Skip to main content
The Journal of Cell Biology logoLink to The Journal of Cell Biology
. 1995 Nov 2;131(4):863–873. doi: 10.1083/jcb.131.4.863

FAR1 is required for oriented polarization of yeast cells in response to mating pheromones

PMCID: PMC2199999  PMID: 7490290

Abstract

Cell polarization involves specifying an area on the cell surface and organizing the cytoskeleton towards that landmark. The mechanisms by which external signals are translated into internal landmarks for polarization are poorly understood. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae exhibits polarized growth during mating: the actin cytoskeleton of each cell polarizes towards its partner, presumably to allow efficient cell fusion. The external signal which determines the landmark for polarization is thought to be a gradient of peptide pheromone released by the mating partner. Here we described mutants that exhibit random polarization. Using two assays, including a direct microscope assay for orientation (Segall, J. 1993. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90:8332- 8337), we show that these mutants cannot locate the source of a pheromone gradient although they are able to organize their cytoskeleton. These mutants appear to be defective in mating because they are unable to locate the mating partner. They carry mutations of the FAR1 gene, denoted far1-s, and identify a new function for the Far1 protein. Its other known function is to promote cell cycle arrest during mating by inhibiting a cyclin-dependent kinase (Peter, M., and I. Herskowitz. 1994. Science (Wash. DC). 265:1228-1232). The far1-s mutants exhibit normal cell cycle arrest in response to pheromone, which suggests that Far1 protein plays two distinct roles in mating: one in cell cycle arrest and the other in orientation towards the mating partner.

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (1.8 MB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Baba M., Baba N., Ohsumi Y., Kanaya K., Osumi M. Three-dimensional analysis of morphogenesis induced by mating pheromone alpha factor in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Cell Sci. 1989 Oct;94(Pt 2):207–216. doi: 10.1242/jcs.94.2.207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Bender A., Pringle J. R. Multicopy suppression of the cdc24 budding defect in yeast by CDC42 and three newly identified genes including the ras-related gene RSR1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Dec;86(24):9976–9980. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.24.9976. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Chang F., Herskowitz I. Identification of a gene necessary for cell cycle arrest by a negative growth factor of yeast: FAR1 is an inhibitor of a G1 cyclin, CLN2. Cell. 1990 Nov 30;63(5):999–1011. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90503-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Chang F., Herskowitz I. Phosphorylation of FAR1 in response to alpha-factor: a possible requirement for cell-cycle arrest. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Apr;3(4):445–450. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.4.445. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Chant J. Cell polarity in yeast. Trends Genet. 1994 Sep;10(9):328–333. doi: 10.1016/0168-9525(94)90036-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Chant J., Corrado K., Pringle J. R., Herskowitz I. Yeast BUD5, encoding a putative GDP-GTP exchange factor, is necessary for bud site selection and interacts with bud formation gene BEM1. Cell. 1991 Jun 28;65(7):1213–1224. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90016-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chant J., Herskowitz I. Genetic control of bud site selection in yeast by a set of gene products that constitute a morphogenetic pathway. Cell. 1991 Jun 28;65(7):1203–1212. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90015-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Chenevert J. Cell polarization directed by extracellular cues in yeast. Mol Biol Cell. 1994 Nov;5(11):1169–1175. doi: 10.1091/mbc.5.11.1169. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Devreotes P. N., Zigmond S. H. Chemotaxis in eukaryotic cells: a focus on leukocytes and Dictyostelium. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1988;4:649–686. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.04.110188.003245. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Dorer R., Pryciak P. M., Hartwell L. H. Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells execute a default pathway to select a mate in the absence of pheromone gradients. J Cell Biol. 1995 Nov;131(4):845–861. doi: 10.1083/jcb.131.4.845. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Downey G. P. Mechanisms of leukocyte motility and chemotaxis. Curr Opin Immunol. 1994 Feb;6(1):113–124. doi: 10.1016/0952-7915(94)90042-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Drubin D. G. Development of cell polarity in budding yeast. Cell. 1991 Jun 28;65(7):1093–1096. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90001-f. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Flores-Rozas H., Kelman Z., Dean F. B., Pan Z. Q., Harper J. W., Elledge S. J., O'Donnell M., Hurwitz J. Cdk-interacting protein 1 directly binds with proliferating cell nuclear antigen and inhibits DNA replication catalyzed by the DNA polymerase delta holoenzyme. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Aug 30;91(18):8655–8659. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.18.8655. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Fujita A., Oka C., Arikawa Y., Katagai T., Tonouchi A., Kuhara S., Misumi Y. A yeast gene necessary for bud-site selection encodes a protein similar to insulin-degrading enzymes. Nature. 1994 Dec 8;372(6506):567–570. doi: 10.1038/372567a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Gehrung S., Snyder M. The SPA2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is important for pheromone-induced morphogenesis and efficient mating. J Cell Biol. 1990 Oct;111(4):1451–1464. doi: 10.1083/jcb.111.4.1451. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Halevy O., Novitch B. G., Spicer D. B., Skapek S. X., Rhee J., Hannon G. J., Beach D., Lassar A. B. Correlation of terminal cell cycle arrest of skeletal muscle with induction of p21 by MyoD. Science. 1995 Feb 17;267(5200):1018–1021. doi: 10.1126/science.7863327. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Hasek J., Rupes I., Svobodová J., Streiblová E. Tubulin and actin topology during zygote formation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Gen Microbiol. 1987 Dec;133(12):3355–3363. doi: 10.1099/00221287-133-12-3355. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Herskowitz I. MAP kinase pathways in yeast: for mating and more. Cell. 1995 Jan 27;80(2):187–197. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90402-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Jackson C. L., Hartwell L. H. Courtship in S. cerevisiae: both cell types choose mating partners by responding to the strongest pheromone signal. Cell. 1990 Nov 30;63(5):1039–1051. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90507-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Jackson C. L., Hartwell L. H. Courtship in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: an early cell-cell interaction during mating. Mol Cell Biol. 1990 May;10(5):2202–2213. doi: 10.1128/mcb.10.5.2202. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Kurjan J. Alpha-factor structural gene mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: effects on alpha-factor production and mating. Mol Cell Biol. 1985 Apr;5(4):787–796. doi: 10.1128/mcb.5.4.787. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Kurjan J. Pheromone response in yeast. Annu Rev Biochem. 1992;61:1097–1129. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.61.070192.005313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Lew D. J., Reed S. I. Morphogenesis in the yeast cell cycle: regulation by Cdc28 and cyclins. J Cell Biol. 1993 Mar;120(6):1305–1320. doi: 10.1083/jcb.120.6.1305. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Madden K., Costigan C., Snyder M. Cell polarity and morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Trends Cell Biol. 1992 Jan;2(1):22–29. doi: 10.1016/0962-8924(92)90140-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Madden K., Snyder M. Specification of sites for polarized growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the influence of external factors on site selection. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Sep;3(9):1025–1035. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.9.1025. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Marcus S., Caldwell G. A., Miller D., Xue C. B., Naider F., Becker J. M. Significance of C-terminal cysteine modifications to the biological activity of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae a-factor mating pheromone. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Jul;11(7):3603–3612. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.7.3603. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Meluh P. B., Rose M. D. KAR3, a kinesin-related gene required for yeast nuclear fusion. Cell. 1990 Mar 23;60(6):1029–1041. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90351-e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Michaelis S., Herskowitz I. The a-factor pheromone of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is essential for mating. Mol Cell Biol. 1988 Mar;8(3):1309–1318. doi: 10.1128/mcb.8.3.1309. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Moore S. A. Comparison of dose-response curves for alpha factor-induced cell division arrest, agglutination, and projection formation of yeast cells. Implication for the mechanism of alpha factor action. J Biol Chem. 1983 Nov 25;258(22):13849–13856. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Nasmyth K. A., Reed S. I. Isolation of genes by complementation in yeast: molecular cloning of a cell-cycle gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980 Apr;77(4):2119–2123. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.4.2119. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Parker S. B., Eichele G., Zhang P., Rawls A., Sands A. T., Bradley A., Olson E. N., Harper J. W., Elledge S. J. p53-independent expression of p21Cip1 in muscle and other terminally differentiating cells. Science. 1995 Feb 17;267(5200):1024–1027. doi: 10.1126/science.7863329. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Peter M., Gartner A., Horecka J., Ammerer G., Herskowitz I. FAR1 links the signal transduction pathway to the cell cycle machinery in yeast. Cell. 1993 May 21;73(4):747–760. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93)90254-n. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Peter M., Herskowitz I. Direct inhibition of the yeast cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc28-Cln by Far1. Science. 1994 Aug 26;265(5176):1228–1231. doi: 10.1126/science.8066461. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Pringle J. R., Preston R. A., Adams A. E., Stearns T., Drubin D. G., Haarer B. K., Jones E. W. Fluorescence microscopy methods for yeast. Methods Cell Biol. 1989;31:357–435. doi: 10.1016/s0091-679x(08)61620-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Rad M. R., Xu G., Hollenberg C. P. STE50, a novel gene required for activation of conjugation at an early step in mating in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Gen Genet. 1992 Dec;236(1):145–154. doi: 10.1007/BF00279653. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Read E. B., Okamura H. H., Drubin D. G. Actin- and tubulin-dependent functions during Saccharomyces cerevisiae mating projection formation. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Apr;3(4):429–444. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.4.429. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Reid B. J., Hartwell L. H. Regulation of mating in the cell cycle of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Cell Biol. 1977 Nov;75(2 Pt 1):355–365. doi: 10.1083/jcb.75.2.355. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Rose M. D., Fink G. R. KAR1, a gene required for function of both intranuclear and extranuclear microtubules in yeast. Cell. 1987 Mar 27;48(6):1047–1060. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90712-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Schmeichel K. L., Beckerle M. C. The LIM domain is a modular protein-binding interface. Cell. 1994 Oct 21;79(2):211–219. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90191-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Segall J. E. Polarization of yeast cells in spatial gradients of alpha mating factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Sep 15;90(18):8332–8336. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.18.8332. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Sherr C. J., Roberts J. M. Inhibitors of mammalian G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Genes Dev. 1995 May 15;9(10):1149–1163. doi: 10.1101/gad.9.10.1149. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Sikorski R. S., Hieter P. A system of shuttle vectors and yeast host strains designed for efficient manipulation of DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics. 1989 May;122(1):19–27. doi: 10.1093/genetics/122.1.19. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Skapek S. X., Rhee J., Spicer D. B., Lassar A. B. Inhibition of myogenic differentiation in proliferating myoblasts by cyclin D1-dependent kinase. Science. 1995 Feb 17;267(5200):1022–1024. doi: 10.1126/science.7863328. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Stowers L., Yelon D., Berg L. J., Chant J. Regulation of the polarization of T cells toward antigen-presenting cells by Ras-related GTPase CDC42. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 May 23;92(11):5027–5031. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.11.5027. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Tkacz J. S., MacKay V. L. Sexual conjugation in yeast. Cell surface changes in response to the action of mating hormones. J Cell Biol. 1979 Feb;80(2):326–333. doi: 10.1083/jcb.80.2.326. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Tyers M., Futcher B. Far1 and Fus3 link the mating pheromone signal transduction pathway to three G1-phase Cdc28 kinase complexes. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Sep;13(9):5659–5669. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.9.5659. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Waga S., Hannon G. J., Beach D., Stillman B. The p21 inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinases controls DNA replication by interaction with PCNA. Nature. 1994 Jun 16;369(6481):574–578. doi: 10.1038/369574a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from The Journal of Cell Biology are provided here courtesy of The Rockefeller University Press

RESOURCES