and 95 flies at 35, 67, 89 and 91 m, respectively). A similar pattern was observed at Farm 2 (1589, 711, 603 and 250 flies at 25, 91, 137 and 145 m, respectively). However, when these data were analysed using Negative Binomial GLM, the distance hypothesis was not statistically supported, as the distance slope was not significant (p = 0.74). Furthermore, an interaction analysis between distance and date confirmed the stability of catch rates over time (χ2 = 17.64, df = 21, p = 0.67), indicating that the observed numerical decrease did not constitute a consistent quantitative trend across all sampling dates.

DISCUSSION

The results demonstrated that standard Nzi traps, whether baited or unbaited, were more effective for capturing stable flies in dairy farm environments compared to a modified version with multiple entrances. The modified Nzi with additional entrances underperformed relative to the standard design with or without baits, suggesting that simply enlarging entry areas is not effective. Similar challenges have been reported previously, where trap modifications may have influenced investigation behaviour but did not translate into higher entry/retention rates (Mihok, 2002; Mihok, 2023).

The lack of response to the commercial bait is consistent with previous findings showing that octenol and other common baits are not universally effective for S. calcitrans (Cilek, 1999; Holloway & Phelps, 1991; Mihok et al., 1995; Mihok et al., 2007). Whereas baits can enhance captures of Stomoxys spp. in some contexts (Baleba et al., 2019; Getahun et al., 2020; Tunnakundacha et al., 2017; Vaduva, 2020), the proximity of strong competing odours from livestock and organic waste may explain the lack of effect in our trials. Odour release rates, which vary with temperature and solar radiation, could also have reduced bait efficiency under field conditions.

Fabric choice is another critical factor. Our use of blue vinyl was a practical local alternative given lack of access to phthalogen blue cotton. Previous studies have demonstrated that fabric type can greatly influence Stomoxys captures (Mihok et al., 2006; Mihok et al., 2022; Mihok & Carlson, 2021). Although phthalogen blue cotton remains the benchmark (Green, 1986), synthetic alternatives solution‐dyed CuPc‐based fabrics (e.g. Sunbrella Pacific Blue acrylic) are costly and difficult to obtain locally. Vinyl may represent a feasible local option, but direct comparisons against standard materials are still required to assess our absolute catches relative to other studies.

Trap captures varied numerically between sites within farms, with higher absolute numbers recorded near livestock housing. This pattern is consistent with the close association of S. calcitrans with cattle and organic waste (Barros et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2013). However, our GLM analysis indicated that this distance‐related decrease was not statistically significant, and the relationship remained stable across sampling dates. This lack of a significant quantitative trend, despite numerical differences, highlights the high small‐scale heterogeneity that remains a challenge for conducting efficient field experiments (Odulaja & Abu‐Zinid, 1997). Similar variability has been noted in other studies, reinforcing the importance of trap placement in monitoring programs (Dwinata & Oka, 2022; Hairani et al., 2023; Rochon et al., 2021), but also suggesting that factors other than linear distance—such as wind patterns or micro‐habitats—may play a more dominant role in fly distribution within the farm environment.

Although traps alone are insufficient to achieve sustainable suppression of stable fly populations, the Nzi trap remains a useful tool for integrated pest management, especially in areas with insecticide resistance (e.g. Brazil, Barros et al., 2019). It also represents a low maintenance alternative to the Vavoua trap, with potentially higher capture rates in Latin America (Solórzano et al., 2015). It can help identify spatial hotspots to guide more robust interventions or sanitation measures and provides live flies for pathogen detection and establishing laboratory colonies. Further improvements should provide long‐term benefits for ecological and epidemiological research.

CONCLUSIONS

This study represents, to our knowledge, the first evaluation in South America of Nzi and modified Nzi traps for S. calcitrans in combination with a commercial attractant. We demonstrated that a standard Nzi trap, with or without bait, was more effective than a modified design and can serve as practical monitoring tool for integrated pest management programs.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Pablo Parodi: Conceptualization; methodology; data curation; investigation; writing – review and editing; writing – original draft; formal analysis; funding acquisition; supervision. Anderson Saravia: Methodology; conceptualization; data curation; investigation; writing – review and editing. Pablo Fresia: Conceptualization; methodology; investigation; writing – review and editing. Federico Viera: Writing – review and editing; formal analysis. Pedro Santoro: Writing – review and editing; formal analysis. Steve Mihok: Writing – review and editing; formal analysis. Franklin Riet‐Correa: Writing – review and editing. Alejo Menchaca: Conceptualization; methodology; investigation; funding acquisition; project administration; resources; writing – review and editing. Rodrigo F. Krüger: Conceptualization; methodology; investigation; data curation; writing – review and editing.

FUNDING INFORMATION

This work was supported by “Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria” (INIA), Uruguay, project number CL_36.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Supporting information

Figure S1. Study area and trap locations. (A) Uruguay highlighting the locality, (B) Colonia locality with Farm 1 and Farm 2 marked, (C) Farm 1, (D) Farm 2. In C and D trap positions are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4; the dairy's location is indicated by a red triangle. Dairy farms were visited daily to collect flies and rotate traps among sites every day. The distances between the dairy facilities and the trap positions were as follows: for Farm 1, position 1 was 89 m, position 2 was 35 m, position 3 was 67 m and position 4 was 91 m; whereas for Farm 2, position 1 was 91 m, position 2 was 137 m, position 3 was 145 m and position 4 was 25 m.

Figure S2. Two types of traps: (A) Nzi traps, (B) modified Nzi traps and (C) the bait suspended at one end of the trap.

Figure S3. Reflectance spectra for the Uruguayan blue vinyl used in traps compared with a dye manufacturer's phthalogen blue cotton standard and a USA retail vinyl.

Table S1. General descriptive data. Captured details broken down by traps (with or without attractants) and type of flies, results for each daily collection.

MVE-40-568-s001.docx (2MB, docx)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the ranchers Daniel Raymondo and Dilton Raymondo, who kindly allowed us to carry out this work on their dairy farms, and Tom Al of the University of Ottawa for the loan of spectroscopy equipment. We thank Antonio Thadeu Medeiros de Barros for his critical scientific comments throughout the work.

Parodi, P. , Saravia, A. , Fresia, P. , Viera, F. , Santoro, P. , Mihok, S. et al. (2026) Field evaluation of Nzi and modified Nzi traps for sampling of Stomoxys calcitrans at dairy farms in Uruguay. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 40(3), 568–573. Available from: 10.1111/mve.70071

Associate Editor: Roger Moon

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Dryad at https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.xsj3tx9vs.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Figure S1. Study area and trap locations. (A) Uruguay highlighting the locality, (B) Colonia locality with Farm 1 and Farm 2 marked, (C) Farm 1, (D) Farm 2. In C and D trap positions are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4; the dairy's location is indicated by a red triangle. Dairy farms were visited daily to collect flies and rotate traps among sites every day. The distances between the dairy facilities and the trap positions were as follows: for Farm 1, position 1 was 89 m, position 2 was 35 m, position 3 was 67 m and position 4 was 91 m; whereas for Farm 2, position 1 was 91 m, position 2 was 137 m, position 3 was 145 m and position 4 was 25 m.

Figure S2. Two types of traps: (A) Nzi traps, (B) modified Nzi traps and (C) the bait suspended at one end of the trap.

Figure S3. Reflectance spectra for the Uruguayan blue vinyl used in traps compared with a dye manufacturer's phthalogen blue cotton standard and a USA retail vinyl.

Table S1. General descriptive data. Captured details broken down by traps (with or without attractants) and type of flies, results for each daily collection.

MVE-40-568-s001.docx (2MB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Dryad at https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.xsj3tx9vs.

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