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Epidemiologia e Serviços de Saúde : Revista do Sistema Unico de Saúde do Brasil logoLink to Epidemiologia e Serviços de Saúde : Revista do Sistema Unico de Saúde do Brasil
. 2026 Oct 12;35:e20250466. [Article in Portuguese] doi: 10.1590/S2237-96222026v35e20250466.pt
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Estratégias para enfrentar a hesitação em vacinação no Brasil: síntese de evidências

Estrategias para abordar la reticencia a la vacunación en Brasil: una síntesis de evidencias

Ana Paula da Costa Marques 1, Vanessa Terezinha Gubert 2, Adriano da Costa Dias 3, Antonio Luiz Dal Bello Gasparoto 4, Liara Ferreira dos Santos 3, Emmanuela Maria de Freitas Lopes 3, Karina Morales Lopes 3, Thayssa Maluff de Mello 3, Ana Cristina Atz dos Santos 4, Jadher Percio 5, Paulo Henrique Santos Andrade 5, Petra Santos Castro Rangel 5, Roberta Silva 5, Aurelina Aguiar Lima 6, Fernando Antônio Ribeiro Gusmão-Filho 7, Tereza Setsuko Toma 8, Antonio Jose Grande 9, Sandra Maria do Valle Leone de Oliveira 4
PMCID: PMC13647263  PMID: 42903010

Resumo

Objetivo:

Identificar as estratégias para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal.

Métodos:

Busca realizada nas bases de dados Medline, Embase, MedNar, Cochrane Library, Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde, Epistemonikos, Health Systems Evidence e CINAHL (EBSCO) entre junho de 2024 e fevereiro de 2025. Os estudos selecionados foram importados para o aplicativo Zotero e, em seguida, para o aplicativo Eppi-Reviewer. Foram incluídas revisões sistemáticas, sem restrição de período de publicação ou idioma, que abordassem estratégias de enfrentamento da hesitação vacinal em cenário urbano brasileiro e incluíssem adultos maiores de 18 anos e gestantes. A síntese dos resultados foi feita de forma narrativa. A qualidade metodológica foi avaliada utilizando a ferramenta A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2) e o framework PROGnosis RESearch Strategy (PROGRESS) para analisar a equidade nas estratégias de vacinação.

Resultados:

Foram identificados 1.376 artigos, sendo incluídas 48 revisões sistemáticas. As evidências indicaram que a estratégia para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal é a combinação de cinco ações: fortalecimento da comunicação para diversos grupos populacionais; implementação de programas de educação permanente para profissionais de saúde; ampliação do acesso da população às vacinas; aprimoramento do enfrentamento da desinformação sobre vacinas; e integração de estratégias de vacinação para gestantes.

Conclusão:

O enfrentamento efetivo da hesitação vacinal demanda estratégias combinadas e aponta para a necessidade de investimentos em infraestrutura para ampliar o acesso às vacinas, os processos de educação permanente para profissionais de saúde, a comunicação com a população e a inovação em tipos de comunicação e articulação intersetorial.

Palavras-chave: Hesitação Vacinal, Imunização, Estratégias de Saúde, Política Informada por Evidências, Informação de Saúde ao Consumidor

Introdução

A vacinação no Brasil apresenta avanços significativos, com destaque para a criação do Programa Nacional de Imunizações em 1973, a instituição do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) em 1988 e a integração do Programa Nacional de Imunizações à Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde em 2003, o que fortaleceu sua estrutura e capacidade de gestão. Apesar desses esforços contínuos, a hesitação vacinal tem se mostrado um obstáculo. A pandemia de covid-19 exacerbou esse problema e evidenciou a desconfiança nas autoridades de saúde, as disparidades socioeconômicas e os fatores culturais, políticos e religiosos como barreiras à aceitação das vacinas [1].

A hesitação vacinal é um fenômeno complexo, caracterizado pela relutância ou recusa em se vacinar, mesmo com a disponibilidade dos serviços [2]. Além dos fatores já citados, destaca-se a disseminação de informações falsas, especialmente nas redes sociais, intensificada durante a pandemia [3].

Diante desse cenário, é imperativo que gestores públicos adotem abordagens flexíveis e contextualizadas para garantir o alcance e a efetividade da vacinação [4]. As sínteses de evidências apoiam esse processo ao subsidiar os gestores na identificação de alternativas alinhadas às oportunidades institucionais e adaptáveis às especificidades locais [5]. Trata-se de um processo dinâmico, que articula conhecimento técnico e capacidade de resposta às demandas sociais e estruturais do sistema de saúde [6].

Realizam-se diálogos deliberativos no processo de tradução de evidências em ações públicas. Esses diálogos, também chamados diálogos de políticas, são processos informados por síntese de evidências, em que atores interessados validam opções para enfrentar problemas públicos reais, considerando aceitabilidade, recursos disponíveis e contexto de implementação [7].

Esta síntese de evidências foi elaborada em resposta à chamada pública em Evidências em Saúde, com financiamento do Departamento de Ciência e Tecnologia do Ministério da Saúde e do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico. O objetivo foi identificar ações/opções para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal, fornecendo subsídios para o desenvolvimento de políticas públicas.

Métodos

Tipo de estudo e pergunta de pesquisa

Esta síntese de evidências seguiu a “Diretriz metodológica: síntese de evidências para políticas”, do Ministério da Saúde, e está apresentada conforme o Checklist para Relato de Sínteses de Evidências para Políticas [8]. A pergunta de pesquisa foi: Quais são as estratégias para lidar com a hesitação vacinal na população adulta, na área urbana no contexto brasileiro?

Considerando que o método das revisões sistemáticas continua sendo o padrão-ouro, sua metodologia foi adaptada e utilizada na elaboração de síntese de evidências, com o uso do acrônimo PCC, uma vez que o objetivo do estudo foi identificar opções, e não comparar intervenções.

A estratégia de busca foi estruturada conforme a seguir.

  • P (população, condição): adultos de 18 a 60 anos, idosos acima de 60 anos e gestantes, incluindo aquelas com menos de 18 anos.

  • C (conceito): estratégias implementadas para promover a aceitação, a adesão ao calendário e as campanhas de vacinação.

  • C (contexto): o cenário urbano brasileiro, incluindo fatores sociais, culturais, econômicos e políticos.

Critérios de elegibilidade

Foram incluídas todas as revisões sistemáticas, sem restrição de período de publicação ou idioma, que abordassem estratégias de enfrentamento da hesitação vacinal em cenário urbano e incluíssem adultos maiores de 18 anos e gestantes. Revisões de diferentes países foram elegíveis, priorizando aplicabilidade ao contexto brasileiro.

Estudos teóricos, revisões narrativas, dissertações, teses, bem como artigos baseados em texto ou opinião, referentes ao contexto rural brasileiro, à hesitação vacinal internacional ou a menores de 18 anos foram excluídos.

Estudos primários foram utilizados apenas para complementar a análise de lacunas de equidade das ações de enfrentamento à hesitação vacinal e não compuseram a síntese principal das revisões.

Fontes de informação

As buscas foram realizadas entre junho de 2024 e fevereiro de 2025. As fontes de informação consultadas foram Medline via PubMed, Embase via Elsevier, MedNar, Cochrane Library, Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde, Epistemonikos, Health Systems Evidence e Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature - CINAHL (EBSCO).

Estratégia de busca

Foi realizado um piloto de busca nas bases PubMed e Embase, e a estratégia de busca foi elaborada por AJG e SMVLO considerando as recomendações Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS). A estratégia de busca foi realizada considerando a combinação dos termos “Hesitação Vacinal”, “Recusa Vacinal” e “Aceitação Vacinal”, indexados ou não no Medical Subject Headings (MeSH).

Foram utilizados os seguintes descritores: “vaccine hesitancy”, “vaccination hesitancy”, “hesitação vacinal”, “vaccine refusal”, “recusa vacinal”, “vaccine acceptance” e “aceitação vacinal”. Não foram utilizados filtros ou limites na busca. A estratégia de busca está apresentada na Tabela Suplementar 1.

Processo de seleção e coleta de dados

Os artigos identificados pela estratégia de busca foram importados para o aplicativo Zotero e, em seguida, para o aplicativo Eppi-Reviewer. Nesse aplicativo, foram removidas as citações duplicadas e foi realizado todo o processo de triagem e seleção dos artigos por quatro revisores de forma independente. A lista com os estudos excluídos e os motivos para a exclusão está apresentada na Tabela Suplementar 2.

Todas as etapas de leitura de títulos e resumos, leitura de textos na íntegra e extração de dados foram realizadas por duas duplas de pesquisadores (APCM e EMFL, ACD e KML). As discordâncias foram analisadas por um terceiro pesquisador (AJG).

A extração de dados foi realizada manualmente, em planilha desenvolvida pelos pesquisadores e validada pelos atores demandantes da pesquisa, com base no Apêndice E - Síntese dos Estudos por Opção da “Diretriz metodológica: síntese de evidências para políticas” [8]. A planilha do estudo continha os seguintes campos: autor/ano; opção; objetivo do estudo; características dos estudos; principais achados - contexto da revisão, resultados primários e secundários, conclusão, benefícios e danos potenciais; período do estudo; e avaliação da qualidade metodológica.

A partir dos dados da planilha Excel, foram identificadas as opções de enfrentamento da hesitação vacinal na população adulta que vive na área urbana do Brasil, as quais foram validadas pelos atores demandantes em um diálogo de políticas.

Avaliação do risco de viés dos estudos e equidade em estratégias de vacinação

A avaliação da qualidade metodológica e do risco de viés foi realizada por AJG e ACD por meio da ferramenta A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2) [9], composta por 16 itens. Cada item foi classificado como “sim”, “não” ou “parcialmente sim”, conforme o grau de conformidade com os critérios metodológicos. A resposta “sim” indicou atendimento pleno ao item; “não” se referiu à impossibilidade de avaliação por ausência de informações; e “parcialmente sim” apontou para uma adesão parcial ao critério. Os escores foram posteriormente agrupados e categorizados em níveis de confiança metodológica: alto (0-1 item não crítico), moderado (>1 item não critico), baixo (1 item crítico) ou criticamente baixo (>1 item crítico).

Estudos primários foram incluídos apenas para complementar a análise da equidade das ações de enfrentamento à hesitação vacinal e não compuseram a síntese principal das revisões. O framework PROGnosis RESearch Strategy (PROGRESS) [10] foi utilizado para ajudar a identificar barreiras e oportunidades para promover equidade no acesso às vacinas. Foram avaliadas as dimensões local de residência, raça, ocupação, gênero/sexo, educação, condição socioeconômica e capital social. Esta análise foi realizada de forma independente por AJG e ACD.

Método de síntese

Os dados foram sumarizados por meio de síntese narrativa, com o agrupamento das estratégias identificadas em categorias temáticas previamente definidas:

  • opção 1 - fortalecer a comunicação para os diversos grupos populacionais;

  • opção 2 - implementar programas de educação permanente para os profissionais de saúde;

  • opção 3 - ampliar o acesso da população às vacinas;

  • opção 4 - aprimorar o enfrentamento da desinformação sobre vacinas; e

  • opção 5 - integrar estratégias de vacinação para gestantes.

Essa abordagem permitiu organizar os achados de forma descritiva, destacando os tipos de intervenção, os públicos-alvo e os contextos de aplicação.

A sumarização considerou a frequência com que cada estratégia foi relatada nos estudos incluídos, bem como os efeitos observados sobre a adesão vacinal. As evidências foram apresentadas de forma qualitativa, sem meta-análise, devido à heterogeneidade dos desenhos metodológicos, populações estudadas e indicadores de resultado. Além disso, foram destacados os fatores contextuais que influenciam a efetividade das estratégias, como aspectos culturais, sociais e econômicos.

Resultados

A busca inicial identificou 1.376 artigos, sendo triadas 1.055 revisões após a retirada de duplicatas. Durante a leitura completa de 55 artigos, 7 foram excluídos e estão listados na Tabela Suplementar 2. No total, foram incluídas 48 revisões sistemáticas (Figura 1).

Figura 1. Processo de seleção e inclusão dos estudos.

Figura 1

Publicadas entre 2012 e 2024, as revisões foram conduzidas em países de alta renda, com evidências também de países de média e baixa renda, incluindo o Brasil. As vacinas abordadas incluíram covid-19, influenza, papilomavírus humano (HPV), hepatite B, coqueluche e pneumococo, com foco em populações e contextos diversos (Tabela 1).

Tabela 1. Características dos estudos incluídos (n=48).

Referência Opção Principais achados Qualidade metodológica
[11] 3 e 4 Recomenda-se construir confiança, reduzir barreiras físicas, melhorar a comunicação e a transparência sobre o desenvolvimento das vacinas com o apoio de profissionais de saúde, líderes religiosos e comunitários, para ampliar o acesso e a adesão entre minorias étnicas e migrantes. Alta
[12] 1 Para aumentar a aceitação da vacina, deve-se considerar contextos socioculturais, históricos e políticos, priorizando comunicação, engajamento comunitário e recursos culturalmente inclusivos, com estratégias personalizadas que reduzem a hesitação e aumentam a adesão à vacinação. Moderada
[13] 1 Estratégias que utilizam tecnologias digitais têm impacto modesto e positivo na aceitação da vacina e na conclusão da série de vacinação em comparação com intervenções não digitais. Alta
[14] 1 O acesso ao prontuário eletrônico aumenta de forma moderada a aceitação da vacinação, e sua combinação com recursos de comunicação digital potencializa esse efeito, superando o impacto do acesso isolado ao prontuário eletrônico. Moderada
[15] 3 Comunicações personalizadas e lembretes por mensagem aumentam a adesão à vacinação, enquanto comunicar incertezas sobre a vacina não reduz a intenção de se vacinar, mas pode gerar impacto negativo. Alta
[16] 2 e 4 Políticas futuras devem responder às preocupações da população, promover compreensão sobre as vacinas, neutralizar a desinformação e ampliar a aceitação, com treinamento baseado em evidências sobre vacinas e estratégias de vacinação para profissionais de saúde. Alta
[17] 5 Várias estratégias foram consideradas eficazes: lembretes sobre vacinação em registros de saúde pré-natal, parteiras que fornecem vacinação e educação e fornecimento de informações para a equipe de saúde e usuários. Moderada
[18] 5 Intervenções educativas, como panfletos, websites e sessões individuais breves, aumentam a cobertura vacinal contra a influenza em gestantes, com maior aceitação da vacina contra a gripe Moderada
[19] 1 e 2 Intervenções de comunicação promocional mais eficazes são aquelas que são personalizadas, utilizam múltiplos canais, envolvem profissionais de saúde, são interativas e abordam as preocupações do público. Moderada
[20] 1 Barreiras como idioma, acesso precário a cuidados médicos e desconfiança no sistema médico são modificáveis ​​com maior comprometimento de recursos. Promover políticas que garantirão financiamento federal para serviços de saúde e adoção de diretrizes do Comitê Consultivo sobre Práticas de Imunização, melhorará as taxas de vacinação para refugiados, imigrantes e migrantes. Moderada
[21] 3 Entre profissionais de saúde, palestras, materiais informativos, unidades móveis, horários estendidos e engajamento de líderes são estratégias eficazes. A combinação com incentivos motivacionais fortalece a adesão, sendo essencial em contextos em que a vacinação obrigatória gera controvérsia. Moderada
[22] 1 e 2 Intervenções eficazes para aumentar a adesão à vacinação demandam abordagens personalizadas e culturalmente sensíveis. A não eficiência de modelos universais ressalta a necessidade de ações adaptadas ao público, considerando seus costumes e ideologias. Alta
[23] 1 Os estudos revisados ​​incluíram intervenções com conteúdo e abordagens diversos que foram implementadas em diferentes cenários e direcionadas a várias populações. Poucas intervenções foram direcionadas diretamente a indivíduos em hesitação vacinal. Moderada
[24] 1, 2 e 5 Intervenções multicomponentes, adaptadas às necessidades de cada minoria étnica, mostram eficácia ao aumentar a aceitação da vacina, com destaque para a conscientização e o envolvimento de organizações comunitárias. Alta
[25] 2 Intervenções multidimensionais baseadas na comunidade, na família e na assistência médica, aliadas a estratégias de educação, melhoram efetivamente a cobertura de vacinação. A implementação sistemática pode ser relevante para atingir comunidades subvacinadas. Alta
[26] 1 E-mails aumentam a aceitação da vacina em comparação com a ausência de intervenção. Métodos combinados e personalizados de lembrete mostram-se mais eficazes. A personalização e a integração de diferentes estratégias são cruciais para otimizar os resultados. Alta
[27] 2 e 3 Iniciativas de educação por pares têm potencial para melhorar a aceitação da vacina, sendo mais eficazes quando combinam pares e especialistas em saúde, com ações específicas e de longo prazo. Alta
[28] 2 As estratégias variaram amplamente em modo de entrega e técnicas de mudança de comportamento. Após as intervenções, as taxas de vacinação de influenza, pneumocócica e herpes-zóster aumentaram em 16,6% em um período de 12 a 16 meses. Moderada
[29] 2 A imunidade coletiva representa um benefício significativo da vacinação em nível populacional. Comunicar esse benefício de forma otimizada é crucial, pois há indícios de que uma comunicação eficaz sobre a imunidade coletiva pode aumentar as intenções de vacinação. Alta
[30] 4 As mídias sociais têm potencial para disseminar informações e estimular a vacinação, mas sua eficácia exige monitoramento ativo e responsável das autoridades e deve ser combinada com outras estratégias, dada a complexidade da aceitação vacinal. Moderada
[31] 3 Intervenções comportamentais, financeiras ou não, têm efeito positivo modesto na aceitação da vacina, com impacto semelhante entre ações únicas e combinadas O momento da implementação não altera os resultados, exceto em intervenções coletivas, que podem perder eficácia com a evolução da covid-19. Alta
[32] 2 Quando farmacêuticos participaram do processo de imunização, independentemente de sua função ou do tipo de vacina administrada, a cobertura vacinal foi maior. Alta
[33] 3 Intervenções multicomponentes e baseadas em diálogo foram mais eficazes, mas, dadas a complexidade da hesitação vacinal e as evidências limitadas, as estratégias identificadas devem ser adaptadas à população-alvo, às suas razões para hesitação e ao contexto específico. Alta
[34] 1, 2, 3 e 5 As estratégias mais eficazes incluem informações claras, lembretes personalizados, melhoria no acesso à vacinação e incentivo dos profissionais de saúde. No Reino Unido, focar a relevância da informação e a melhoria do acesso se mostrou particularmente eficaz. Alta
[35] 3 As barreiras à vacinação variam por doença infecciosa e população; os principais motivadores são a proteção pessoal, familiar e da comunidade. Para a influenza, estratégias mais eficazes focam conveniência e confiança, abordando questões como custo e educação. Moderada
[36] 2, 3 e 5 A aceitação da vacinação em gestantes foi facilitada pela recomendação de profissionais de saúde, conhecimento, confiança na vacina, múltiplas consultas de pré-natal, e estratégias como financiamento, lembretes, integração de serviços, engajamento comunitário, capacitação e educação. Moderada
[37] 5 A adesão à vacinação pós-parto é fortalecida por: recomendação de profissionais de saúde, intervenções adequadas, aplicação em maternidades ou comunidades e educação focada no reforço positivo. Moderada
[38] 1, 2 e 5 Informar riscos e segurança da vacina, desmistificar equívocos, usar lembretes e campanhas mistas, além de mensagens curtas e claras adaptadas ao público, aumentam a aceitação e fortalecem crenças positivas sobre vacinação. Baixa
[39] 1 e 2 Mensagens educacionais aumentam o conhecimento, mas intervenções dialógicas nas redes sociais, fundamentadas em teoria da mudança de comportamento e adaptadas ao público, mostram maior potencial para promover a vacinação e reduzir a hesitação. Moderada
[40] 4 As intervenções em mídias sociais são uma área de estudo emergente e promissora para aumentar a aceitação da vacina, nas quais o enquadramento da mensagem, a credibilidade do emissor e a estrutura da rede social são fatores decisivos, tornando essencial otimizar seu uso. Moderada
[41] 2 Aplicativos, jogos e simulações são promissoras intervenções para aprimorar o conhecimento e a confiança de profissionais de saúde e estudantes na vacinação, com melhores resultados quando combinadas com ações direcionadas também aos usuários. Alta
[42] 1,2 e 3 Comunicações diversas e combinadas, incluindo métodos de massa e abordagens personalizadas com melhores serviços, mostram potencial para aumentar a aceitação da vacina, especialmente contra a gripe em idosos. Moderada
[43] 1 e 3 Participantes tinham mais probabilidade de se vacinar quando incentivados por dinheiro. Os efeitos de outras loterias e mensagens persuasivas tiveram pouco efeito ou não foram significativos. Moderada
[44] 1 e 2 Estratégias eficazes de promoção de vacinação incluem comunicação (webinars, mídias sociais e materiais educativos), parcerias entre estados, universidades e líderes comunitários, além de intervenções de distribuição como prefeituras virtuais, linhas diretas confidenciais, materiais educativos e oferta de vacinação durante consultas médicas de rotina. Moderada
[45] 1 e 2 Reforçar o papel dos profissionais de saúde na promoção da vacinação é crucial. Estratégias como ordens permanentes, lembretes e esforços de recall são eficazes. Farmácias comunitárias, especialmente em áreas remotas, têm potencial para melhorar a cobertura vacinal. Moderada
[46] 1 e 2 Intervenções baseadas em jogos geralmente aumentam o conhecimento sobre vacinação. Contudo, o impacto na adesão à vacinação em si é limitado. A personalização de avatares e a colaboração em jogos se mostraram eficazes para engajar os jogadores. Moderada
[47] 1 Vídeos, realidade virtual e aplicativos com redes sociais ou gamificação mostraram-se mais eficazes que materiais impressos para aumentar o conhecimento, a confiança e o engajamento na vacinação. Alta
[48] 1 Chatbots de vacinas têm sido usados para fornecer informações factuais, agendar vacinações, enviar lembretes e enfrentar a desinformação, assim os chatbots mostram potencial para influenciar positivamente as atitudes relacionadas às vacinas. Moderada
[49] 1 As estratégias multicomponentes foram mais eficientes, principalmente quando direcionadas a múltiplos determinantes da vacinação. Baixa
[50] 5 Recomendações claras e personalizadas para usuários, educação sobre segurança e estímulo à oferta de vacinas para provedores e incentivos financeiros, registros eletrônicos de saúde e disponibilidade da vacina no nível político são eficazes. Alta
[51] 1 Intervenções de decisão compartilhada aumentaram significativamente a aceitação das vacinas em relação ao grupo controle. Moderada
[52] 1, 2 e 3 Intervenções comunitárias, incentivos financeiros e programas de alfabetização em saúde baseados em tecnologia aumentaram o uso de serviços de imunização. Intervenções baseadas em mídia não demonstraram ser eficazes para reduzir a hesitação vacinal. Alta
[53] 1 e 2 Intervenções não financeiras, como lembretes de consultas e sistemas de agendamento de opt-out, parecem encorajar a aceitação da vacina. Outras abordagens, como intervenções multimodais e infográficos, também mostram potencial para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal. Alta
[54] 3 As estratégias-chave para promover a vacinação incluem compreender e colaborar com as comunidades, personalizar mensagens, abordar traumas sistêmicos e lacunas de saúde social e realizar planejamento logístico antecipado. Alta
[55] 2 Intervenções multicomponentes foram eficazes para aumentar as taxas de vacinação, seguidas por lembretes personalizados, embora menos eficazes que ordens permanentes ou lembretes ao usuário. Alta
[56] 1 Estratégias eficazes contra hesitação vacinal incluem: mensagens normativas, fontes com identidade compartilhada, canais interativos (como chatbots e vídeos), informações sobre segurança e eficácia, apelos coletivos com constrangimento e apoio de líderes políticos. Alta
[57] 1 Intervenções baseadas na teoria do nudge aumentaram a taxa de aceitação da vacina contra a covid-19, sendo eficazes quando combinavam múltiplos componentes (normas sociais e lembrete), embora seus efeitos diminuíssem ao longo do tempo. Alta
[58] 4 A desinformação relacionada à vacina foi abordada em cinco etapas: identificação de desinformação, regulamentação de produtores e distribuidores, corte de produção e distribuição, suporte a públicos-alvo e disseminação de informações confiáveis. Alta

Cada revisão descreveu de uma a quatro ações de enfrentamento à hesitação vacinal, sendo a combinação de estratégias a mais efetiva. As cinco principais ações identificadas foram: fortalecer a comunicação com diferentes grupos; implementar programas de educação permanente para os profissionais de saúde; ampliar o acesso às vacinas; combater a desinformação; e integrar estratégias para gestantes. Essas ações foram validadas com os atores demandantes em diálogo de políticas e ao final da elaboração da síntese de evidências para o Programa Nacional de Imunizações.

Diversas estratégias têm sido adotadas para fortalecer a comunicação, promover a adesão à vacinação e mitigar a hesitação vacinal [42]. O uso de teorias de mudança de comportamento, especialmente o modelo de crenças em saúde, tem se destacado. Entre mídias sociais, predominam postagens educativas, seguidas por grupos de diálogos, sites interativos e lembretes pessoais [39]. A comunicação honesta e transparente, aliada à informação sobre os benefícios e os possíveis eventos adversos, fortalece a credibilidade das campanhas de vacinação [34]. O contato direto pode ser eficaz para públicos com resistência à vacinação [19].

A comunicação sensível às nuances culturais e pessoais é mais eficaz do que estratégias baseadas exclusivamente em conhecimentos epidemiológicos e médicos [42]. O envolvimento de líderes locais e religiosos fortalece a confiança e a adesão, especialmente entre minorias étnicas e migrantes. Intervenções com técnicas de mudança comportamental, aliadas a mensagens adaptadas e apoio de organizações comunitárias, mostraram-se eficazes para alcançar esses grupos [34].

Estratégias multifacetadas, como cartazes, folhetos, comunicação interna e oferta ativa de vacinas no local de distribuição desses materiais, aumentaram significativamente a taxa de vacinação contra a gripe. Vídeos, realidade virtual e aplicativos móveis tornam a comunicação mais dinâmica e atrativa, especialmente entre jovens, e complementam as abordagens tradicionais, potencializando o engajamento e a adesão [19]. Destacam-se atividades educativas para usuário, rastreamento nas carteiras de vacinação por agentes comunitários de saúde e intervenções simultâneas direcionadas a unidades de saúde, aos profissionais (educação de pais, avisos, auditoria e feedback) e a ambientes familiares (telefonemas) [59].

Entre as mídias sociais, postagens educacionais, grupos que interagem com diálogos, sites interativos e lembretes pessoais são os mais utilizados. As estratégias foram embasadas na teoria do nudge (ou empurrãozinho) [57]. Essa teoria propõe influenciar as escolhas de forma sutil, sem restringir opções nem impor obrigações, introduzindo pequenas alterações no ambiente ou no contexto em que as decisões são tomadas.

O sucesso das estratégias de comunicação depende da integração de múltiplas abordagens, considerando aspectos culturais, tecnológicos e sociais. A combinação de métodos tradicionais com o uso de tecnologia digital, aliada à adaptação cultural e linguística das mensagens, favorece o alcance de diferentes grupos e mudanças efetivas de comportamentos relacionados à saúde.

A educação permanente em saúde é uma política do SUS que deve ser utilizada como opção para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal. A formação do profissional de saúde deve desenvolver nele habilidades de comunicação para transmitir, com clareza e objetividade, as informações à população e para engajar outros profissionais na prescrição e recomendação de vacinas indicadas pelo Programa Nacional de Imunizações [59]. Narrativas pessoais combinadas com informações médicas claras e acessíveis foram efetivas para engajar diferentes públicos, desde estudantes universitários até a população em geral [39].

Lembretes personalizados para médicos, como uma forma de educação passiva, têm demonstrado efeitos positivos [55]. Mensagens curtas, com foco na redução de risco, no reforço dos benefícios sociais da vacinação e na abordagem de crenças e preocupações das populações-alvo, como segurança da vacina, ampliam o impacto comportamental [38].

A dificuldade de acesso aos serviços de saúde contribui para a hesitação vacinal. Melhorar a sinalização das salas de vacina e divulgar horários de funcionamento dos postos de vacinação são medidas relevantes [15]. Unidades móveis, clínicas de vacinação e horários estendidos ampliam o acesso de trabalhadores e comunidades remotas [21,34]. A avaliação de barreiras e motivadores mostra que a vacinação em locais não tradicionais, como escolas, empresas e centros comunitários, tem se mostrado eficaz [35].

A desinformação é um dos maiores obstáculos às campanhas de vacinação, tornando essencial enfrentá-la para reduzir a hesitação vacinal [25]. A atuação ativa e confiável dos órgãos oficiais nas redes sociais, com respostas transparentes, incentivo à divulgação de informações verdadeiras e checagem de fatos por profissionais de saúde, é fundamental para enfrentar a desinformação e aumentar a credibilidade nas vacinas [30,40]. Para viabilizar essas estratégias, faz-se necessário criar sistemas de vigilância, regular a produção de informação e estabelecer normas contra a circulação de conteúdos falsos [58].

A vacinação de gestantes e lactantes ainda representa um desafio de saúde pública, com taxa de cobertura de 48,4% atribuída à falta de informação, à percepção de insegurança e ao medo de eventos adversos para a mãe e o bebê. No caso da covid-19, além das razões tradicionais, gestantes descreveram desconfiança quanto à eficácia e à segurança das vacinas, influenciada pela rapidez no desenvolvimento e pela percepção de interferência das empresas farmacêuticas nas políticas públicas [60].

Estratégias que combinaram mensagens afetivas, como vídeos e livros, com aplicações cognitivas aumentaram o conhecimento e a intenção de vacinar, sendo vídeo o recurso mais eficaz [24]. Estratégias educacionais multimodais, de informações orais, escritas e visuais, como cartazes, podem aumentar as taxas de vacinação.

A qualificação dos profissionais de saúde é essencial para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal. A formação deve incluir estratégias para esclarecer dúvidas das gestantes e fortalecer a confiança na vacinação, cuja recomendação médica é um determinante [37]. Toda comunicação deve ser clara, incluir benefícios para o bebê e ser adequada ao momento gestacional, considerando as necessidades e as preocupações da mulher [34].

Facilitar o acesso à vacinação, especialmente onde se encontram gestantes, como maternidades, favorece a adesão à vacinação [37]. Intervenções educacionais, mensagens de texto e ações combinadas têm mostrado efeito positivo na imunização materna em contextos de baixa renda [18,36].

A avaliação das 48 revisões sistemáticas com a ferramenta AMSTAR 2 indicou 50,0% com alta qualidade metodológica e 45,8% com qualidade moderada; 4,2% foram classificadas como de baixa qualidade. Essa distribuição confere robustez à síntese, embora exija atenção às limitações metodológicas na interpretação dos achados. A Tabela 2 apresenta a avaliação do risco de viés.

Tabela 2. Avaliação do risco de viés e da qualidade metodológica (n=48).

Dezesseis perguntas que compõem a ferramenta AMSTAR 2
Autor, ano 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Classificação
Abba-Aji, 2022 [11] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Adeagbo, 2022 [12] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Atkinson, 2019 [13] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Balzarini, 2020 [14] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Batteux, 2022 [15] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Begum, 2024 [16] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
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Brillo, Tosto e Buonomo, 2023 [18] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Cairns, 2012 [19] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Daniels, 2022 [20] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
De Koning, 2024 [21] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Desjardins, 2023 [22] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Dubé, Gagnon e MacDonald, 2015 [23] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Ekezie, 2023 [24] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Fallucca, 2024 [25] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Frascella, 2020 [26] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Gobbo, 2023 [27] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Gosselin Boucher, 2019 [28] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Hakim, 2019 [29] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Hansen, Baiju e Gabarron, 2023 [30] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Huang, Huang e Yu, 2023 [31] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Isenor, 2016 [32] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Jarrett, 2015 [33] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Kafadar, 2024 [34] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Kalunga, 2023 [35] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Khan, 2024 [36] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Konstantinou, 2024 [37] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Lawes-Wickwar, 2021 [38] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Baixa
Li, Wood e Kostkova, 2022 [39] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Limaye, 2021 [40] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Lo Moro, 2023 [41] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
MacDonald, 2013 [42] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Mardi, 2022 [43] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Masterson, Anderson e Savoia, 2024 [44] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Mohammed, 2021 [45] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Ou, 2024 [46] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Panickar, 2023 [47] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Passanante, 2023 [48] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Perroud, 2022 [49] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Baixa
Razai, 2023 [50] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Scalia, Durand e Elwyn, 2022 [51] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Moderada
Singh, 2022 [52] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Terrell, Alami e Krewski, 2023 [53] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Tinessia, 2024 [54] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Wennekes, 2024 [55] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Xia e Nan, 2024 [56] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Zhang e Jin, 2024 [57] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta
Zhao, 2023 [58] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001.jpg Alta

Inline graphic - Sim

Inline graphic - Parcialmente sim

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Inline graphic - Não se aplica

A avaliação de políticas e programas de vacinação precisa considerar seus efeitos nas desigualdades sociais e garantir acesso a informações confiáveis e compreensíveis, independentemente de origem ou condição social. Superar barreiras históricas, culturais e tecnológicas é fundamental para alcançar a equidade, e o framework PROGRESS contribui na identificação de barreiras e oportunidades [60].

Regiões com baixo índice de desenvolvimento humano municipal (IDH-M) enfrentam desafios de infraestrutura e conectividade nas salas de vacina, enquanto áreas com IDH-M mais alto apresentam melhores condições logísticas. O Maranhão, apesar de apresentar um dos menores IDH da Federação, alcançou avanços na cobertura vacinal durante a pandemia da covid-19, enquanto resultado da maior cobertura da Estratégia Saúde da Família e da descentralização dos serviços de saúde [61]. Programas de imunização em comunidades remotas têm se mostrado fundamentais para promover a equidade [62].

Populações minoritárias e grupos étnicos enfrentam desafios históricos e culturais de desconfiança nas intervenções clínicas, decorrentes de exclusão ou discriminação. A comunicação deve ser adaptada aos contextos culturais e linguísticos para garantir a compreensão efetiva [16]. Estratégias com participação comunitária, uso de materiais informativos claros e baseados em evidências fortalecem a confiança e a aceitação da vacina entre gestantes [10]. Ações como busca ativa e vacinação no local de atendimento têm sido eficazes em populações vulneráveis [11].

Gestantes apresentam vulnerabilidades específicas, exigindo estratégias direcionadas devido a alterações imunológicas durante a gravidez. A qualidade do pré-natal influencia diretamente nas taxas de vacinação, com desigualdades mais acentuadas entre mulheres de baixa renda e escolaridade. A hesitação vacinal nesse grupo decorre da falta de informação confiável, das crenças de insegurança das vacinas e do medo de efeitos adversos [30]. Materiais informativos, sessões individuais e recursos digitais demonstraram ser eficazes em aumentar a adesão nesse grupo e promover a equidade no cuidado materno-infantil [18,63]. Promover maior equidade no cuidado à saúde materno-infantil exige políticas que enfrentem barreiras socioeconômicas e educacionais, promovam o acesso e fortaleçam os sistemas de saúde na proteção de gestantes e recém-nascidos [10,18,61,63].

O nível educacional mostra forte correlação com a adesão à vacinação, sendo necessário o uso de materiais acessíveis e linguagem simplificada para populações com baixa alfabetização [64]. O letramento digital em saúde emerge como ferramenta estratégica, especialmente durante pandemias [65]. A roda de conversa se mostrou eficiente para estimular a vacinação em grupos vulneráveis, como usuários e acompanhantes em sala de espera de serviços oncológicos [1].

A promoção da participação social é essencial para enfrentar desigualdades no acesso à saúde, favorecendo grupos vulneráveis [53]. Sob a perspectiva PROGRESS, recomenda-se fortalecer a infraestrutura em áreas de baixo IDH-M; desenvolver comunicação culturalmente sensível e adaptada; implementar programas para grupos ocupacionais vulneráveis; garantir atenção à saúde materna e à vacinação no pré-natal; promover educação em saúde e letramento digital; reduzir barreiras socioeconômicas ao acesso; e ampliar redes comunitárias e parcerias intersetoriais. O acesso equitativo à vacinação exige considerar as múltiplas barreiras enfrentadas por diferentes grupos.

Discussão

Questões culturais, sociais, econômicas e informacionais influenciam a hesitação vacinal. Para enfrentar tal cenário, sugere-se fortalecer a comunicação com diversos grupos populacionais, implementar educação permanente para os profissionais de saúde, ampliar o acesso às vacinas, combater a desinformação sobre vacinas e integrar estratégias específicas para gestantes [40-41].

O fortalecimento da comunicação exige o envolvimento de líderes comunitários e a adaptação da linguagem aos valores locais. As mensagens devem destacar benefícios coletivos e individuais da vacinação, com uso de apelos emocionais e figuras políticas para criar identificação e confiança [42]. Campanhas de mídia, educação comunitária e expansão do acesso aos serviços de vacinação são fundamentais, assim como os esforços contínuos de sensibilização realizados pelas equipes de saúde. Tecnologias digitais, como lembretes eletrônicos, plataformas on-line, serviço de mensagens curtas (SMS), redes sociais e chatbots, ampliam o agendamento das vacinas e facilitam o acesso a informações claras sobre a segurança vacinal, alcançando um público amplo e diversificado.

Programas de educação permanente para profissionais de saúde colaboram para o enfrentamento da hesitação vacinal ao utilizar materiais visuais claros e fontes confiáveis, o que fortalece a confiança entre profissionais e usuários. Esses programas devem buscar aumentar a competência para intervenções adaptadas ao contexto local, com anúncio presuntivo em consultas. É essencial que os programas de educação permanente envolvam profissionais de saúde líderes e priorizem atividades educativas presenciais. Lembretes personalizados combinados com recursos que facilitem o trabalho nos serviços de saúde também são recomendados.

Para enfrentar a hesitação vacinal, é necessário ampliar o acesso às vacinas e melhorar a conveniência do serviço, como estender os horários de vacinação, enviar mensagens personalizadas, utilizar unidades móveis e vacinar em locais não tradicionais, como escolas e empresas. A vacinação oportunística, em ambientes de trabalho e com incentivos monetários, também aumenta a adesão.

Informações falsas são um dos maiores obstáculos às campanhas de vacinação. Diversas estratégias têm se mostrado eficazes no enfrentamento desse desafio, como o engajamento comunitário, a participação de líderes religiosos e comunitários, o agendamento automatizado, as comunicações personalizadas, as estratégias para evitar o efeito inverso e a adaptação da linguagem às preocupações do público, com regulamentação, monitoramento e supervisão on-line [43-44].

A vacinação na gestação é um desafio de saúde pública que exige estratégias eficazes para garantir ampla cobertura e proteção para mãe e bebê. As informações claras sobre benefícios e momento adequado da vacinação por meio de materiais educativos diversos são fundamentais, assim como a comunicação direta e adaptada dos profissionais de saúde durante as consultas. Programas materno-infantis devem integrar ações e abordagens multimodais, que se mostram promissoras para reduzir a hesitação vacinal em gestantes [45-46].

Entre as limitações deste estudo, destacaram-se a ausência de avaliação sistemática da heterogeneidade dos estudos incluídos e da análise do viés de publicação, o que pode afetar a compreensão dos contextos e a representatividade das evidências. A ausência de matriz de sobreposição entre as revisões e os estudos primários constituiu outra limitação, uma vez que tal análise permitiria identificar duplicações e evitar a soma artificial de evidências.

Como recomendações, propõe-se fortalecer a infraestrutura em áreas de baixo IDH-M, desenvolver comunicação culturalmente adaptada, implementar programas para grupos ocupacionais vulneráveis, garantir atenção à saúde materna e vacinação no pré-natal, promover educação em saúde e letramento digital, reduzir barreiras socioeconômicas e ampliar redes comunitárias e parcerias intersetoriais. Para futuras pesquisas, recomenda-se avaliar o impacto a longo prazo.

O enfrentamento à hesitação vacinal requer abordagem estratégica e integrada, que considere suas múltiplas dimensões. Esta revisão identificou intervenções com potencial para fortalecer a confiança nas vacinas e ampliar a cobertura vacinal no Brasil. Apesar das limitações nas evidências e no processo de revisão, os achados ofereceram subsídios para orientar ações nos serviços de saúde, na formulação de políticas públicas e em pesquisas. As recomendações incluíram investimentos em infraestrutura, qualificação profissional, inovação em comunicação e articulação intersetorial, com adaptações às realidades locais e foco em grupos prioritários e vulneráveis.

MATERIAL SUPLEMENTAR

MATERIAL SUPLEMENTAR

Agradecimento

À Preethy D’Souza, senior research fellow do Social Research Institute, da University College London, gostaríamos de registrar nosso especial agradecimento pela inestimável contribuição em nos apresentar o EPPI-Reviewer.

Footnotes

Aspectos éticos: Esta pesquisa utilizou dados publicados na literatura.

Registro do protocolo: O protocolo desta síntese foi registrado no repositório Open Science Framework sob o título “Strategies for addressing vaccine hesitancy in Brazil: rapid synthesis of evidence for policy”, e o acesso está disponível em: https://osf.io/y2w5e/?view_only=3dd4c48ceedb49ec9c56bbd3d25b0961.

Uso de inteligência artificial: Para a formatação em estilo Vancouver, foi utilizado o auxílio do chat Deepseek (https://chat.deepseek.com).

Disponibilidade de dados

O acesso ao banco de dados e a outros materiais utilizados na pesquisa poderão ser solicitados pelo e-mail sandra.leone@fiocruz.br.

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Epidemiol Serv Saude. 2026 Oct 12;35:e20250466. [Article in English] doi: 10.1590/S2237-96222026v35e20250466.en

Strategies to address vaccine hesitancy in Brazil: evidence synthesis

Ana Paula da Costa Marques 1, Vanessa Terezinha Gubert 2, Adriano da Costa Dias 3, Antonio Luiz Dal Bello Gasparoto 4, Liara Ferreira dos Santos 3, Emmanuela Maria de Freitas Lopes 3, Karina Morales Lopes 3, Thayssa Maluff de Mello 3, Ana Cristina Atz dos Santos 4, Jadher Percio 5, Paulo Henrique Santos Andrade 5, Petra Santos Castro Rangel 5, Roberta Silva 5, Aurelina Aguiar Lima 6, Fernando Antônio Ribeiro Gusmão-Filho 7, Tereza Setsuko Toma 8, Antonio Jose Grande 9, Sandra Maria do Valle Leone de Oliveira 4

Abstract

Objective:

To identify strategies to address vaccine hesitancy.

Methods:

A search was conducted in Medline, Embase, MedNar, Cochrane Library, Virtual Health Library (VHL), Epistemonikos, Health Systems Evidence, and CINAHL (EBSCO) between June 2024 and February 2025. The selected studies were imported into the Zotero application and subsequently into the Eppi-Reviewer application. Systematic reviews were included, with no restrictions on publication period or language, that address strategies to reduce vaccine hesitancy in an urban Brazilian setting and include adults aged 18 years and older and pregnant women. The synthesis of the results was conducted narratively. Methodological quality was assessed using the A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2) and the PROGnosis RESearch Strategy (PROGRESS) framework to analyze equity in vaccination strategies.

Results:

A total of 1,376 articles were identified, of which 48 systematic reviews were included. The evidence indicated that the strategy to address vaccine hesitancy comprises five actions: strengthening communication for different population groups; implementing continuing education programs for healthcare professionals; expanding population access to vaccines; improving responses to misinformation about vaccines; and integrating vaccination strategies for pregnant women.

Conclusion:

Effective addressing of vaccine hesitancy requires combined strategies and highlights the need for investments in infrastructure to expand access to vaccines, continuing education processes for healthcare professionals, communication with the population, and innovation in communication approaches and intersectoral coordination.

Keywords: Vaccine Hesitancy, Immunization, Health Strategies, Evidence-Informed Policy, Consumer Health Information

Introduction

Vaccination in Brazil has shown significant progress, with emphasis on the creation of the National Immunization Program in 1973, the creation of the Brazilian Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde, SUS) in 1988, and the integration of the National Immunization Program into the Health Surveillance Secretariat in 2003, which strengthened its structure and management capacity. Despite these continuous efforts, vaccine hesitancy has emerged as an obstacle. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this problem and highlighted distrust in health authorities, socioeconomic disparities, and cultural, political, and religious factors as barriers to vaccine acceptance [1].

Vaccine hesitancy is a complex phenomenon characterized by reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of vaccination services [2]. In addition to the factors already mentioned, the spread of misinformation, especially through social media, intensified during the pandemic [3].

In this context, public health managers must adopt flexible and context-specific approaches to ensure vaccination coverage and effectiveness [4]. Evidence syntheses support this process by assisting decision-makers in identifying alternatives aligned with institutional opportunities and adaptable to local specificities [5]. This is a dynamic process that integrates technical knowledge and the capacity to respond to the social and structural demands of the health system [6].

Deliberative dialogues are conducted within the process of translating evidence into public action. These dialogues, also referred to as policy dialogues, are evidence-informed processes in which stakeholders validate options to address real public health problems, considering acceptability, available resources, and the implementation context [7].

This evidence synthesis was developed in response to a public call for proposals in Health Evidence, funded by the Department of Science and Technology of the Brazilian Ministry of Health and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, CNPq). The objective was to identify actions/options to address vaccine hesitancy and provide input for the development of public policies.

Methods

Type of study and research question

This evidence synthesis followed the “Methodological guideline: evidence synthesis for policies” of the Ministry of Health and is reported in accordance with the Reporting Checklist for Evidence Syntheses for Policies [8]. The research question was: What strategies are effective for addressing vaccine hesitancy among adults in urban settings in Brazil?

Given that systematic reviews remain the gold standard, the methodology was adapted to synthesize evidence using the PCC framework, as the study aimed to identify options rather than compare interventions.

The search strategy was structured as follows.

  • P (population, condition): adults aged 18 to 60 years, older adults aged 60 years and older, and pregnant women, including those under 18 years of age.

  • C (concept): strategies implemented to promote vaccine acceptance, adherence to the immunization schedule, and vaccination campaigns.

  • C (context): the Brazilian urban setting, including social, cultural, economic, and political factors.

Eligibility criteria

All systematic reviews were included, with no restrictions on publication date or language, that address strategies to tackle vaccine hesitancy in urban settings and include adults aged 18 years and older and pregnant women. Systematic reviews from different countries were eligible, with priority given to their applicability to the Brazilian context.

Theoretical studies, narrative reviews, dissertations, theses, and opinion-based or text-based articles, as well as studies focused on rural Brazilian contexts, international vaccine hesitancy, or individuals under 18 years of age, were excluded.

Primary studies were used only to complement the analysis of equity gaps in interventions addressing vaccine hesitancy and did not constitute the main body of the synthesis, which was based on systematic reviews.

Information sources

The searches were conducted between June 2024 and February 2025. The information sources consulted were Medline via PubMed, Embase via Elsevier, MedNar, Cochrane Library, the Virtual Health Library (VHL), Epistemonikos, Health Systems Evidence, and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature - CINAHL (EBSCO).

Search strategy

A pilot search was conducted in PubMed and Embase, and the search strategy was developed by AJG and SMVLO following the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guidelines. The search strategy was built using a combination of the terms “Vaccine Hesitancy”, “Vaccine Refusal”, and “Vaccine Acceptance”, indexed or not in Medical Subject Headings (MeSH).

The following descriptors were used: “vaccine hesitancy,” “vaccination hesitancy,” “hesitação vacinal,” “vaccine refusal,” “recusa vacinal,” “vaccine acceptance,” and “aceitação vacinal ”. No filters or limits were applied. The search strategy is presented in Supplementary Table 1.

Study selection and data collection process

The articles identified through the search strategy were imported into the Zotero application and subsequently into EPPI-Reviewer. Within the software, duplicate citations were removed, and the entire screening and study selection process was conducted independently by four reviewers. The list of excluded studies and the reasons for exclusion are presented in Supplementary Table 2.

All stages of title and abstract screening, full-text review, and data extraction were performed by two pairs of researchers (APCM and EMFL; ACD and KML). Disagreements were resolved by a third researcher (AJG).

Data extraction was performed manually using a spreadsheet developed by the research team and validated by the stakeholders who commissioned the study, based on Appendix E - Synthesis of Studies by Option from the “Methodological Guideline: Evidence Synthesis for Policies” [8]. The study spreadsheet included the following fields: author/year; option; study objective; study characteristics; main findings-review context, primary and secondary outcomes, conclusion, potential benefits and harms; study period; and methodological quality assessment.

Based on data extracted into an Excel spreadsheet, options for addressing vaccine hesitancy among adults living in urban areas of Brazil were identified and subsequently validated by stakeholders through a policy dialogue.

Assessment of risk of bias and equity in vaccination strategies

Methodological quality and risk of bias were assessed by AJG and ACD using the A MeaSurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR 2) [9], which comprises 16 items. Each item was rated as “yes,” “no,” or “partial yes,” according to the degree of compliance with the methodological criteria. A “yes” response indicated full compliance with the item; “no” indicated that assessment was not possible due to insufficient information; and “partial yes” indicated partial compliance with the criterion. The scores were subsequently grouped and categorized into levels of methodological confidence: high (0-1 non-critical item), moderate (>1 non-critical item), low (1 critical item), or critically low (>1 critical item).

Primary studies were included only to complement the equity analysis of strategies addressing vaccine hesitancy and were not incorporated into the main synthesis of systematic reviews. The PROGnosis RESearch Strategy (PROGRESS) framework [10] was used to help identify barriers and opportunities to promote equity in vaccine access. The following dimensions were assessed: place of residence, race, occupation, gender/sex, education, socioeconomic status, and social capital. This analysis was conducted independently by AJG and ACD.

Synthesis method

Data were summarized through a narrative synthesis, with the identified strategies grouped into predefined thematic categories:

  • option 1 - strengthen communication for different population groups;

  • option 2 - implement continuing education programs for health professionals;

  • option 3 - expand population access to vaccines;

  • option 4 - improve responses to vaccine misinformation; and

  • option 5 - integrate vaccination strategies for pregnant women.

This approach enabled the findings to be organized descriptively, highlighting the types of interventions, target populations, and implementation contexts.

The synthesis considered both the frequency with which each strategy was reported across the included studies and the observed effects on vaccine uptake. The evidence was presented qualitatively, without meta-analysis, due to the heterogeneity of methodological designs, study populations, and outcome measures. In addition, contextual factors influencing the effectiveness of the strategies, including cultural, social, and economic aspects, were highlighted.

Results

The initial search identified 1,376 records, of which 1,055 reviews were screened after duplicates were removed. During the full-text assessment of 55 articles, 7 were excluded and are listed in Supplementary Table 2. A total of 48 systematic reviews were included ( Figure 1).

Figure 1. Study selection and inclusion process.

Figure 1

Published between 2012 and 2024, the reviews were conducted in high-income countries and also drew on evidence from middle- and low-income countries, such as Brazil. The vaccines addressed included COVID-19, influenza, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B, pertussis, and pneumococcal vaccines, with a focus on diverse populations and settings (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics of included studies (n=48).

Reference Option Main findings Methodological quality
[11] 3 and 4 It is recommended to build trust, reduce physical barriers, and improve communication and transparency regarding vaccine development, with the support of healthcare professionals, religious leaders, and community leaders, in order to increase access and uptake among ethnic minorities and migrant populations. High
[12] 1 To increase vaccine acceptance, sociocultural, historical, and political contexts should be considered, prioritizing communication, community engagement, and culturally inclusive resources, with tailored strategies that reduce hesitancy and increase vaccination uptake. Moderate
[13] 1 Digital technology-based strategies have a modest but positive impact on vaccine acceptance and completion of vaccination schedules compared with non-digital interventions. High
[14] 1 Access to electronic health records moderately increases vaccination uptake, and its combination with digital communication tools enhances this effect, outperforming electronic health record access alone. Moderate
[15] 3 Personalized communications and message reminders increase vaccination adherence, while communicating uncertainties about the vaccine does not reduce the intention to get vaccinated, but can have a negative impact. High
[16] 2 and 4 Future policies should address population concerns, promote understanding of vaccines, counter misinformation, and increase acceptance, with evidence-based training on vaccines and vaccination strategies for healthcare professionals. High
[17] 5 Several strategies were found to be effective, including vaccination reminders in prenatal health records, midwife-led vaccination, and education and information provision for healthcare teams and service users. Moderate
[18] 5 Educational interventions, such as leaflets, websites, and brief individual sessions, increase influenza vaccination coverage among pregnant women, with higher acceptance of the influenza vaccine. Moderate
[19] 1 and 2 Promotional communication interventions are more effective when they are personalized, use multiple channels, involve healthcare professionals, are interactive, and address public concerns. Moderate
[20] 1 Barriers such as language, poor access to healthcare, and mistrust in the healthcare system can be mitigated through greater resource allocation and engagement. Promoting policies that ensure federal funding for health services and the adoption of Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices guidelines would improve vaccination rates among refugees, immigrants, and migrants. Moderate
[21] 3 Among healthcare professionals, lectures, informational materials, mobile units, extended hours, and leadership engagement are effective strategies. Combining these strategies with motivational incentives strengthens adherence, particularly in contexts where mandatory vaccination is controversial. Moderate
[22] 1 and 2 Effective interventions to increase vaccine uptake require personalized and culturally sensitive approaches. The ineffectiveness of one-size-fits-all models highlights the need for tailored actions that consider cultural norms, beliefs, and ideologies. High
[23] 1 The reviewed studies included interventions with diverse content and approaches implemented across different settings and targeting various populations. Few interventions were directly aimed at individuals experiencing vaccine hesitancy. Moderate
[24] 1, 2 and 5 Multicomponent interventions adapted to the needs of specific ethnic minority groups are effective in increasing vaccine acceptance, particularly when they emphasize awareness-raising and engagement with community organizations. High
[25] 2 Multidimensional community-, family-, and healthcare-based interventions, combined with educational strategies, effectively improve vaccination coverage. Systematic implementation may be relevant for reaching under-vaccinated communities. High
[26] 1 Emails increase vaccine acceptance compared with no intervention. Combined and personalized reminder methods are more effective. Personalization and integration of different strategies are crucial to optimize outcomes. High
[27] 2 and 3 Peer-education initiatives have the potential to improve vaccine acceptance, particularly when they combine peers and health professionals, and when implemented through targeted, long-term actions. High
[28] 2 Strategies varied widely in delivery mode and behavioral change techniques. After interventions, influenza, pneumococcal, and herpes zoster vaccination rates increased by 16.6% over a 12-16 month period. Moderate
[29] 2 Herd immunity represents a significant benefit of vaccination at the population level. Communicating this benefit effectively is crucial, as evidence suggests that clear messaging about herd immunity may increase vaccination intentions. High
[30] 4 Social media has the potential to disseminate information and promote vaccination; however, its effectiveness requires active and responsible monitoring by authorities and must be combined with other strategies due to the complexity of vaccine acceptance. Moderate
[31] 3 Behavioral interventions, both financial and non-financial, have a modest positive effect on vaccine uptake, with similar impacts between single and combined approaches. Timing of implementation does not significantly affect outcomes, except for community-based interventions, which may lose effectiveness as the COVID-19 pandemic evolves. High
[32] 2 When pharmacists are involved in the immunization process, regardless of their specific role or vaccine type, vaccination coverage is higher. High
[33] 3 Multicomponent and dialog-based interventions are more effective; however, given the complexity of vaccine hesitancy and limited evidence, strategies should be adapted to the target population, their reasons for hesitancy, and the specific context. High
[34] 1, 2, 3 and 5 The most effective strategies include clear information, personalized reminders, improved access to vaccination, and encouragement from healthcare professionals. In the United Kingdom, focusing on information relevance and improving access has proven particularly effective. High
[35] 3 Barriers to vaccination vary by infectious disease and population; the main motivators are self-protection and protection of family and community. For influenza, more effective strategies focus on convenience and trust, addressing issues such as cost and education. Moderate
[36] 2, 3 and 5 Vaccine acceptance among pregnant women is facilitated by healthcare professional recommendations, knowledge, vaccine confidence, multiple antenatal visits, and strategies such as financing, reminders, service integration, community engagement, training, and education. Moderate
[37] 5 Postpartum vaccination uptake is strengthened by healthcare provider recommendations, tailored interventions, vaccination in maternity or community settings, and education focused on positive reinforcement. Moderate
[38] 1, 2 and 5 Providing information on vaccine risks and safety, debunking misconceptions, using reminders and mixed campaigns, and delivering short, clear, audience-tailored messages increases acceptance and strengthens positive vaccination beliefs. Low
[39] 1 and 2 Educational messages increase knowledge; however, dialog-based social media interventions grounded in behavior change theory and adapted to the target audience show greater potential to promote vaccination and reduce hesitancy. Moderate
[40] 4 Social media interventions are an emerging and promising field to increase vaccine acceptance, where message framing, source credibility, and social network structure are key determinants, making optimization essential. Moderate
[41] 2 Applications, games, and simulations are promising interventions to improve knowledge and confidence among healthcare professionals and students regarding vaccination, with better results when combined with user-targeted actions. High
[42] 1,2 and 3 Diverse and combined communication strategies, including mass media and personalized approaches with improved service delivery, show potential to increase vaccine acceptance, particularly for influenza among older adults. Moderate
[43] 1 and 3 Participants were more likely to be vaccinated when incentivized with monetary rewards. Other lottery-based incentives and persuasive messages had little or no significant effect. Moderate
[44] 1 and 2 Effective vaccination promotion strategies include communication (webinars, social media, and educational materials), partnerships among state authorities, universities, and community leaders, as well as delivery interventions such as virtual municipal services, confidential hotlines, educational materials, and vaccination offers during routine medical visits. Moderate
[45] 1 and 2 Strengthening the role of healthcare professionals in promoting vaccination is crucial. Strategies such as standing orders, reminders, and recall systems are effective. Community pharmacies, especially in remote areas, have the potential to improve vaccination coverage. Moderate
[46] 1 and 2 Game-based interventions generally increase knowledge about vaccination; however, their impact on vaccination uptake is limited. However, the impact on vaccination adherence itself is limited. Avatar customization and collaboration in games have been shown to effectively engage participants. and in-Game collaboration have proven effective at engaging players. Moderate
[47] 1 Videos, virtual reality, and applications with social networking or gamification elements are more effective than printed materials in increasing knowledge, confidence, and engagement in vaccination. High
[48] 1 Vaccine chatbots have been used to provide factual information, schedule vaccinations, send reminders, and address misinformation, showing potential to positively influence vaccine-related attitudes. Moderate
[49] 1 Multicomponent strategies are more effective, particularly when targeting multiple determinants of vaccination behavior. Low
[50] 5 Clear and personalized recommendations for users, education on vaccine safety, encouragement of vaccine provision by providers, financial incentives, electronic health records, and vaccine availability at the policy level are effective. High
[51] 1 Shared decision-making interventions significantly increased vaccine acceptance compared with control groups. Moderate
[52] 1, 2 and 3 Community-based interventions, financial incentives, and technology-based health literacy programs increased immunization service uptake. Media-based interventions were not effective in reducing vaccine hesitancy. High
[53] 1 and 2 Non-financial interventions, such as appointment reminders and opt-out scheduling systems, appear to encourage vaccine acceptance. Other approaches, such as multimodal interventions and infographics, also show potential to address vaccine hesitancy. High
[54] 3 Key strategies to promote vaccination include understanding and collaborating with communities, tailoring messages, addressing systemic trauma and social health gaps, and conducting advance logistical planning. High
[55] 2 Multicomponent interventions were effective in increasing vaccination rates, followed by personalized reminders, although less effective than standing orders or patient reminders. High
[56] 1 Effective strategies against vaccine hesitancy include normative messaging, identity-congruent sources, interactive channels (such as chatbots and videos), information on safety and efficacy, collective appeals with social pressure, and support from political leaders. High
[57] 1 Nudge-based interventions increased COVID-19 vaccine uptake, particularly when combining multiple components (e.g., social norms and reminders), although effects diminished over time. High
[58] 4 Vaccine-related misinformation was addressed in five stages: identification of misinformation, regulation of content producers and distributors, disruption of production and dissemination, support for target audiences, and dissemination of reliable information. High

Each review described one to four strategies to address vaccine hesitancy, with combinations of strategies being the most effective. The five main strategies identified were: strengthening communication with different population groups; implementing continuing education programs for health professionals; expanding access to vaccines; addressing vaccine misinformation; and integrating vaccination strategies for pregnant women. These strategies were validated with the stakeholders who commissioned the study through a policy dialogue conducted at the conclusion of the evidence synthesis developed for the National Immunization Program.

A wide range of strategies has been adopted to strengthen communication, promote vaccine uptake, and mitigate vaccine hesitancy [42]. The use of behavior change theories, particularly the Health Belief Model, has been prominent. Across social media platforms, educational posts predominate, followed by discussion groups, interactive websites, and personalized reminders [39]. Honest and transparent communication, combined with information about vaccine benefits and potential adverse events, enhances the credibility of vaccination campaigns [34]. Direct engagement may be effective among populations resistant to vaccination [19].

Communication that is sensitive to cultural and personal nuances is more effective than strategies based exclusively on epidemiological and medical knowledge [42]. The involvement of community and religious leaders strengthens trust and vaccine uptake, particularly among ethnic minority and migrant populations. Interventions incorporating behavior change techniques, combined with tailored messages and support from community organizations, have proven effective in reaching these groups [34].

Multifaceted strategies, such as posters, leaflets, internal communication, and active vaccine offering at the locations where these materials are distributed, significantly increased influenza vaccination rates. Videos, virtual reality, and mobile applications make communication more dynamic and engaging, particularly among younger populations, and complement traditional approaches, enhancing engagement and vaccine uptake [19]. Notable interventions include educational activities for service users, vaccination record tracking by community health workers, and simultaneous interventions targeting health facilities, health professionals (parent education, reminders, audit and feedback), and family environments (telephone calls) [59].

Among social media interventions, educational posts, dialog-based interactive groups, interactive websites, and personalized reminders are the most commonly used. These strategies were informed by nudge theory [57]. This theory proposes subtly influencing choices, without restricting options or imposing obligations, by introducing small changes to the environment or context in which decisions are made.

The success of communication strategies depends on integrating multiple approaches that account for cultural, technological, and social factors. Combining traditional methods with digital technologies, together with the cultural and linguistic adaptation of messages, facilitates outreach to different population groups and promotes meaningful changes in health-related behaviors.

Continuing health education is a policy of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) that should be used as a strategy to address vaccine hesitancy. Health professional training should develop communication skills that enable professionals to convey information clearly and objectively to the public and to engage other professionals in prescribing and recommending vaccines included in the National Immunization Program [59]. Personal narratives combined with clear and accessible medical information have been effective in engaging diverse audiences, ranging from university students to the general population [39].

Personalized reminders for physicians, as a form of passive education, have demonstrated positive effects [55]. Brief messages that focus on risk reduction, reinforce the social benefits of vaccination, and address the beliefs and concerns of target populations, such as vaccine safety, increase behavioral impact [38].

Difficulty accessing health services contributes to vaccine hesitancy. Improving signage for vaccination rooms and publicizing vaccination clinic opening hours are relevant measures [15]. Mobile units, vaccination clinics, and extended service hours improve access for workers and remote communities [21,34]. Assessment of barriers and facilitators indicates that vaccination delivered in non-traditional settings, such as schools, workplaces, and community centers, has proven effective [35].

Misinformation is one of the greatest obstacles to vaccination campaigns, making it essential to address it to reduce vaccine hesitancy [25]. The active and trustworthy engagement of official institutions on social media, through transparent responses, the promotion of accurate information, and fact-checking by health professionals, is fundamental to countering misinformation and increasing confidence in vaccines [30,40]. To support these strategies, it is necessary to establish surveillance systems, regulate information production, and develop measures to prevent the circulation of false content [58].

Vaccination of pregnant and breastfeeding women remains a public health challenge, with a coverage rate of 48.4%, attributed to lack of information, perceptions of lack of vaccine safety, and fear of adverse events affecting both mother and child. In the case of COVID-19, in addition to traditional concerns, pregnant women reported distrust of vaccine efficacy and safety, influenced by the rapid pace of vaccine development and the perceived influence of the pharmaceutical industry on public policy [60].

Strategies that combine affective messages, such as videos and books, with cognitive approaches increase knowledge and vaccination intention, with video-based interventions being the most effective [24]. Multimodal educational strategies, including oral, written, and visual information, such as posters, may increase vaccination rates.

The training of health professionals is essential for addressing vaccine hesitancy. Professional education should include strategies to address pregnant women’s concerns and strengthen confidence in vaccination, given that healthcare provider recommendations are a key determinant of vaccine uptake [37]. All communication should be clear, emphasize benefits for the infant, and be tailored to the stage of pregnancy, taking into account women’s needs and concerns [34].

Facilitating access to vaccination, particularly in settings frequented by pregnant women, such as maternity hospitals, promotes vaccine uptake [37]. Educational interventions, text messaging, and combined approaches have demonstrated positive effects on maternal immunization in low-income settings [18,36].

The assessment of the 48 systematic reviews using the AMSTAR 2 tool indicated that 50.0% were of high methodological quality, 45.8% of moderate quality, and 4.2% of low quality. This distribution strengthens the robustness of the synthesis, although methodological limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. Table 2 presents the risk-of-bias assessment.

Table 2. Assessment of risk of bias and methodological quality (n=48).

Sixteen questions that make up the AMSTAR 2 Tool
Author, year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Classification
Abba-Aji, 2022 [11] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Adeagbo, 2022 [12] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Atkinson, 2019 [13] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Balzarini, 2020 [14] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Batteux, 2022 [15] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Begum, 2024 [16] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Bisset and Paterson, 2018 [17] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Brillo, Tosto and Buonomo, 2023 [18] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Cairns, 2012 [19] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Daniels, 2022 [20] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
De Koning, 2024 [21] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Desjardins, 2023 [22] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Dubé, Gagnon and MacDonald, 2015 [23] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Ekezie, 2023 [24] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Fallucca, 2024 [25] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Frascella, 2020 [26] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Gobbo, 2023 [27] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Gosselin Boucher, 2019 [28] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Hakim, 2019 [29] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Hansen, Baiju and Gabarron, 2023 [30] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Huang, Huang and Yu, 2023 [31] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Isenor, 2016 [32] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Jarrett, 2015 [33] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Kafadar, 2024 [34] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Kalunga, 2023 [35] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Khan, 2024 [36] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Konstantinou, 2024 [37] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Lawes-Wickwar, 2021 [38] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Low
Li, Wood and Kostkova, 2022 [39] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Limaye, 2021 [40] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Lo Moro, 2023 [41] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
MacDonald, 2013 [42] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Mardi, 2022 [43] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Masterson, Anderson and Savoia, 2024 [44] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Mohammed, 2021 [45] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Ou, 2024 [46] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Panickar, 2023 [47] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Passanante, 2023 [48] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Perroud, 2022 [49] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Low
Razai, 2023 [50] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Scalia, Durand and Elwyn, 2022 [51] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg Moderate
Singh, 2022 [52] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Terrell, Alami, and Krewski, 2023 [53] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Tinessia, 2024 [54] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Wennekes, 2024 [55] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Xia and Nan, 2024 [56] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Zhang and Jin, 2024 [57] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High
Zhao, 2023 [58] graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i002-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i004-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i003-en.jpg graphic file with name 2237-9622-ress-35-e20250466-i001-en.jpg High

Inline graphic -Yes

Inline graphic -Partial yes

Inline graphic -No

Inline graphic -Not applicable

The evaluation of vaccination policies and programs must consider their effects on social inequalities and ensure access to reliable and understandable information regardless of origin or social circumstances. Overcoming historical, cultural, and technological barriers is essential to achieving equity, and the PROGRESS framework helps identify barriers and opportunities [60].

Regions with low Municipal Human Development Index (MHDI) scores face challenges with infrastructure and connectivity at vaccination facilities, whereas areas with higher MHDI scores generally have better logistical conditions. Maranhão, despite having one of the lowest Human Development Index among Brazilian states, achieved improvements in vaccination coverage during the COVID-19 pandemic, driven by broader Family Health Strategy (Estratégia Saúde da Família, ESF) coverage and the decentralization of health services [61]. Immunization programs in remote communities have proven essential for promoting equity [62].

Minority populations and ethnic groups face longstanding cultural and historical challenges related to distrust of clinical interventions resulting from exclusion and discrimination. Communication should be adapted to cultural and linguistic contexts to ensure effective understanding [16]. Strategies involving community participation and the use of clear, evidence-based educational materials strengthen trust in and acceptance of vaccination among pregnant women [10]. Actions such as active outreach and point-of-care vaccination have been effective among vulnerable populations [11].

Pregnant women have specific vulnerabilities that require targeted strategies due to the immunological changes associated with pregnancy. The quality of prenatal care directly influences vaccination rates, with more pronounced inequalities among women with lower income and educational attainment. Vaccine hesitancy in this group stems from a lack of reliable information, beliefs regarding the lack of vaccine safety, and fear of adverse effects [30]. Educational materials, one-on-one sessions, and digital resources have proven effective in increasing vaccine uptake among this population and promoting equity in maternal and child healthcare [18,63]. Promoting greater equity in maternal and child healthcare requires policies that address socioeconomic and educational barriers, improve access, and strengthen health systems to protect pregnant women and newborns [10,18,61,63].

Educational level is strongly associated with vaccine uptake, highlighting the need for accessible materials and simplified language for populations with low literacy levels [64]. Digital health literacy has emerged as a strategic tool, particularly during pandemics [65]. Conversation circles have proven effective in promoting vaccination among vulnerable groups, such as patients and accompanying persons in oncology service waiting rooms [1].

Promoting social participation is essential for addressing inequalities in access to healthcare and supporting vulnerable groups [53]. From a PROGRESS perspective, recommendations include strengthening infrastructure in areas with low MHDI scores; developing culturally sensitive and tailored communication strategies; implementing programs for vulnerable occupational groups; ensuring maternal healthcare and vaccination during prenatal care; promoting health education and digital health literacy; reducing socioeconomic barriers to access; and expanding community networks and intersectoral partnerships. Equitable access to vaccination requires consideration of the multiple barriers faced by different population groups.

Discussion

Cultural, social, economic, and informational factors influence vaccine hesitancy. To address this scenario, it is suggested to strengthen communication with diverse population groups, implement continuing education for health professionals, expand access to vaccines, address vaccine misinformation, and integrate specific strategies for pregnant women [40-41].

Strengthening communication requires the involvement of community leaders and adaptation of language to local values. Messages should emphasize both collective and individual benefits of vaccination, using emotional appeals and political figures to create identification and trust [42]. Media campaigns, community education, and expanded access to vaccination services are essential, as are the ongoing outreach efforts conducted by health teams. Digital technologies, such as electronic reminders, online platforms, short message service (SMS), social media, and chatbots, facilitate vaccine appointment scheduling and provide clear information on vaccine safety, reaching broad and diverse audiences.

Continuing education programs for health professionals help address vaccine hesitancy by using clear visual materials and reliable information sources, thereby strengthening trust between professionals and users. These programs should seek to increase competence for context-adapted interventions, including the use of presumptive announcements during consultations. Continuing education programs must involve health professional leaders and prioritize in-person educational activities. Personalized reminders combined with tools that facilitate work within health services are also recommended.

To address vaccine hesitancy, it is necessary to expand access to vaccines and improve service convenience by extending vaccination hours, sending personalized messages, using mobile units, and offering vaccinations in non-traditional settings, such as schools and workplaces. Opportunistic vaccination, workplace vaccination, and monetary incentives also increase uptake.

Misinformation is one of the greatest obstacles to vaccination campaigns. Several strategies have proven effective in addressing this challenge, including community engagement, participation of religious and community leaders, automated scheduling, personalized communications, strategies designed to avoid the backfire effect, and language tailored to public concerns, together with online regulation, monitoring, and oversight [43-44].

Vaccination during pregnancy is a public health challenge that requires effective strategies to ensure broad coverage and protection for both mother and infant. Clear information about vaccine benefits and appropriate timing, delivered through diverse educational materials, is essential, as is direct, tailored communication from health professionals during consultations. Maternal and child health programs should integrate actions and multimodal approaches, which appear promising for reducing vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women [45-46].

Among the limitations of this study, the absence of a systematic assessment of heterogeneity among included studies and of publication bias analysis may have affected the understanding of contexts and the representativeness of the evidence. The absence of an overlap matrix between reviews and primary studies was another limitation, as such an analysis would allow the identification of duplicate evidence and help avoid artificial inflation of the evidence base.

As recommendations, the study proposes strengthening infrastructure in areas with low MHDI scores, developing culturally adapted communication strategies, implementing programs for vulnerable occupational groups, ensuring maternal healthcare and vaccination during prenatal care, promoting health education and digital health literacy, reducing socioeconomic barriers, and expanding community networks and intersectoral partnerships. For future research, it is recommended to assess the long-term impact.

Addressing vaccine hesitancy requires a strategic and integrated approach that considers its multiple dimensions. This review identified interventions with the potential to strengthen confidence in vaccines and expand vaccination coverage in Brazil. Despite limitations in the evidence base and the review process, the findings provide support for actions in health services, public policy formulation, and future research. Recommendations include investments in infrastructure, workforce development, communication innovation, and intersectoral coordination, with adaptation to local realities and a focus on priority and vulnerable groups.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our special gratitude to Preethy D’Souza, Senior Research Fellow at the Social Research Institute, University College London, for her invaluable contribution in introducing us to EPPI-Reviewer.

Footnotes

Ethical aspects: This research used data published in the literature.

Protocol registration: The protocol for this evidence synthesis was registered in the Open Science Framework repository under the title “Strategies for addressing vaccine hesitancy in Brazil: rapid synthesis of evidence for policy” and is available at: https://osf.io/y2w5e/?view_only=3dd4c48ceedb49ec9c56bbd3d25b0961.

Use of generative artificial intelligence: DeepSeek Chat (https://chat.deepseek.com) was used solely to assist with formatting references in Vancouver style.

Data availability

The dataset and other materials used in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request at sandra.leone@fiocruz.br.

Associated Data

    This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

    Supplementary Materials

    MATERIAL SUPLEMENTAR
    SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

    Data Availability Statement

    O acesso ao banco de dados e a outros materiais utilizados na pesquisa poderão ser solicitados pelo e-mail sandra.leone@fiocruz.br.

    The dataset and other materials used in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request at sandra.leone@fiocruz.br.


    Articles from Epidemiologia e Serviços de Saúde : Revista do Sistema Unico de Saúde do Brasil are provided here courtesy of Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde e Ambiente - Ministério da Saúde do Brasil

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