Abstract
Objectives
This study aimed to examine anxiety as a statistical mediator of the association between childhood trauma and social competence among adolescents and young adults. It also aimed to examine whether the proposed model varies across adolescents and young adults.
Methods
The study sample consisted of 300 participants, including adolescents (n=150) and young adults (n=150). Participants were recruited through purposive sampling from educational institutions and community settings in the Sargodha District. The age range of the patients was limited to 15–30 years. A cross-sectional survey design was employed. The translated versions of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, and Social Competence Scale were used to assess anxiety, childhood trauma, and social competence, respectively. Maximum likelihood estimation in IBM SPSS Amos was used to test the proposed statistical mediation model.
Results
The results indicated that childhood trauma was positively associated with anxiety and negatively associated with social competence among adolescents and young adults. Anxiety statistically mediated the association between childhood trauma and social competence, suggesting a significant but small indirect association rather than a causal pathway. Given the cross-sectional design, the findings should be interpreted as associations and not as evidence of temporal or causal relationships. Exploratory multigroup analyses suggested that structural associations may differ across age groups, with comparatively stronger associations observed among adolescents. However, because formal measurement invariance has not been established, these between-group differences should be interpreted with caution.
Conclusion
The results highlight the importance of the early identification of trauma-related anxiety and the need for school-, university-, and community-based interventions that strengthen emotional regulation, coping skills, and social competence.
Keywords: Child abuse, Anxiety, Adolescence, Social skills
INTRODUCTION
Childhood trauma refers to emotional distress or painful experiences during childhood, and has been associated with later psychological and social difficulties. Traumatic events include abuse, neglect, violence, war, loss, disasters, accidents, and other emotionally hurtful experiences [1]. Childhood trauma has been linked to adolescent and adult psychopathologies including personality disorders, depression, and anxiety [2,3]. These experiences are associated with difficulties in social, emotional, and cognitive competencies. Exposure to childhood trauma may render individuals vulnerable to chronic psychological and social difficulties [4,5]. Childhood trauma is not limited to isolated adverse events; rather, it may shape how individuals perceive themselves, others, and the social world around them. When traumatic experiences occur during developmentally sensitive periods, they may interfere with emotional regulation, interpersonal trust, and the acquisition of social skills in later life as well [6].
Traumatized school-aged children may experience complex physiological, sensory, cognitive, and emotional difficulties later in life. Exposure to trauma during childhood is associated with psychological and social difficulties and an increased risk of both internalizing and externalizing symptomatology [7]. Previous studies have found that childhood trauma is associated with psychological and social maladjustment [8,9]. Higher anxiety among trauma-exposed individuals has also been linked to lower self-reported social competence, social avoidance, and difficulties in peer interaction [10,11]. Adolescents and young adults with histories of childhood trauma may experience higher levels of anxiety and depression, which may be associated with lower social competence [12].
Emotional, physical, and sexual abuse may interfere with normal child development. Childhood trauma has been associated with difficulties in core capacities such as social competence. Social competence is the ability to demonstrate socially acceptable and effective behaviors in different social situations. The development of social competence is especially important during adolescence and young adulthood, as individuals learn to build relationships, communicate effectively, and adapt to social expectations. People with poorly developed social skills may find it difficult to manage various domains, including communication with others, expression of positive emotions, goal setting, and development of strategies, especially under adverse circumstances [13,14].
Moreover, adolescence and young adulthood are significant developmental periods with different emotional, social, and coping needs. Thus, to better understand developmental vulnerability, it is important to explore whether the proposed statistical model differs across age groups. A robust body of evidence suggests that childhood trauma is associated with immediate developmental difficulties and long-term psychological, social, and health-related problems that may persist for years [15]. Childhood trauma is strongly associated with negative outcomes during adolescence [16]. For example, negative experiences such as child abuse, neglect, and living in poor socioeconomic conditions have been linked to poorer psychological health and lower life expectancy; similar associations have been observed in adulthood [17]. Overall, evidence suggests severe difficulties among adolescents and adults, with adolescence being a high-risk period and many difficulties persisting or re-emerging in adulthood [18]. Adolescent depression, anxiety, self-harm, and other disorders are psychological correlates of childhood trauma, and these issues can persist or reemerge in adulthood as mood disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and general life problems [19]. Previous studies have indicated that trauma-related outcomes may be related to the type, intensity, frequency, chronicity, and severity of the trauma, as well as the age of the child [20]. Thus, it is crucial to investigate whether the associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence vary between adolescents and young adults. Both phases are sensitive developmental periods, and early prevention and support are essential. Existing evidence is inconclusive regarding whether the associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence differ by age. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence in adolescents and young adults.
In the present study, childhood trauma refers to participants’ retrospective self-reports of traumatic experiences during childhood, whereas anxiety and social competence refer to their functioning at the time of data collection. Therefore, age-group comparison refers to the age at assessment (adolescents versus young adults) and not to the precise age at which traumatic experiences occurred.
The association of childhood trauma extends beyond psychological distress and has been linked to social adjustment [21], educational functioning [22], interpersonal relationships [23], and overall well-being [24], making it an important public health concern. Adolescence and young adulthood are critical developmental stages during which unresolved traumatic experiences are associated with greater anxiety and poor social skills. Because social competence reflects the ability to interact effectively in social contexts, inadequate social competence may disrupt communication, social relationships, school adjustment, and adaptive social reactions [25]. From a public health perspective, understanding how childhood trauma is associated with later functioning may facilitate early screening, prevention, and intervention [26]. Exploring anxiety as a potential psychological link between childhood trauma and social competence may provide relevant data for mental health interventions in schools, universities, and communities.
Although previous research has linked childhood trauma to anxiety and impaired social functioning, less attention has been paid to anxiety as a possible psychological pathway underlying the association between childhood trauma and social competence in adolescents and young adults, particularly in the local cultural context. Anxiety may be an important pathway, because trauma-exposed individuals often experience heightened threat perception, insecurity, fear of negative evaluations, and avoidance of social interactions [27]. These anxiety-related responses may reduce opportunities to communicate, form supportive relationships, and practice socially competent behaviors. Anxiety was prioritized in the present model because it is theoretically and clinically linked to both trauma exposure and social competence. However, other factors such as depression, emotion regulation difficulties, self-esteem, attachment insecurity, family environment, and peer support may also explain this relationship [28]. Considering the significance of this subject, this study aimed to examine the associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence in adolescents and young adults. The second objective was to examine the indirect role of anxiety in the relationship between childhood trauma and social competence. The third objective was to examine whether the proposed model varies across age groups.
Fig. 1 presents the conceptual framework of the study with childhood trauma as the predictor variable, anxiety as the statistical mediator, and social competence as the outcome variable.
Fig. 1.
Conceptual framework of the study. Fig. 1 presents the conceptual framework of the study, with childhood trauma as the independent variable, anxiety as the mediator, and social competence as the dependent variable.
Hypotheses
The following are the hypotheses proposed in this study.
H1: Childhood trauma has a significant positive association with anxiety and a significant negative association with social competence.
H2: There is an indirect association between childhood trauma and social competence via anxiety.
H3: The proposed mediation model varies across adolescents and young adults.
METHODS
Participants
This study employed a cross-sectional design. Participants were selected through purposive sampling from educational institutions and community settings in the Sargodha District. The sample is best characterized as a non-clinical educational/community sample rather than a clinical trauma-exposed sample. Participants were not recruited based on documented trauma exposure; instead, childhood trauma was measured dimensionally through self-reported Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) scores, allowing variation in trauma exposure to be examined across the sample. The sample consisted of 300 participants, including adolescents (n=150) and young adults (n=150), with an equal representation of sex in both groups (75 males and 75 females). The age range of the participants was 15–30 years; adolescents were aged 15–18 years (mean [M]=17.1 years, standard deviation [SD]=1.3 years), and young adults were aged 19–30 years (M=25.3 years, SD= 3.2 years). The sample size was determined through a priori G*Power analysis (https://www.psychologie.hhu.de/arbeitsgruppen/allgemeine-psychologie-und-arbeitspsychologie/gpower) for multiple linear regression with two predictors, assuming a medium effect size (f2=0.15), α=0.05, and statistical power of 0.80. The analysis revealed that a minimum sample size of 68 participants was required. With a sample of 300 respondents, the study achieved a statistical power greater than 0.99. Therefore, the sample size was adequate for reliable regression analysis and hypothesis testing. Participants were recruited from a single district using a non-probability sampling method; therefore, the sampling strategy may have introduced a selection bias and limited the sample’s representativeness [29].
Instruments
Original English versions of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) [30], CTQ [31], and Social Competence Scale (SCS) [32] were used to assess anxiety, childhood trauma, and social competence, respectively. DASS was rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 3, the CTQ on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 6, and the SCS on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4. Childhood trauma was analyzed using continuous CTQ scores. Detailed information on the timing of traumatic experiences, age at onset, and cutoff-based trauma severity categories was not available in the present dataset; this should be considered when interpreting the findings.
Ethical approval
Ethical approval was obtained from the Board of Studies, Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha (UOS-PSY-1771). The participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their right to withdraw at any time without penalty, and that their responses would be kept confidential. Informed consent was obtained prior to data collection. Parental consent and participant assent were obtained from participants under 18 years of age before participation.
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS (vesion 26.0; https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics) and IBM SPSS Amos (vesion 26.0; https://www.ibm.com/products/structural-equation-modeling-sem). All statistical analyses including descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, normality testing, and Pearson’s correlation analyses were performed using SPSS (vesion 26.0; IBM Corp.). Because the study variables were observed as total scale scores, the analysis is best described as a path analysis conducted within the structural equation modeling (SEM) framework rather than a latent-variable SEM. This approach was used because it allows for the simultaneous estimation of direct and indirect associations, evaluation of the overall model fit, and comparison of structural paths across adolescents and young adults in a multigroup framework. A multigroup path analysis was conducted to test whether the structural associations varied across the adolescent and young adult populations. Formal measurement invariance testing at the item or latent factor level was not conducted because the model used observed scale scores; therefore, age-group comparisons should be interpreted cautiously. Sex was balanced during the recruitment stage; however, sex, socioeconomic status, educational level, family structure, urban/rural background, and current mental health status were not included as covariates in the main model. These variables may influence anxiety and social competence, and are therefore acknowledged as potential confounding factors. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05.
RESULTS
Demographic characteristics and descriptive information of the study sample are presented in Table 1. Because age-group comparison was the central aim of the study, Table 1 has been expanded to report the available characteristics separately for adolescents and young adults, including sex distribution and age. It also provides information on educational status, socioeconomic status, residence, and family structure.
Table 1.
Demographic characteristics of participants
| Variable | Adolescents (n=150) | Young adults (n=150) | Total (n=300) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | |||
| Male | 75 (50.0) | 75 (50.0) | 150 (50.0) |
| Female | 75 (50.0) | 75 (50.0) | 150 (50.0) |
| Age (yr) | 17.1±1.3 | 25.3±3.2 | - |
| Educational status | |||
| Secondary education (matric) | 75 (50.0) | 75 (50.0) | 150 (50.0) |
| Educational status | |||
| Undergraduate | 70 (46.7) | 70 (46.7) | 140 (46.7) |
| Postgraduate | 5 (3.3) | 5 (3.3) | 10 (3.3) |
| Socioeconomic status | |||
| Low | 25 (16.7) | 25 (16.7) | 50 (16.7) |
| Middle | 70 (46.7) | 70 (46.7) | 140 (46.7) |
| High | 5 (3.3) | 5 (3.3) | 10 (3.3) |
| Residence | |||
| Urban | 87 (58.0) | 79 (52.7) | 166 (55.3) |
| Rural | 63 (42.0) | 71 (47.3) | 134 (44.7) |
| Family structure | |||
| Nuclear | 58 (38.7) | 49 (32.7) | 107 (35.7) |
| Joint | 92 (61.3) | 101 (67.3) | 193 (64.3) |
Values are presented as mean±standard deviation or number (%).
Childhood trauma scores were examined dimensionally in the present sample. For the total sample (n=300), childhood trauma scores had a mean of 11.97 (SD=6.78), a median of 11.00 and an observed range of 0–38 (interquartile range=7–16). Adolescents had somewhat higher childhood trauma scores (M=12.54, SD=7.24; range=0–38) than did young adults (M=11.41, SD=6.25; range=0–34). Cutoff-based trauma severity categories were not available in the dataset; therefore, childhood trauma was retained as a continuous score, and a descriptive distribution was provided to facilitate the interpretation of trauma exposure in the sample.
As shown in Table 2, the reliability coefficients of all the scales indicated acceptable internal consistency. The skewness and kurtosis values were within the recommended ranges, suggesting that the data were approximately normally distributed. Childhood trauma had a significant positive association with anxiety and a significant negative association with social competence. Anxiety was negatively associated with social competence, indicating that participants with higher anxiety levels tended to report lower levels of social competence.
Table 2.
Psychometric properties, descriptives and correlations
| Variables | M±SD | α | Range | Skewness† | Kurtosis‡ | 2 | 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Potential | Actual | |||||||
| 1. Anxiety | 9.19±3.51 | 0.82 | 0-21 | 1-21 | 0.45 | -0.21 | 0.47** | -0.41** |
| 2. Childhood trauma | 11.97±6.78 | 0.89 | 0-42 | 0-38 | 0.65 | 0.64 | - | -0.31** |
| 3. Social competence | 6.19±2.52 | 0.80 | 0-30 | 0-28 | 0.12 | -0.22 | - | - |
p＜0.01; †standard error=0.14; ‡standard error=0.28. M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
In Table 3, the model of the present study showed a good fit to the data with a non-significant chi-square value of (χ2(2)= 5.17, p=0.07). Other measures of fit were also suggestive of a good fit to the data, as all of them were well above the cutoff point of 0.95 (comparative fit index=0.96, goodness-of-fit index=0.99, adjusted goodness-of-fit index=0.96, and normed fit index=0.95). The root mean square error of approximation was 0.050 (pclose=0.400, lower limit=0.000, upper limit=0.100), and the standardized root mean square residual was 0.030 also affirmed the fit of the proposed model. The indirect association was statistically significant but small (β= -0.03), indicating that anxiety explained only a modest part of the association between childhood trauma and social competence. Therefore, the practical significance of indirect associations should be interpreted with caution.
Table 3.
Standardized path coefficients for direct and indirect effects
| Paths | β | 95 % CI | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| LL | UL | |||
| Childhood trauma → Anxiety | 0.26 | 0.16 | 0.35 | 0.001 |
| Childhood Trauma → Social competence | -0.27 | -0.38 | -0.15 | 0.001 |
| Anxiety → Social competence | -0.13 | -0.24 | -0.01 | 0.020 |
| Childhood trauma → Anxiety → Social competence | -0.03 | -0.07 | -0.004 | 0.020 |
The model of the present study showed a good fit to the data with a non-significant chi-square value of (χ2 (2)=5.17, p=0.07). Other measures of fit were also suggestive of good fit to the data as all of them were well above the cutoff point of 0.95 (CFI=0.96, GFI=0.99, AGFI=0.96, NFI=0.95). RMSEA value of 0.050 (pclose=0.400, LL=0.000, UL=0.100) and SRMR value of 0.030 also affirmed to the fit of the proposed model. AGFI, adjusted goodness-of-fit index; CFI, comparative fit index; CI, confidece interval; GFI, goodness-of-fit index; LL, lower limit; NFI, normed fit index; RMSEA, root mean square error of approximation; SRMR, standardized root mean square residual; UL, upper limit.
Fig. 2 shows the path diagram of the statistically indirect association between childhood trauma and social competence via anxiety. Standardized coefficients are displayed along the paths and squared multiple correlations are shown within the rectangles of the endogenous variables.
Fig. 2.
Path diagram of the mediation model. Fig. 2 presents the path diagram of the mediation model between childhood trauma and social competence. Standardized coefficients are displayed along the paths, and squared multiple correlations are shown within the rectangles of the endogenous variables.
To compare the proposed model across adolescents and young adults, a multigroup analysis was conducted. First, an unconstrained model was estimated freely across both groups, χ2=140, df=8. Next, a constrained model was tested by restricting the structural paths to be equal across the two age groups, χ2=199, df=12. The chi-square difference test was significant, Δχ2=59, Δdf=4, p=0.001, indicating that the model differed significantly across adolescents and young adults. Therefore, exploratory follow-up comparisons of structural paths were conducted to identify the associations that varied between the two groups. These comparisons should be regarded as exploratory structural comparisons rather than definitive evidence of developmental group differences, as the measurement equivalence of the scales across adolescents and young adults was not formally established.
Table 4 presents the standardized path coefficients for the direct and indirect associations across the age groups. Structural path comparisons indicated that the direct associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence were stronger among adolescents than among young adults. The direct negative association between anxiety and social competence was stronger among adolescents than among young adults. The indirect association between childhood trauma and social competence via anxiety differed between the two age groups. However, because formal measurement invariance testing was not conducted, these age-group differences should be cautiously interpreted.
Table 4.
Standardized path coefficients for direct and indirect effects across adolescents and young adults
| Paths | βAdolescents | βAdults | ∆β | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Childhood trauma → Anxiety | 0.30*** | 0.11 | 0.19 | 0.03 |
| Childhood trauma → Social competence | -0.45*** | -0.25*** | 0.20 | 0.01 |
| Anxiety → Social competence | -0.31* | -0.18 | -0.13 | 0.02 |
| Childhood trauma → Anxiety → Social competence | -0.20*** | -0.11 | -0.09 | 0.03 |
p＜0.05; ***p＜0.001.
DISCUSSION
The findings showed that childhood trauma was positively associated with anxiety and negatively associated with social competence. Anxiety was also significantly negatively associated with social competence and statistically mediated the association between childhood trauma and social competence. Moreover, exploratory multigroup analyses suggested possible differences in structural associations across age groups, with comparatively stronger associations among adolescents.
The results of the present study showed significant correlations among childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence in the expected direction. These findings are consistent with the first hypothesis of the present study, which proposed significant associations among the study variables, and are also supported by relevant international literature. Extensive research on adolescents and adults has demonstrated that traumatic childhood experiences are linked to psychopathology and social difficulties [33,34]. Childhood adversity may contribute to anxiety development through maladaptive information-processing patterns including heightened threat perception, attentional biases, and negative appraisal processes [35].
Low social competence is another important factor associated with childhood trauma. Social competence is a set of skills that stimulates social awareness. Social awareness refers to an individual’s ability to understand others, initiate effective communication, and demonstrate a sense of social responsibility. It also supports the maintenance of personal identity and management of interpersonal relationships [14,25]. Individuals who experience fear of future events, a characteristic of anxiety, following childhood trauma may face greater difficulty communicating effectively, maintaining relationships, and responding confidently in social situations [10,36]. This may be explained by the possibility that childhood traumatic experiences, including physical or emotional abuse, are associated with lasting difficulties in emotional regulation and interpersonal trust, increasing the likelihood of anxiety in social contexts [37,38]. In turn, anxiety may reduce individuals’ confidence, communication skills, and ability to form supportive relationships. These findings support the indirect statistical association between childhood trauma and social competence via anxiety, thereby supporting the second hypothesis of the present study.
Although the indirect association with anxiety was statistically significant, its magnitude was small. This suggests that anxiety may explain only a limited part of the association between childhood trauma and social competence and that other psychological, family, educational, and peer-related factors may also be involved.
These findings should be interpreted in terms of cultural and contextual factors. In collectivistic settings, family structure, sex expectations, stigma related to mental health, and social norms regarding obedience, emotional expression, and interpersonal behavior may shape how adolescents and young adults report childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence. Cultural expectations may also influence whether young people seek help or disclose distress. Therefore, the observed associations should be understood within a broader social and cultural context rather than as universal causal effects.
Social competence is a multidimensional outcome influenced by multiple ecological and psychosocial factors, including family environment, parenting practices, socioeconomic resources, peer relationships, educational experiences, and psychiatric comorbidities [39-42]. Therefore, the observed associations should not be interpreted as indicating that childhood trauma and anxiety alone determine social competence. Anxiety may represent an important pathway within a broader network of developmental and contextual influences.
Research has also shown that recalling traumatic events may be more distressing for adolescents and that their anxiety levels may be relatively higher than those of young adults [20]. Children growing up in conditions of violence and poverty may be more likely to experience anxiety, and their lower social competence may be more pronounced during adolescence compared to adulthood. The exploratory multigroup findings are consistent with the third hypothesis, suggesting that structural associations may differ between adolescents and young adults. However, these findings require cautious interpretation, because formal measurement invariance across the two age groups has not yet been established. Consequently, stronger associations among adolescents cannot be conclusively interpreted as developmental differences. One possible but tentative explanation is that adolescents may show greater developmental sensitivity to trauma-related psychological difficulties because they are characterized by rapid emotional, cognitive, and social changes. Adolescence is a critical period characterized by rapid emotional, cognitive, and social changes during which individuals are still developing coping skills, self-identity, and peer relationships. Consequently, childhood trauma may have a more immediate and pronounced association with anxiety and social competence in adolescents than in young adults. Importantly, the present age-group analysis reflects the participants’ age at assessment rather than the exact developmental timing of traumatic experiences; therefore, the findings cannot determine whether trauma occurring at a specific childhood age is differentially associated with later anxiety or social competence.
This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the cross-sectional design prevented conclusions regarding the temporal order or causality among childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence. Second, the use of self-report measures may have increased the risk of common method bias and socially desirable responding [43]. Third, childhood trauma was assessed retrospectively, which may have been affected by recall bias or current emotional state. Fourth, participants were recruited through purposive sampling from a single district, which limits their representativeness and generalizability [29]. Fifth, the model did not include all potential confounding or explanatory variables such as depression, emotion regulation, self-esteem, and attachment insecurity. Although sex was equally represented in the sample, sex effects were not examined in the original model; therefore, future studies should test sex as a covariate or moderator. Finally, future studies should use a longitudinal design, multi-informant data, and broader and more representative samples to clarify the directions and mechanisms of these associations. Sixth, detailed information on trauma timing, age at onset, type-specific severity, and cutoff-based trauma categories was not available, limiting the interpretation of trauma exposure in the sample. Seventh, formal measurement invariance across adolescents and young adults was not tested, limiting the strength of the conclusions drawn from age-group comparisons. Eighth, the indirect effect was statistically significant, but small; therefore, its practical significance should be interpreted with caution.
Future studies should test alternative explanations for these associations. For example, depression, emotion regulation difficulties, low self-esteem, attachment insecurity, family conflicts, peer support, socioeconomic conditions, and current stress may partially explain the associations between childhood trauma, anxiety, and social competence. Therefore, anxiety should be interpreted as an important psychological pathway, not as the only possible mechanism. Future research should examine additional mechanisms and contextual factors before drawing strong interventions or developmental conclusions.
CONCLUSION
The results indicated that childhood trauma is associated with higher anxiety and lower social competence among adolescents and young adults. Anxiety statistically mediated the association between childhood trauma and social competence, suggesting a significant indirect association. Exploratory multigroup analyses suggested possible differences in the model across age groups, with stronger associations observed among adolescents than among young adults. However, because measurement invariance has not been formally established, these apparent age-group differences should be interpreted cautiously and require confirmation in future studies using measurement-equivalent models. Because this study used a cross-sectional design, the results should be interpreted as associations rather than as evidence of temporal or causal relationships. These results highlight the importance of early identification of trauma-related anxiety. They also emphasize the need for school-, university-, and community-based interventions aimed at strengthening emotional regulation, coping skills, and social competence.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely thank all the participants of this study.
Funding Statement
Funding Statement None
Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Khadija Fatima, Sadia Niazi, Anam Yousaf. Data curation: Khadija Fatima, Saba Ghayas, Anam Khan. Formal analysis: Sadia Niazi, Anam Yousaf. Methodology: Khadija Fatima, Sadia Niazi. Software: Sadia Niazi, Anam Khan. Supervision: Sadia Niazi, Anam Yousaf. Validation: Anam Yousaf. Visualization: Saba Ghayas, Anam Khan. Writing—original draft: Khadija Fatima, Sadia Niazi. Writing—review & editing: Anam Yousaf.
Availability of Data and Material
The datasets generated or analyzed during the study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated or analyzed during the study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.