Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of the National Medical Association logoLink to Journal of the National Medical Association
. 2005 Nov;97(11):1504–1515.

Neuropsychiatric effects of cocaine use disorders.

Charles U Nnadi 1, Olubansile A Mimiko 1, Henry L McCurtis 1, Jean Lud Cadet 1
PMCID: PMC2594897  PMID: 16334497

Abstract

Individuals who use cocaine report a variety of neuropsychiatric symptoms that are yet to be adequately targeted with treatment modalities. To address this problem requires an understanding of these symptoms and their neurobiological origins. Our paper reviewed the existing data on the neuropsychiatic implications of cocaine. We conducted a Medline search from 1984-2004 using terms, such as "cocaine", "cocaine addiction", "cocaine abuse", "cocaine neuropsychiatry" and "dual diagnosis". The search produced additional reference materials that were used in this review, although we focused on data that have likely clinical implications. The literature evidence suggested that, whereas acute cocaine overdose is potentially fatal, the ingestion of mild-to-moderate doses could result in fatal or nonfatal neuropsychiatric events. Also, chronic cocaine use may be associated with deficits in neurocognition, brain perfusion and brain activation patterns. Some of these deficits were unresolved with periods of abstinence ranging from 3-200 days. Taken together, these studies suggest the need for further investigations to fully characterize the neurobiological substrates of cocaine use disorders (CUDs) with the future possibility of more efficient treatment modalities.

Full text

PDF
1515

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Adinoff B., Devous M. D., Sr, Best S. M., George M. S., Alexander D., Payne K. Limbic responsiveness to procaine in cocaine-addicted subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Mar;158(3):390–398. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.3.390. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Adinoff Bryon, Devous Michael D., Sr, Cooper Douglas B., Best Susan E., Chandler Patricia, Harris Thomas, Cervin Carole Anne, Cullum C. Munro. Resting regional cerebral blood flow and gambling task performance in cocaine-dependent subjects and healthy comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry. 2003 Oct;160(10):1892–1894. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.10.1892. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ahmed Serge H., Kenny Paul J., Koob George F., Markou Athina. Neurobiological evidence for hedonic allostasis associated with escalating cocaine use. Nat Neurosci. 2002 Jul;5(7):625–626. doi: 10.1038/nn872. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Ardila A., Rosselli M., Strumwasser S. Neuropsychological deficits in chronic cocaine abusers. Int J Neurosci. 1991 Mar;57(1-2):73–79. doi: 10.3109/00207459109150348. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bada Henrietta S., Das Abhik, Bauer Charles R., Shankaran Seetha, Lester Barry, Wright Linda L., Verter Joel, Smeriglio Vincent L., Finnegan Loretta P., Maza Penelope L. Gestational cocaine exposure and intrauterine growth: maternal lifestyle study. Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Nov;100(5 Pt 1):916–924. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(02)02199-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bader M. J. The tendency to neglect therapeutic aims in psychoanalysis. Psychoanal Q. 1994 Apr;63(2):246–270. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bartzokis George, Beckson Mace, Lu Po H., Edwards Nancy, Bridge Peter, Mintz Jim. Brain maturation may be arrested in chronic cocaine addicts. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Apr 15;51(8):605–611. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01315-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bartzokis George, Beckson Mace, Lu Po H., Edwards Nancy, Rapoport Ruth, Bridge Peter, Mintz Jim. Cortical gray matter volumes are associated with subjective responses to cocaine infusion. Am J Addict. 2004 Jan-Feb;13(1):64–73. doi: 10.1080/10550490490265352. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bauer L. O. Psychomotor and electroencephalographic sequelae of cocaine dependence. NIDA Res Monogr. 1996;163:66–93. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Bauer L. O. Resting hand tremor in abstinent cocaine-dependent, alcohol-dependent, and polydrug-dependent patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 1996 Oct;20(7):1196–1201. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1996.tb01111.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Bauman Jerry L., DiDomenico Robert J. Cocaine-induced channelopathies: emerging evidence on the multiple mechanisms of sudden death. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2002 Jul;7(3):195–202. doi: 10.1177/107424840200700309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Bechara A., Dolan S., Denburg N., Hindes A., Anderson S. W., Nathan P. E. Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39(4):376–389. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3932(00)00136-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bernini G., Paci A., Sgrò M., Moretti A., Salvetti A. Endogenous digitalis-like factor and ouabain immunoreactivity in adrenalectomized patients and normal subjects after acute and prolonged salt loading. Am J Hypertens. 1998 Jan;11(1 Pt 1):1–7. doi: 10.1016/s0895-7061(97)00306-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Berry J., van Gorp W. G., Herzberg D. S., Hinkin C., Boone K., Steinman L., Wilkins J. N. Neuropsychological deficits in abstinent cocaine abusers: preliminary findings after two weeks of abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1993 May;32(3):231–237. doi: 10.1016/0376-8716(93)90087-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Bolla K. I., Cadet J. L., London E. D. The neuropsychiatry of chronic cocaine abuse. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998 Summer;10(3):280–289. doi: 10.1176/jnp.10.3.280. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bolla K. I., Eldreth D. A., London E. D., Kiehl K. A., Mouratidis M., Contoreggi C., Matochik J. A., Kurian V., Cadet J. L., Kimes A. S. Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task. Neuroimage. 2003 Jul;19(3):1085–1094. doi: 10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00113-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Bolla K. I., Funderburk F. R., Cadet J. L. Differential effects of cocaine and cocaine alcohol on neurocognitive performance. Neurology. 2000 Jun 27;54(12):2285–2292. doi: 10.1212/wnl.54.12.2285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Bolla K. I., Rothman R., Cadet J. L. Dose-related neurobehavioral effects of chronic cocaine use. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1999 Summer;11(3):361–369. doi: 10.1176/jnp.11.3.361. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Bonson Katherine R., Grant Steven J., Contoreggi Carlo S., Links Jonathan M., Metcalfe Janet, Weyl H. Lloyd, Kurian Varughese, Ernst Monique, London Edythe D. Neural systems and cue-induced cocaine craving. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002 Mar;26(3):376–386. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00371-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Boutros N. N., Lisanby S. H., Tokuno H., Torello M. W., Campbell D., Berman R., Malison R., Krystal J. H., Kosten T. Elevated motor threshold in drug-free, cocaine-dependent patients assessed with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Biol Psychiatry. 2001 Feb 15;49(4):369–373. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(00)00948-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Brady K. T., Lydiard R. B., Malcolm R., Ballenger J. C. Cocaine-induced psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991 Dec;52(12):509–512. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Brown T. G., Seraganian P., Tremblay J. Alcoholics also dependent on cocaine in treatment: do they differ from "pure" alcoholics? Addict Behav. 1994 Jan-Feb;19(1):105–112. doi: 10.1016/0306-4603(94)90056-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Brust J. C., Richter R. W. Stroke associated with cocaine abuse--? N Y State J Med. 1977 Aug;77(9):1473–1475. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Cadet J. L., Bolla K. I. Chronic cocaine use as a neuropsychiatric syndrome: a model for debate. Synapse. 1996 Jan;22(1):28–34. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-2396(199601)22:1<28::AID-SYN3>3.0.CO;2-K. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Catalano G., Catalano M. C., Rodriguez R. Dystonia associated with crack cocaine use. South Med J. 1997 Oct;90(10):1050–1052. doi: 10.1097/00007611-199710000-00017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Cavanagh J. T. O., Van Beck M., Muir W., Blackwood D. H. R. Case-control study of neurocognitive function in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder: an association with mania. Br J Psychiatry. 2002 Apr;180:320–326. doi: 10.1192/bjp.180.4.320. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Childress A. R., Mozley P. D., McElgin W., Fitzgerald J., Reivich M., O'Brien C. P. Limbic activation during cue-induced cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry. 1999 Jan;156(1):11–18. doi: 10.1176/ajp.156.1.11. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Chiriboga C. A., Brust J. C., Bateman D., Hauser W. A. Dose-response effect of fetal cocaine exposure on newborn neurologic function. Pediatrics. 1999 Jan;103(1):79–85. doi: 10.1542/peds.103.1.79. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Comings D. E., Blum K. Reward deficiency syndrome: genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog Brain Res. 2000;126:325–341. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(00)26022-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Crandall Craig G., Vongpatanasin Wanpen, Victor Ronald G. Mechanism of cocaine-induced hyperthermia in humans. Ann Intern Med. 2002 Jun 4;136(11):785–791. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-136-11-200206040-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Cregler L. L. Acute neurologic and psychiatric complications associated with cocaine abuse. Am J Med. 1988 May;84(5):978–979. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(88)90089-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Cregler L. L. Adverse health consequences of cocaine abuse. J Natl Med Assoc. 1989 Jan;81(1):27–38. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Cardiovascular dangers of cocaine abuse. Am J Cardiol. 1986 May 1;57(13):1185–1186. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(86)90696-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Relation of stroke to cocaine abuse. N Y State J Med. 1987 Feb;87(2):128–129. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Dackis C. A., O'Brien C. P. Cocaine dependence: a disease of the brain's reward centers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001 Oct;21(3):111–117. doi: 10.1016/s0740-5472(01)00192-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Daras M., Tuchman A. J., Koppel B. S., Samkoff L. M., Weitzner I., Marc J. Neurovascular complications of cocaine. Acta Neurol Scand. 1994 Aug;90(2):124–129. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1994.tb02691.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Dermatis Helen, Galanter Marc, Egelko Susan, Westreich Laurence. Schizophrenic Patients and Cocaine Use: Antecedents to Hospitalization and Course of Treatment. Subst Abus. 1998 Dec;19(4):169–177. doi: 10.1080/08897079809511385. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Dhuna A., Pascual-Leone A., Langendorf F., Anderson D. C. Epileptogenic properties of cocaine in humans. Neurotoxicology. 1991 Fall;12(3):621–626. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Di Sclafani Victoria, Tolou-Shams Marina, Price Leonard J., Fein George. Neuropsychological performance of individuals dependent on crack-cocaine, or crack-cocaine and alcohol, at 6 weeks and 6 months of abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002 Apr 1;66(2):161–171. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(01)00197-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Ernst T., Chang L., Oropilla G., Gustavson A., Speck O. Cerebral perfusion abnormalities in abstinent cocaine abusers: a perfusion MRI and SPECT study. Psychiatry Res. 2000 Aug 28;99(2):63–74. doi: 10.1016/s0925-4927(00)00056-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Escobedo L. G., Ruttenber A. J., Agocs M. M., Anda R. F., Wetli C. V. Emerging patterns of cocaine use and the epidemic of cocaine overdose deaths in Dade County, Florida. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1991 Sep;115(9):900–905. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Fein George, Di Sclafani Victoria, Meyerhoff Dieter J. Prefrontal cortical volume reduction associated with frontal cortex function deficit in 6-week abstinent crack-cocaine dependent men. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002 Sep 1;68(1):87–93. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(02)00110-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Fineschi V., Wetli C. V., Di Paolo M., Baroldi G. Myocardial necrosis and cocaine. A quantitative morphologic study in 26 cocaine-associated deaths. Int J Legal Med. 1997;110(4):193–198. doi: 10.1007/s004140050066. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Fogo A., Superdock K. R., Atkinson J. B. Severe arteriosclerosis in the kidney of a cocaine addict. Am J Kidney Dis. 1992 Nov;20(5):513–515. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(12)70267-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Franklin Teresa R., Acton Paul D., Maldjian Joseph A., Gray Jason D., Croft Jason R., Dackis Charles A., O'Brien Charles P., Childress Anna Rose. Decreased gray matter concentration in the insular, orbitofrontal, cingulate, and temporal cortices of cocaine patients. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Jan 15;51(2):134–142. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01269-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Gillen R. W., Kranzler H. R., Bauer L. O., Burleson J. A., Samarel D., Morrison D. J. Neuropsychologic findings in cocaine-dependent outpatients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1998 Oct;22(7):1061–1076. doi: 10.1016/s0278-5846(98)00057-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Glassman A. H., Bigger J. T., Jr Antipsychotic drugs: prolonged QTc interval, torsade de pointes, and sudden death. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Nov;158(11):1774–1782. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.11.1774. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Goldberg J. F., Garno J. L., Leon A. C., Kocsis J. H., Portera L. A history of substance abuse complicates remission from acute mania in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999 Nov;60(11):733–740. doi: 10.4088/jcp.v60n1103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Goldstein Rita Z., Volkow Nora D. Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Oct;159(10):1642–1652. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.10.1642. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gonzalez L. P. Cocaine alters body temperature and behavioral thermoregulatory responses. Neuroreport. 1993 Jan;4(1):106–108. doi: 10.1097/00001756-199301000-00028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gorelick David A., Gardner Eliot L., Xi Zheng-Xiong. Agents in development for the management of cocaine abuse. Drugs. 2004;64(14):1547–1573. doi: 10.2165/00003495-200464140-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Gottschalk P. C., Kosten Thomas R. Cerebral perfusion defects in combined cocaine and alcohol dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002 Sep 1;68(1):95–104. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(02)00109-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Grant S., London E. D., Newlin D. B., Villemagne V. L., Liu X., Contoreggi C., Phillips R. L., Kimes A. S., Margolin A. Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Oct 15;93(21):12040–12045. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.21.12040. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Harris Debra S., Everhart E. Thomas, Mendelson John, Jones Reese T. The pharmacology of cocaethylene in humans following cocaine and ethanol administration. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Nov 24;72(2):169–182. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(03)00200-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Havassy B. E., Arns P. G. Relationship of cocaine and other substance dependence to well-being of high-risk psychiatric patients. Psychiatr Serv. 1998 Jul;49(7):935–940. doi: 10.1176/ps.49.7.935. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Herning R. I., Better W., Nelson R., Gorelick D., Cadet J. L. The regulation of cerebral blood flow during intravenous cocaine administration in cocaine abusers. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;890:489–494. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08030.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Higgins S. T., Budney A. J., Bickel W. K., Foerg F. E., Badger G. J. Alcohol dependence and simultaneous cocaine and alcohol use in cocaine-dependent patients. J Addict Dis. 1994;13(4):177–189. doi: 10.1300/j069v13n04_06. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Hitri A., Casanova M. F., Kleinman J. E., Wyatt R. J. Fewer dopamine transporter receptors in the prefrontal cortex of cocaine users. Am J Psychiatry. 1994 Jul;151(7):1074–1076. doi: 10.1176/ajp.151.7.1074. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Hoff A. L., Riordan H., Morris L., Cestaro V., Wieneke M., Alpert R., Wang G. J., Volkow N. Effects of crack cocaine on neurocognitive function. Psychiatry Res. 1996 Mar 29;60(2-3):167–176. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(96)02758-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Holman B. L., Tumeh S. S. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Applications and potential. JAMA. 1990 Jan 26;263(4):561–564. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Itkonen J., Schnoll S., Glassroth J. Pulmonary dysfunction in 'freebase' cocaine users. Arch Intern Med. 1984 Nov;144(11):2195–2197. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Jessor R., Jessor S. A social-psychological framework for studying drug use. NIDA Res Monogr. 1980 Mar;30:102–109. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Kalechstein Ari D., Newton Thomas F., Leavengood Anna H. Apathy syndrome in cocaine dependence. Psychiatry Res. 2002 Jan 31;109(1):97–100. doi: 10.1016/s0165-1781(01)00354-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Kampman K. M., Alterman A. I., Volpicelli J. R., Maany I., Muller E. S., Luce D. D., Mulholland E. M., Jawad A. F., Parikh G. A., Mulvaney F. D. Cocaine withdrawal symptoms and initial urine toxicology results predict treatment attrition in outpatient cocaine dependence treatment. Psychol Addict Behav. 2001 Mar;15(1):52–59. doi: 10.1037/0893-164x.15.1.52. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Kaufman Jacqueline N., Ross Thomas J., Stein Elliot A., Garavan Hugh. Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NOGO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosci. 2003 Aug 27;23(21):7839–7843. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-21-07839.2003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Kaufman M. J., Levin J. M., Ross M. H., Lange N., Rose S. L., Kukes T. J., Mendelson J. H., Lukas S. E., Cohen B. M., Renshaw P. F. Cocaine-induced cerebral vasoconstriction detected in humans with magnetic resonance angiography. JAMA. 1998 Feb 4;279(5):376–380. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Keller R. W., Jr, Snyder-Keller A. Prenatal cocaine exposure. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;909:217–232. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06684.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Kern Robert S., Liberman Robert P., Kopelowicz Alex, Mintz Jim, Green Michael F. Applications of errorless learning for improving work performance in persons with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2002 Nov;159(11):1921–1926. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.11.1921. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Khalsa H. K., Kowalewski M. R., Anglin M. D., Wang J. HIV-related risk behaviors among cocaine users. AIDS Educ Prev. 1992 Spring;4(1):71–83. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Kilts C. D., Schweitzer J. B., Quinn C. K., Gross R. E., Faber T. L., Muhammad F., Ely T. D., Hoffman J. M., Drexler K. P. Neural activity related to drug craving in cocaine addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Apr;58(4):334–341. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.58.4.334. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. King D. E., Herning R. I., Cadet J. L. Subclinical neurological and neurovascular deficits in cocaine dependence. Gender and psychosocial considerations. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1997 Oct 15;825:328–331. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48443.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Koob G. F., Bloom F. E. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of drug dependence. Science. 1988 Nov 4;242(4879):715–723. doi: 10.1126/science.2903550. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Leikin J. B., Morris R. W., Warren M., Erickson T. Trends in a decade of drug abuse presentation to an inner city ED. Am J Emerg Med. 2001 Jan;19(1):37–39. doi: 10.1053/ajem.2001.19986. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Lejoyeux M., Mourad I., Ades J. Troubles psychiatriques induits par les conduites de dépendance autres que l'alcool. Encephale. 2000 Mar-Apr;26(2):21–27. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Levin Frances Rudnick, Evans Suzette M., Vosburg Suzanne K., Horton Terry, Brooks Daniel, Ng Jennifer. Impact of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and other psychopathology on treatment retention among cocaine abusers in a therapeutic community. Addict Behav. 2004 Dec;29(9):1875–1882. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.03.041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Levin J. M., Holman B. L., Mendelson J. H., Teoh S. K., Garada B., Johnson K. A., Springer S. Gender differences in cerebral perfusion in cocaine abuse: technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT study of drug-abusing women. J Nucl Med. 1994 Dec;35(12):1902–1909. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Lim Kelvin O., Choi Steven J., Pomara Nunzio, Wolkin Adam, Rotrosen John P. Reduced frontal white matter integrity in cocaine dependence: a controlled diffusion tensor imaging study. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Jun 1;51(11):890–895. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01355-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Lowenstein D. H., Massa S. M., Rowbotham M. C., Collins S. D., McKinney H. E., Simon R. P. Acute neurologic and psychiatric complications associated with cocaine abuse. Am J Med. 1987 Nov;83(5):841–846. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90640-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Majewska M. D. Cocaine addiction as a neurological disorder: implications for treatment. NIDA Res Monogr. 1996;163:1–26. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Marzuk P. M., Tardiff K., Leon A. C., Stajic M., Morgan E. B., Mann J. J. Prevalence of cocaine use among residents of New York City who committed suicide during a one-year period. Am J Psychiatry. 1992 Mar;149(3):371–375. doi: 10.1176/ajp.149.3.371. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Marzuk P. M., Tardiff K., Leon A. C., Stajic M., Morgan E. B., Mann J. J. Prevalence of recent cocaine use among motor vehicle fatalities in New York City. JAMA. 1990 Jan 12;263(2):250–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Matochik John A., London Edythe D., Eldreth Dana A., Cadet Jean-Lud, Bolla Karen I. Frontal cortical tissue composition in abstinent cocaine abusers: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroimage. 2003 Jul;19(3):1095–1102. doi: 10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00244-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Mayes Linda C. A behavioral teratogenic model of the impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on arousal regulatory systems. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2002 May-Jun;24(3):385–395. doi: 10.1016/s0892-0362(02)00200-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. McCann B., Hunter R., McCann J. Cocaine/heroin induced rhabdomyolysis and ventricular fibrillation. Emerg Med J. 2002 May;19(3):264–265. doi: 10.1136/emj.19.3.264. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Meek P. S., Clark H. W., Solana V. L. Neurocognitive impairment: the unrecognized component of dual diagnosis in substance abuse treatment. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1989 Apr-Jun;21(2):153–160. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1989.10472155. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Mehta Sudhir Ken, Super Dennis M., Connuck David, Kirchner H. Lester, Salvator Ann, Singer Lynn, Fradley Linda Goetz, Kaufman Elizabeth S. Autonomic alterations in cocaine-exposed infants. Am Heart J. 2002 Dec;144(6):1109–1115. doi: 10.1067/mhj.2002.126120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Mendoza R., Miller B. L. Neuropsychiatric disorders associated with cocaine use. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1992 Jul;43(7):677-8, 680. doi: 10.1176/ps.43.7.677. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Miller N. S., Gold M. S., Mahler J. C. Violent behaviors associated with cocaine use: possible pharmacological mechanisms. Int J Addict. 1991 Oct;26(10):1077–1088. doi: 10.3109/10826089109058942. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Mirchandani H. G., Rorke L. B., Sekula-Perlman A., Hood I. C. Cocaine-induced agitated delirium, forceful struggle, and minor head injury. A further definition of sudden death during restraint. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1994 Jun;15(2):95–99. doi: 10.1097/00000433-199406000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Mittenberg W., Motta S. Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on memory and learning. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1993 Nov;8(6):477–483. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Modestin J., Gladen C. J., Christen S. A comparative study on schizophrenic patients with dual diagnosis. J Addict Dis. 2001;20(4):41–51. doi: 10.1300/j069v20n04_05. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Montoya I. D., Haertzen C., Hess J. M., Covi L., Fudala P. J., Johnson R. E., Gorelick D. A. Comparison of psychological symptoms between drug abusers seeking and not seeking treatment. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995 Jan;183(1):50–53. doi: 10.1097/00005053-199501000-00011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Moos Rudolf H., Nichol Aran C., Moos Bernice S. Risk factors for symptom exacerbation among treated patients with substance use disorders. Addiction. 2002 Jan;97(1):75–85. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00063.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Mouhaffel A. H., Madu E. C., Satmary W. A., Fraker T. D., Jr Cardiovascular complications of cocaine. Chest. 1995 May;107(5):1426–1434. doi: 10.1378/chest.107.5.1426. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Mulvaney F. D., Alterman A. I., Boardman C. R., Kampman K. Cocaine abstinence symptomatology and treatment attrition. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1999 Mar;16(2):129–135. doi: 10.1016/s0740-5472(98)00017-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Nassogne M. C., Evrard P., Courtoy P. J. Selective direct toxicity of cocaine on fetal mouse neurons. Teratogenic implications of neurite and apoptotic neuronal loss. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998 Jun 21;846:51–68. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Neiman J., Haapaniemi H. M., Hillbom M. Neurological complications of drug abuse: pathophysiological mechanisms. Eur J Neurol. 2000 Nov;7(6):595–606. doi: 10.1046/j.1468-1331.2000.00045.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Nemoto T., Brown L. S., Jr, Battjes R. J., Chu A., Foster K. The role of cocaine use in the HIV transmission among IVDUs: 1987 and 1988 cohort study. NIDA Res Monogr. 1990;105:480–481. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Nnadi C. U., Better W., Tate K., Herning R. I., Cadet Jean Lud. Contribution of substance abuse and HIV infection to psychiatric distress in an inner-city African-American population. J Natl Med Assoc. 2002 May;94(5):336–343. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. O'Carroll R. E., Russell H. H., Lawrie S. M., Johnstone E. C. Errorless learning and the cognitive rehabilitation of memory-impaired schizophrenic patients. Psychol Med. 1999 Jan;29(1):105–112. doi: 10.1017/s0033291798007673. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. O'Malley S., Adamse M., Heaton R. K., Gawin F. H. Neuropsychological impairment in chronic cocaine abusers. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1992;18(2):131–144. doi: 10.3109/00952999208992826. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Pascual-Leone A., Dhuna A., Anderson D. C. Cerebral atrophy in habitual cocaine abusers: a planimetric CT study. Neurology. 1991 Jan;41(1):34–38. doi: 10.1212/wnl.41.1.34. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Pennings Ed J. M., Leccese Arthur P., Wolff Frederik A. de. Effects of concurrent use of alcohol and cocaine. Addiction. 2002 Jul;97(7):773–783. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00158.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Pilotte N. S. Neurochemistry of cocaine withdrawal. Curr Opin Neurol. 1997 Dec;10(6):534–538. doi: 10.1097/00019052-199712000-00017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Post R. M., Kopanda R. T., Black K. E. Progressive effects of cocaine on behavior and central amine metabolism in rhesus monkeys: relationship to kindling and psychosis. Biol Psychiatry. 1976 Aug;11(4):403–419. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Quirk Gregory J., Gehlert Donald R. Inhibition of the amygdala: key to pathological states? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Apr;985:263–272. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07087.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Rasch R. F., Weisen C. A., MacDonald B., Wechsberg W. M., Perritt R., Dennis M. L. Patterns of HIV risk and alcohol use among African-American crack abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000 Mar 1;58(3):259–266. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(99)00098-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Reeves R. R., McWilliams M. E., Fitz-Gerald M. Cocaine-induced ischemic cerebral infarction mistaken for a psychiatric syndrome. South Med J. 1995 Mar;88(3):352–354. doi: 10.1097/00007611-199503000-00021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Rich J. A., Singer D. E. Cocaine-related symptoms in patients presenting to an urban emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1991 Jun;20(6):616–621. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(05)82378-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Richardson G. A., Conroy M. L., Day N. L. Prenatal cocaine exposure: effects on the development of school-age children. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1996 Nov-Dec;18(6):627–634. doi: 10.1016/s0892-0362(96)00121-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Riker R. R., Fraser G. L., Cox P. M. Continuous infusion of haloperidol controls agitation in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1994 Mar;22(3):433–440. doi: 10.1097/00003246-199403000-00013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Robinson J. E., Heaton R. K., O'Malley S. S. Neuropsychological functioning in cocaine abusers with and without alcohol dependence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999 Jan;5(1):10–19. doi: 10.1017/s1355617799511028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Rosselli M., Ardila A., Lubomski M., Murray S., King K. Personality profile and neuropsychological test performance in chronic cocaine-abusers. Int J Neurosci. 2001 Sep;110(1-2):55–72. doi: 10.3109/00207450108994221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Rounsaville B. J., Anton S. F., Carroll K., Budde D., Prusoff B. A., Gawin F. Psychiatric diagnoses of treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991 Jan;48(1):43–51. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810250045005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Rounsaville Bruce J. Treatment of cocaine dependence and depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Nov 15;56(10):803–809. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.05.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Rowbotham M. C., Lowenstein D. H. Neurologic consequences of cocaine use. Annu Rev Med. 1990;41:417–422. doi: 10.1146/annurev.me.41.020190.002221. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Roy A. Characteristics of cocaine-dependent patients who attempt suicide. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Aug;158(8):1215–1219. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1215. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Ruttenber A. J., Lawler-Heavner J., Yin M., Wetli C. V., Hearn W. L., Mash D. C. Fatal excited delirium following cocaine use: epidemiologic findings provide new evidence for mechanisms of cocaine toxicity. J Forensic Sci. 1997 Jan;42(1):25–31. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Satel S. L., Price L. H., Palumbo J. M., McDougle C. J., Krystal J. H., Gawin F., Charney D. S., Heninger G. R., Kleber H. D. Clinical phenomenology and neurobiology of cocaine abstinence: a prospective inpatient study. Am J Psychiatry. 1991 Dec;148(12):1712–1716. doi: 10.1176/ajp.148.12.1712. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Shanti Christina M., Lucas Charles E. Cocaine and the critical care challenge. Crit Care Med. 2003 Jun;31(6):1851–1859. doi: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000063258.68159.71. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Sherwood Brown E., Suppes T., Adinoff B., Rajan Thomas N. Drug abuse and bipolar disorder: comorbidity or misdiagnosis? J Affect Disord. 2001 Jul;65(2):105–115. doi: 10.1016/s0165-0327(00)00169-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Shurman Brett, Horan William P., Nuechterlein Keith H. Schizophrenia patients demonstrate a distinctive pattern of decision-making impairment on the Iowa Gambling Task. Schizophr Res. 2005 Jan 1;72(2-3):215–224. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2004.03.020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Smelson D. A., Roy A., Santana S., Engelhart C. Neuropsychological deficits in withdrawn cocaine-dependent males. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1999 May;25(2):377–381. doi: 10.1081/ada-100101867. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Snodgrass S. R. Cocaine babies: a result of multiple teratogenic influences. J Child Neurol. 1994 Jul;9(3):227–233. doi: 10.1177/088307389400900302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Sofuoglu Mehmet, Dudish-Poulsen Susan, Brown Scott B., Hatsukami Dorothy K. Association of cocaine withdrawal symptoms with more severe dependence and enhanced subjective response to cocaine. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Apr 1;69(3):273–282. doi: 10.1016/s0376-8716(02)00328-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Stanislav S. W., Sommi R. W., Watson W. A. A longitudinal analysis of factors associated with morbidity in cocaine abusers with psychiatric illness. Pharmacotherapy. 1992;12(2):114–118. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Strakowski S. M., DelBello M. P., Adler C., Cecil D. M., Sax K. W. Neuroimaging in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2000 Sep;2(3 Pt 1):148–164. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-5618.2000.020302.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Stratton S. J., Rogers C., Brickett K., Gruzinski G. Factors associated with sudden death of individuals requiring restraint for excited delirium. Am J Emerg Med. 2001 May;19(3):187–191. doi: 10.1053/ajem.2001.22665. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Strickland T. L., Mena I., Villanueva-Meyer J., Miller B. L., Cummings J., Mehringer C. M., Satz P., Myers H. Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine use. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1993 Fall;5(4):419–427. doi: 10.1176/jnp.5.4.419. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Teichner G., Horner M. D., Harvey R. T. Neuropsychological predictors of the attainment of treatment objectives in substance abuse patients. Int J Neurosci. 2001;106(3-4):253–263. doi: 10.3109/00207450109149753. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Tondo L., Baldessarini R. J., Hennen J., Minnai G. P., Salis P., Scamonatti L., Masia M., Ghiani C., Mannu P. Suicide attempts in major affective disorder patients with comorbid substance use disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60 (Suppl 2):63-9; discussion 75-6, 113-6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Tucker Karen A., Potenza Marc N., Beauvais John E., Browndyke Jeffrey N., Gottschalk P. Christopher, Kosten Thomas R. Perfusion abnormalities and decision making in cocaine dependence. Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Oct 1;56(7):527–530. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.06.031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Tumeh S. S., Nagel J. S., English R. J., Moore M., Holman B. L. Cerebral abnormalities in cocaine abusers: demonstration by SPECT perfusion brain scintigraphy. Work in progress. Radiology. 1990 Sep;176(3):821–824. doi: 10.1148/radiology.176.3.2389042. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Vanek V. W., Dickey-White H. I., Signs S. A., Schechter M. D., Buss T., Kulics A. T. Concurrent use of cocaine and alcohol by patients treated in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1996 Nov;28(5):508–514. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(96)70114-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Vidaeff Alex C., Mastrobattista Joan M. In utero cocaine exposure: a thorny mix of science and mythology. Am J Perinatol. 2003 May;20(4):165–172. doi: 10.1055/s-2003-40604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Volkow N. D., Chang L., Wang G. J., Fowler J. S., Ding Y. S., Sedler M., Logan J., Franceschi D., Gatley J., Hitzemann R. Low level of brain dopamine D2 receptors in methamphetamine abusers: association with metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Dec;158(12):2015–2021. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.12.2015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Volkow N. D., Fowler J. S., Wang G. J., Hitzemann R., Logan J., Schlyer D. J., Dewey S. L., Wolf A. P. Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse. 1993 Jun;14(2):169–177. doi: 10.1002/syn.890140210. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Volkow N. D., Fowler J. S., Wolf A. P., Schlyer D., Shiue C. Y., Alpert R., Dewey S. L., Logan J., Bendriem B., Christman D. Effects of chronic cocaine abuse on postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Am J Psychiatry. 1990 Jun;147(6):719–724. doi: 10.1176/ajp.147.6.719. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Volkow N. D., Hitzemann R., Wang G. J., Fowler J. S., Wolf A. P., Dewey S. L., Handlesman L. Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in cocaine abusers. Synapse. 1992 Jul;11(3):184–190. doi: 10.1002/syn.890110303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Volkow N. D., Wang G. J., Fischman M. W., Foltin R. W., Fowler J. S., Abumrad N. N., Vitkun S., Logan J., Gatley S. J., Pappas N. Relationship between subjective effects of cocaine and dopamine transporter occupancy. Nature. 1997 Apr 24;386(6627):827–830. doi: 10.1038/386827a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Wang G. J., Volkow N. D., Fowler J. S., Cervany P., Hitzemann R. J., Pappas N. R., Wong C. T., Felder C. Regional brain metabolic activation during craving elicited by recall of previous drug experiences. Life Sci. 1999;64(9):775–784. doi: 10.1016/s0024-3205(98)00619-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Washton A. M., Tatarsky A. Adverse effects of cocaine abuse. NIDA Res Monogr. 1984 Mar;49:247–254. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Wexler B. E., Gottschalk C. H., Fulbright R. K., Prohovnik I., Lacadie C. M., Rounsaville B. J., Gore J. C. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Jan;158(1):86–95. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.1.86. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Wilson L. D., Jeromin J., Garvey L., Dorbandt A. Cocaine, ethanol, and cocaethylene cardiotoxity in an animal model of cocaine and ethanol abuse. Acad Emerg Med. 2001 Mar;8(3):211–222. doi: 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2001.tb01296.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Winbery S., Blaho K., Logan B., Geraci S. Multiple cocaine-induced seizures and corresponding cocaine and metabolite concentrations. Am J Emerg Med. 1998 Sep;16(5):529–533. doi: 10.1016/s0735-6757(98)90012-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Wykes T., Reeder C., Corner J., Williams C., Everitt B. The effects of neurocognitive remediation on executive processing in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 1999;25(2):291–307. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033379. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Zwerling C., Ryan J., Orav E. J. The efficacy of preemployment drug screening for marijuana and cocaine in predicting employment outcome. JAMA. 1990 Nov 28;264(20):2639–2643. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. de Lima Maurício Silva, de Oliveira Soares Bernardo Garcia, Reisser Anelise Alves Pereira, Farrell Michael. Pharmacological treatment of cocaine dependence: a systematic review. Addiction. 2002 Aug;97(8):931–949. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00209.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of the National Medical Association are provided here courtesy of National Medical Association

RESOURCES