Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Thorax logoLink to Thorax
. 2003 Mar;58(3):261–265. doi: 10.1136/thorax.58.3.261

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease • 7: Management of COPD

W MacNee 1, P Calverley 1
PMCID: PMC1746595  PMID: 12612309

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (119.9 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Anthonisen N. R., Connett J. E., Kiley J. P., Altose M. D., Bailey W. C., Buist A. S., Conway W. A., Jr, Enright P. L., Kanner R. E., O'Hara P. Effects of smoking intervention and the use of an inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilator on the rate of decline of FEV1. The Lung Health Study. JAMA. 1994 Nov 16;272(19):1497–1505. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Anthonisen N. R., Manfreda J., Warren C. P., Hershfield E. S., Harding G. K., Nelson N. A. Antibiotic therapy in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Feb;106(2):196–204. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-106-2-196. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Belman M. J., Botnick W. C., Shin J. W. Inhaled bronchodilators reduce dynamic hyperinflation during exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Mar;153(3):967–975. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.3.8630581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Berger R., Smith D. Effect of inhaled metaproterenol on exercise performance in patients with stable "fixed" airway obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Sep;138(3):624–629. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/138.3.624. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bestall J. C., Paul E. A., Garrod R., Garnham R., Jones P. W., Wedzicha J. A. Usefulness of the Medical Research Council (MRC) dyspnoea scale as a measure of disability in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 1999 Jul;54(7):581–586. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.7.581. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Boyd G., Morice A. H., Pounsford J. C., Siebert M., Peslis N., Crawford C. An evaluation of salmeterol in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Eur Respir J. 1997 Apr;10(4):815–821. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Subcommittee on Pulmonary Rehabilitation Pulmonary rehabilitation. Thorax. 2001 Nov;56(11):827–834. doi: 10.1136/thorax.56.11.827. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Britton J., Knox A. Helping people to stop smoking: the new smoking cessation guidelines. Thorax. 1999 Jan;54(1):1–2. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.1.1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brochard L., Mancebo J., Wysocki M., Lofaso F., Conti G., Rauss A., Simonneau G., Benito S., Gasparetto A., Lemaire F. Noninvasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 1995 Sep 28;333(13):817–822. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199509283331301. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Burge P. S., Calverley P. M., Jones P. W., Spencer S., Anderson J. A., Maslen T. K. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of fluticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the ISOLDE trial. BMJ. 2000 May 13;320(7245):1297–1303. doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7245.1297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Casaburi R., Mahler D. A., Jones P. W., Wanner A., San Pedro G., ZuWallack R. L., Menjoge S. S., Serby C. W., Witek T., Jr A long-term evaluation of once-daily inhaled tiotropium in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2002 Feb;19(2):217–224. doi: 10.1183/09031936.02.00269802. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cazzola M., Matera M. G., Santangelo G., Vinciguerra A., Rossi F., D'Amato G. Salmeterol and formoterol in partially reversible severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a dose-response study. Respir Med. 1995 May;89(5):357–362. doi: 10.1016/0954-6111(95)90008-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Chaouat A., Weitzenblum E., Kessler R., Charpentier C., Ehrhart M., Levi-Valensi P., Zielinski J., Delaunois L., Cornudella R., Moutinho dos Santos J. Sleep-related O2 desaturation and daytime pulmonary haemodynamics in COPD patients with mild hypoxaemia. Eur Respir J. 1997 Aug;10(8):1730–1735. doi: 10.1183/09031936.97.10081730. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chrystyn H., Mulley B. A., Peake M. D. Dose response relation to oral theophylline in severe chronic obstructive airways disease. BMJ. 1988 Dec 10;297(6662):1506–1510. doi: 10.1136/bmj.297.6662.1506. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Compton C. H., Gubb J., Nieman R., Edelson J., Amit O., Bakst A., Ayres J. G., Creemers J. P., Schultze-Werninghaus G., Brambilla C. Cilomilast, a selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor for treatment of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised, dose-ranging study. Lancet. 2001 Jul 28;358(9278):265–270. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05481-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Confalonieri M., Mainardi E., Della Porta R., Bernorio S., Gandola L., Beghè B., Spanevello A. Inhaled corticosteroids reduce neutrophilic bronchial inflammation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 1998 Jul;53(7):583–585. doi: 10.1136/thx.53.7.583. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Connors A. F., Jr, Dawson N. V., Thomas C., Harrell F. E., Jr, Desbiens N., Fulkerson W. J., Kussin P., Bellamy P., Goldman L., Knaus W. A. Outcomes following acute exacerbation of severe chronic obstructive lung disease. The SUPPORT investigators (Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments) Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Oct;154(4 Pt 1):959–967. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.4.8887592. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Cooper C. B., Davidson A. C., Cameron I. R. Aminophylline, respiratory muscle strength and exercise tolerance in chronic obstructive airway disease. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir. 1987 Jan-Feb;23(1):15–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Cooper J. D., Patterson G. A., Sundaresan R. S., Trulock E. P., Yusen R. D., Pohl M. S., Lefrak S. S. Results of 150 consecutive bilateral lung volume reduction procedures in patients with severe emphysema. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1996 Nov;112(5):1319–1330. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5223(96)70147-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Cooper J. D., Trulock E. P., Triantafillou A. N., Patterson G. A., Pohl M. S., Deloney P. A., Sundaresan R. S., Roper C. L. Bilateral pneumectomy (volume reduction) for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1995 Jan;109(1):106–119. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5223(95)70426-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cotton M. M., Bucknall C. E., Dagg K. D., Johnson M. K., MacGregor G., Stewart C., Stevenson R. D. Early discharge for patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized controlled trial. Thorax. 2000 Nov;55(11):902–906. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.11.902. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Criner G. J., Cordova F. C., Furukawa S., Kuzma A. M., Travaline J. M., Leyenson V., O'Brien G. M. Prospective randomized trial comparing bilateral lung volume reduction surgery to pulmonary rehabilitation in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999 Dec;160(6):2018–2027. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.6.9902117. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Davies L., Angus R. M., Calverley P. M. Oral corticosteroids in patients admitted to hospital with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999 Aug 7;354(9177):456–460. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)11326-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Davies L., Wilkinson M., Bonner S., Calverley P. M., Angus R. M. "Hospital at home" versus hospital care in patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: prospective randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2000 Nov 18;321(7271):1265–1268. doi: 10.1136/bmj.321.7271.1265. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Davis A. L., Aranda C. P., Schiffman G., Christianson L. C. Pneumococcal infection and immunologic response to pneumococcal vaccine in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A pilot study. Chest. 1987 Aug;92(2):204–212. doi: 10.1378/chest.92.2.204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. FRANCIS R. S., MAY J. R., SPICER C. C. Chemotherapy of bronchitis. Influence of penicillin and tetracycline administered daily, or intermittently for exacerbations. A report to the Research Committee of the British Tuberculosis Association by its Bronchitis Subcommittee. Br Med J. 1961 Oct 14;2(5258):979–985. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.5258.979. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. FRANCIS R. S., SPICER C. C. Chemotherapy in chronic bronchitis. Influence of daily penicillin and tetracycline on exacerbations and their cost. Br Med J. 1960 Jan 30;1(5169):297–303. doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.5169.297. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Fiore M. C., Smith S. S., Jorenby D. E., Baker T. B. The effectiveness of the nicotine patch for smoking cessation. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1994 Jun 22;271(24):1940–1947. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Foglio K., Bianchi L., Bruletti G., Battista L., Pagani M., Ambrosino N. Long-term effectiveness of pulmonary rehabilitation in patients with chronic airway obstruction. Eur Respir J. 1999 Jan;13(1):125–132. doi: 10.1183/09031936.99.13112599. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Geddes D., Davies M., Koyama H., Hansell D., Pastorino U., Pepper J., Agent P., Cullinan P., MacNeill S. J., Goldstraw P. Effect of lung-volume-reduction surgery in patients with severe emphysema. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jul 27;343(4):239–245. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200007273430402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Goldstein R. S., Gort E. H., Stubbing D., Avendano M. A., Guyatt G. H. Randomised controlled trial of respiratory rehabilitation. Lancet. 1994 Nov 19;344(8934):1394–1397. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(94)90568-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Grandjean E. M., Berthet P., Ruffmann R., Leuenberger P. Efficacy of oral long-term N-acetylcysteine in chronic bronchopulmonary disease: a meta-analysis of published double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials. Clin Ther. 2000 Feb;22(2):209–221. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2918(00)88479-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Gray-Donald K., Gibbons L., Shapiro S. H., Macklem P. T., Martin J. G. Nutritional status and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Mar;153(3):961–966. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.3.8630580. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Griffiths T. L., Burr M. L., Campbell I. A., Lewis-Jenkins V., Mullins J., Shiels K., Turner-Lawlor P. J., Payne N., Newcombe R. G., Ionescu A. A. Results at 1 year of outpatient multidisciplinary pulmonary rehabilitation: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2000 Jan 29;355(9201):362–368. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(99)07042-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Gross N. J., Petty T. L., Friedman M., Skorodin M. S., Silvers G. W., Donohue J. F. Dose response to ipratropium as a nebulized solution in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A three-center study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989 May;139(5):1188–1191. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/139.5.1188. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Gross N. J. The GOLD standard for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Apr;163(5):1047–1048. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.163.5.ed1101e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Guyatt G. H., Berman L. B., Townsend M., Pugsley S. O., Chambers L. W. A measure of quality of life for clinical trials in chronic lung disease. Thorax. 1987 Oct;42(10):773–778. doi: 10.1136/thx.42.10.773. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Górecka D., Gorzelak K., Sliwiński P., Tobiasz M., Zieliński J. Effect of long-term oxygen therapy on survival in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with moderate hypoxaemia. Thorax. 1997 Aug;52(8):674–679. doi: 10.1136/thx.52.8.674. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hak E., van Essen G. A., Buskens E., Stalman W., de Melker R. A. Is immunising all patients with chronic lung disease in the community against influenza cost effective? Evidence from a general practice based clinical prospective cohort study in Utrecht, The Netherlands. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1998 Feb;52(2):120–125. doi: 10.1136/jech.52.2.120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Hay J. G., Stone P., Carter J., Church S., Eyre-Brook A., Pearson M. G., Woodcock A. A., Calverley P. M. Bronchodilator reversibility, exercise performance and breathlessness in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 1992 Jun;5(6):659–664. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Johnston R. N., McNeill R. S., Smith D. H., Dempster M. B., Nairn J. R., Purvis M. S., Watson J. M., Ward F. G. Five-year winter chemoprophylaxis for chronic bronchitis. Br Med J. 1969 Nov 1;4(5678):265–269. doi: 10.1136/bmj.4.5678.265. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Jones P. W., Bosh T. K. Quality of life changes in COPD patients treated with salmeterol. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Apr;155(4):1283–1289. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.4.9105068. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Jones P. W., Quirk F. H., Baveystock C. M., Littlejohns P. A self-complete measure of health status for chronic airflow limitation. The St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992 Jun;145(6):1321–1327. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/145.6.1321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Jorenby D. E., Leischow S. J., Nides M. A., Rennard S. I., Johnston J. A., Hughes A. R., Smith S. S., Muramoto M. L., Daughton D. M., Doan K. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med. 1999 Mar 4;340(9):685–691. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199903043400903. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Keatings V. M., Jatakanon A., Worsdell Y. M., Barnes P. J. Effects of inhaled and oral glucocorticoids on inflammatory indices in asthma and COPD. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Feb;155(2):542–548. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.2.9032192. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Kessler R., Faller M., Weitzenblum E., Chaouat A., Aykut A., Ducoloné A., Ehrhart M., Oswald-Mammosser M. "Natural history" of pulmonary hypertension in a series of 131 patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Jul 15;164(2):219–224. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.2.2006129. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Lacasse Y., Wong E., Guyatt G. H., King D., Cook D. J., Goldstein R. S. Meta-analysis of respiratory rehabilitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet. 1996 Oct 26;348(9035):1115–1119. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(96)04201-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Lung Health Study Research Group Effect of inhaled triamcinolone on the decline in pulmonary function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 2000 Dec 28;343(26):1902–1909. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200012283432601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Mahler D. A., Donohue J. F., Barbee R. A., Goldman M. D., Gross N. J., Wisniewski M. E., Yancey S. W., Zakes B. A., Rickard K. A., Anderson W. H. Efficacy of salmeterol xinafoate in the treatment of COPD. Chest. 1999 Apr;115(4):957–965. doi: 10.1378/chest.115.4.957. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Maltais François, Ostinelli Juliette, Bourbeau Jean, Tonnel André Bernard, Jacquemet Nadine, Haddon Jennifer, Rouleau Michel, Boukhana Mohamed, Martinot Jean Benoît, Duroux Pierre. Comparison of nebulized budesonide and oral prednisolone with placebo in the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Mar 1;165(5):698–703. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.165.5.2109093. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Martinez F. J., de Oca M. M., Whyte R. I., Stetz J., Gay S. E., Celli B. R. Lung-volume reduction improves dyspnea, dynamic hyperinflation, and respiratory muscle function. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Jun;155(6):1984–1990. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.6.9196106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. McGavin C. R., Gupta S. P., Lloyd E. L., McHardy G. J. Physical rehabilitation for the chronic bronchitic: results of a controlled trial of exercises in the home. Thorax. 1977 Jun;32(3):307–311. doi: 10.1136/thx.32.3.307. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. McKay S. E., Howie C. A., Thomson A. H., Whiting B., Addis G. J. Value of theophylline treatment in patients handicapped by chronic obstructive lung disease. Thorax. 1993 Mar;48(3):227–232. doi: 10.1136/thx.48.3.227. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Monsó E., Ruiz J., Rosell A., Manterola J., Fiz J., Morera J., Ausina V. Bacterial infection in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A study of stable and exacerbated outpatients using the protected specimen brush. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995 Oct;152(4 Pt 1):1316–1320. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.152.4.7551388. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Morgan M. D. The prediction of benefit from pulmonary rehabilitation: setting, training intensity and the effect of selection by disability. Thorax. 1999 Aug;54 (Suppl 2):S3–S7. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.2008.s3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Mulloy E., McNicholas W. T. Theophylline improves gas exchange during rest, exercise, and sleep in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Oct;148(4 Pt 1):1030–1036. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/148.4_Pt_1.1030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Murciano D., Aubier M., Lecocguic Y., Pariente R. Effects of theophylline on diaphragmatic strength and fatigue in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 1984 Aug 9;311(6):349–353. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198408093110601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Murciano D., Auclair M. H., Pariente R., Aubier M. A randomized, controlled trial of theophylline in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med. 1989 Jun 8;320(23):1521–1525. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198906083202304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. National Emphysema Treatment Trial Research Group Patients at high risk of death after lung-volume-reduction surgery. N Engl J Med. 2001 Oct 11;345(15):1075–1083. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa11798. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Nichol K. L., Margolis K. L., Wuorenma J., Von Sternberg T. The efficacy and cost effectiveness of vaccination against influenza among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med. 1994 Sep 22;331(12):778–784. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199409223311206. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Niewoehner D. E., Erbland M. L., Deupree R. H., Collins D., Gross N. J., Light R. W., Anderson P., Morgan N. A. Effect of systemic glucocorticoids on exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999 Jun 24;340(25):1941–1947. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199906243402502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. O'Donnell D. E., Bain D. J., Webb K. A. Factors contributing to relief of exertional breathlessness during hyperoxia in chronic airflow limitation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997 Feb;155(2):530–535. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.155.2.9032190. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Ojoo J. C., Moon T., McGlone S., Martin K., Gardiner E. D., Greenstone M. A., Morice A. H. Patients' and carers' preferences in two models of care for acute exacerbations of COPD: results of a randomised controlled trial. Thorax. 2002 Feb;57(2):167–169. doi: 10.1136/thorax.57.2.167. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Paggiaro P. L., Dahle R., Bakran I., Frith L., Hollingworth K., Efthimiou J. Multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. International COPD Study Group. Lancet. 1998 Mar 14;351(9105):773–780. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)03471-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Paggiaro P. L., Dahle R., Bakran I., Frith L., Hollingworth K., Efthimiou J. Multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. International COPD Study Group. Lancet. 1998 Mar 14;351(9105):773–780. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(97)03471-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Parrott S., Godfrey C., Raw M., West R., McNeill A. Guidance for commissioners on the cost effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions. Health Educational Authority. Thorax. 1998 Dec;53 (Suppl 5 Pt 2):S1–38. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Pauwels R. A., Löfdahl C. G., Laitinen L. A., Schouten J. P., Postma D. S., Pride N. B., Ohlsson S. V. Long-term treatment with inhaled budesonide in persons with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who continue smoking. European Respiratory Society Study on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. N Engl J Med. 1999 Jun 24;340(25):1948–1953. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199906243402503. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Plant P. K., Owen J. L., Elliott M. W. Early use of non-invasive ventilation for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on general respiratory wards: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2000 Jun 3;355(9219):1931–1935. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02323-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Plant P. K., Owen J. L., Elliott M. W. One year period prevalence study of respiratory acidosis in acute exacerbations of COPD: implications for the provision of non-invasive ventilation and oxygen administration. Thorax. 2000 Jul;55(7):550–554. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.7.550. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Rennard S. I., Anderson W., ZuWallack R., Broughton J., Bailey W., Friedman M., Wisniewski M., Rickard K. Use of a long-acting inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist, salmeterol xinafoate, in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Apr;163(5):1087–1092. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.163.5.9903053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Rodriguez-Roisin R. Toward a consensus definition for COPD exacerbations. Chest. 2000 May;117(5 Suppl 2):398S–401S. doi: 10.1378/chest.117.5_suppl_2.398s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Schols A. M., Slangen J., Volovics L., Wouters E. F. Weight loss is a reversible factor in the prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Jun;157(6 Pt 1):1791–1797. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.6.9705017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Seemungal T. A., Donaldson G. C., Paul E. A., Bestall J. C., Jeffries D. J., Wedzicha J. A. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1418–1422. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.5.9709032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Seemungal T. A., Harper-Owen R., Bhowmik A., Jeffries D. J., Wedzicha J. A. Detection of rhinovirus in induced sputum at exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J. 2000 Oct;16(4):677–683. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.16d19.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Simberkoff M. S., Cross A. P., Al-Ibrahim M., Baltch A. L., Geiseler P. J., Nadler J., Richmond A. S., Smith R. P., Schiffman G., Shepard D. S. Efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine in high-risk patients. Results of a Veterans Administration Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med. 1986 Nov 20;315(21):1318–1327. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198611203152104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Skwarska E., Cohen G., Skwarski K. M., Lamb C., Bushell D., Parker S., MacNee W. Randomized controlled trial of supported discharge in patients with exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax. 2000 Nov;55(11):907–912. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.11.907. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Soler N., Torres A., Ewig S., Gonzalez J., Celis R., El-Ebiary M., Hernandez C., Rodriguez-Roisin R. Bronchial microbial patterns in severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) requiring mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1498–1505. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.5.9711044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Tengs T. O., Adams M. E., Pliskin J. S., Safran D. G., Siegel J. E., Weinstein M. C., Graham J. D. Five-hundred life-saving interventions and their cost-effectiveness. Risk Anal. 1995 Jun;15(3):369–390. doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00330.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Thompson W. H., Nielson C. P., Carvalho P., Charan N. B., Crowley J. J. Controlled trial of oral prednisone in outpatients with acute COPD exacerbation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 Aug;154(2 Pt 1):407–412. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.154.2.8756814. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Ulrik C. S. Efficacy of inhaled salmeterol in the management of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a single centre randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study. Thorax. 1995 Jul;50(7):750–754. doi: 10.1136/thx.50.7.750. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Vathenen A. S., Britton J. R., Ebden P., Cookson J. B., Wharrad H. J., Tattersfield A. E. High-dose inhaled albuterol in severe chronic airflow limitation. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1988 Oct;138(4):850–855. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/138.4.850. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Vestbo J., Sørensen T., Lange P., Brix A., Torre P., Viskum K. Long-term effect of inhaled budesonide in mild and moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999 May 29;353(9167):1819–1823. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(98)10019-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Wijkstra P. J., Van Altena R., Kraan J., Otten V., Postma D. S., Koëter G. H. Quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease improves after rehabilitation at home. Eur Respir J. 1994 Feb;7(2):269–273. doi: 10.1183/09031936.94.07020269. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Williams J. H., Jr, Moser K. M. Pneumococcal vaccine and patients with chronic lung disease. Ann Intern Med. 1986 Jan;104(1):106–109. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-104-1-106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Wolkove N., Dajczman E., Colacone A., Kreisman H. The relationship between pulmonary function and dyspnea in obstructive lung disease. Chest. 1989 Dec;96(6):1247–1251. doi: 10.1378/chest.96.6.1247. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Young J., Fry-Smith A., Hyde C. Lung volume reduction surgery (LVRS) for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with underlying severe emphysema. Thorax. 1999 Sep;54(9):779–789. doi: 10.1136/thx.54.9.779. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. van Noord J. A., de Munck D. R., Bantje T. A., Hop W. C., Akveld M. L., Bommer A. M. Long-term treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with salmeterol and the additive effect of ipratropium. Eur Respir J. 2000 May;15(5):878–885. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3003.2000.15e11.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Thorax are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES