Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of the National Medical Association logoLink to Journal of the National Medical Association
. 2005 Nov;97(11):1516–1526.

Race, genes and preterm delivery.

Kevin Fiscella 1
PMCID: PMC2594922  PMID: 16334498

Abstract

High rates of preterm delivery (PTD) among African Americans are the leading cause of excess infant mortality among African Americans. Failure to fully explain racial disparity in PTD has led to speculation that genetic factors might contribute to this disparity. Current evidence suggests that genetic factors contribute to PTD, but this does not imply that genetic factors contribute to racial disparity in PTD. Environmental factors clearly contribute to PTD. Many of these factors acting over a women's life prior to pregnancy disproportionately affect African Americans and contribute significantly to racial disparity in PTD. Thus, inferring genetic contribution to racial disparity in PTD by attempting to control for environmental factors measured at a single point in time is flawed. There is emerging evidence of gene-environment interactions for PTD, some of which disproportionately affect African Americans. There is also evidence of racial differences in the prevalence of polymorphisms potentially related to PTD. However, to date there is no direct evidence that these differences contribute significantly to racial disparity in PTD. Given the complexity of polygenic conditions such as PTD, the possibility of any single gene contributing substantially to racial disparity in PTD seems remote.

Full text

PDF
1517

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Adams M. M., Elam-Evans L. D., Wilson H. G., Gilbertz D. A. Rates of and factors associated with recurrence of preterm delivery. JAMA. 2000 Mar 22;283(12):1591–1596. doi: 10.1001/jama.283.12.1591. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aidoo M., McElroy P. D., Kolczak M. S., Terlouw D. J., ter Kuile F. O., Nahlen B., Lal A. A., Udhayakumar V. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter variant 2 (TNF2) is associated with pre-term delivery, infant mortality, and malaria morbidity in western Kenya: Asembo Bay Cohort Project IX. Genet Epidemiol. 2001 Nov;21(3):201–211. doi: 10.1002/gepi.1029. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Aidoo Michael, Terlouw Dianne J., Kolczak Margarette S., McElroy Peter D., ter Kuile Feiko O., Kariuki Simon, Nahlen Bernard L., Lal Altaf A., Udhayakumar Venkatachalam. Protective effects of the sickle cell gene against malaria morbidity and mortality. Lancet. 2002 Apr 13;359(9314):1311–1312. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08273-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Amory J. H., Hitti J., Lawler R., Eschenbach D. A. Increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha production after lipopolysaccharide stimulation of whole blood in patients with previous preterm delivery complicated by intra-amniotic infection or inflammation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Nov;185(5):1064–1067. doi: 10.1067/mob.2001.117637. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Annells Margaret F., Hart Prue H., Mullighan Charles G., Heatley Susan L., Robinson Jeffrey S., Bardy Peter, McDonald Helen M. Interleukins-1, -4, -6, -10, tumor necrosis factor, transforming growth factor-beta, FAS, and mannose-binding protein C gene polymorphisms in Australian women: Risk of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Dec;191(6):2056–2067. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.04.021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Baerwald C. G., Mok C. C., Fife M. S., Tikly M., Lau C. S., Wordsworth B. P., Ollier B., Panayi G. S., Lanchbury J. S. Distribution of corticotropin-releasing hormone promoter polymorphism in different ethnic groups: evidence for natural selection in human populations. Immunogenetics. 1999 Sep;49(10):894–899. doi: 10.1007/s002510050570. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Barker D. J. The fetal and infant origins of adult disease. BMJ. 1990 Nov 17;301(6761):1111–1111. doi: 10.1136/bmj.301.6761.1111. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Barnes V. A., Treiber F. A., Musante L., Turner J. R., Davis H., Strong W. B. Ethnicity and socioeconomic status: impact on cardiovascular activity at rest and during stress in youth with a family history of hypertension. Ethn Dis. 2000 Winter;10(1):4–16. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bashford M. T., Hefler L. A., Vertrees T. W., Roa B. B., Gregg A. R. Angiotensinogen and endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms among Hispanic patients with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Jun;184(7):1345–1351. doi: 10.1067/mob.2001.115048. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Basso O., Olsen J., Christensen K. Low birthweight and prematurity in relation to paternal factors: a study of recurrence. Int J Epidemiol. 1999 Aug;28(4):695–700. doi: 10.1093/ije/28.4.695. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Bauer R., Walter B., Ihring W., Kluge H., Lampe V., Zwiener U. Altered renal function in growth-restricted newborn piglets. Pediatr Nephrol. 2000 Aug;14(8-9):735–739. doi: 10.1007/pl00013427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Bessler H., Osovsky M., Sirota L. Association between IL-1ra gene polymorphism and premature delivery. Biol Neonate. 2003 Dec 12;85(3):179–183. doi: 10.1159/000075578. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bloem L. J., Manatunga A. K., Tewksbury D. A., Pratt J. H. The serum angiotensinogen concentration and variants of the angiotensinogen gene in white and black children. J Clin Invest. 1995 Mar;95(3):948–953. doi: 10.1172/JCI117803. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Borecki I. B., Province M. A., Ludwig E. H., Ellison R. C., Folsom A. R., Heiss G., Lalouel J. M., Higgins M., Rao D. C. Associations of candidate loci angiotensinogen and angiotensin-converting enzyme with severe hypertension: The NHLBI Family Heart Study. Ann Epidemiol. 1997 Jan;7(1):13–21. doi: 10.1016/s1047-2797(97)00155-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Chan E. Cheng, Fraser S., Yin S., Yeo G., Kwek K., Fairclough R. J., Smith R. Human myometrial genes are differentially expressed in labor: a suppression subtractive hybridization study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Jun;87(6):2435–2441. doi: 10.1210/jcem.87.6.8439. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Chen C. L., Liu Q., Relling M. V. Simultaneous characterization of glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1 polymorphisms by polymerase chain reaction in American whites and blacks. Pharmacogenetics. 1996 Apr;6(2):187–191. doi: 10.1097/00008571-199604000-00005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Chen Dafang, Hu Yonghua, Chen Changzhong, Yang Fan, Fang Zhian, Wang Lihua, Li Jianping. Polymorphisms of the paraoxonase gene and risk of preterm delivery. Epidemiology. 2004 Jul;15(4):466–470. doi: 10.1097/01.ede.0000129509.59912.b2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Chen Dafang, Hu Yonghua, Wu Baiyan, Chen Li, Fang Zhi'an, Yang Fan, Wang Lihua. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene G308A polymorphism is associated with the risk of preterm delivery. Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao. 2003 Aug;35(4):377–381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Chen Qi, Reis Steven E., Kammerer Candace M., McNamara Dennis M., Holubkov Richard, Sharaf Barry L., Sopko George, Pauly Daniel F., Merz C. Noel Bairey, Kamboh M. Ilyas. Association between the severity of angiographic coronary artery disease and paraoxonase gene polymorphisms in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study. Am J Hum Genet. 2002 Nov 26;72(1):13–22. doi: 10.1086/345312. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Chen W., Srinivasan S. R., Elkasabany A., Ellsworth D. L., Boerwinkle E., Berenson G. S. Combined effects of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphism (G894T) and insulin resistance status on blood pressure and familial risk of hypertension in young adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Hypertens. 2001 Oct;14(10):1046–1052. doi: 10.1016/s0895-7061(01)02192-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Chrysohoou Christina, Pitsavos Christos, Panagiotakos Demosthenes B., Skoumas John, Stefanadis Christodoulos. Association between prehypertension status and inflammatory markers related to atherosclerotic disease: The ATTICA Study. Am J Hypertens. 2004 Jul;17(7):568–573. doi: 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.03.675. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Claussen B., Davey Smith G., Thelle D. Impact of childhood and adulthood socioeconomic position on cause specific mortality: the Oslo Mortality Study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003 Jan;57(1):40–45. doi: 10.1136/jech.57.1.40. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Cohen Sheldon, Doyle William J., Turner Ronald B., Alper Cuneyt M., Skoner David P. Childhood socioeconomic status and host resistance to infectious illness in adulthood. Psychosom Med. 2004 Jul-Aug;66(4):553–558. doi: 10.1097/01.psy.0000126200.05189.d3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Collins J. W., Jr, David R. J. Differences in neonatal mortality by race, income, and prenatal care. Ethn Dis. 1992 Winter;2(1):18–26. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Collins J. W., Jr, David R. J., Symons R., Handler A., Wall S. N., Dwyer L. Low-income African-American mothers' perception of exposure to racial discrimination and infant birth weight. Epidemiology. 2000 May;11(3):337–339. doi: 10.1097/00001648-200005000-00019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Collins J. W., Jr, David R. J., Symons R., Handler A., Wall S., Andes S. African-American mothers' perception of their residential environment, stressful life events, and very low birthweight. Epidemiology. 1998 May;9(3):286–289. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Conley D., Bennett N. G. Birth weight and income: interactions across generations. J Health Soc Behav. 2001 Dec;42(4):450–465. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Conley D., Bennett N. G. Race and the inheritance of low birth weight. Soc Biol. 2000 Spring-Summer;47(1-2):77–93. doi: 10.1080/19485565.2000.9989011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Cooper Richard S. Gene-environment interactions and the etiology of common complex disease. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Sep 2;139(5 Pt 2):437–440. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-139-5_part_2-200309021-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Cooper Richard S., Kaufman Jay S., Ward Ryk. Race and genomics. N Engl J Med. 2003 Mar 20;348(12):1166–1170. doi: 10.1056/NEJMsb022863. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Copper R. L., Goldenberg R. L., Das A., Elder N., Swain M., Norman G., Ramsey R., Cotroneo P., Collins B. A., Johnson F. The preterm prediction study: maternal stress is associated with spontaneous preterm birth at less than thirty-five weeks' gestation. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996 Nov;175(5):1286–1292. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(96)70042-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Cox E. D., Hoffmann S. C., DiMercurio B. S., Wesley R. A., Harlan D. M., Kirk A. D., Blair P. J. Cytokine polymorphic analyses indicate ethnic differences in the allelic distribution of interleukin-2 and interleukin-6. Transplantation. 2001 Aug 27;72(4):720–726. doi: 10.1097/00007890-200108270-00027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. D'Elia Angela V., Driul Lorenza, Giacomello Roberta, Colaone Roberta, Fabbro Dora, Di Leonardo Cristina, Florio Pasquale, Petraglia Felice, Marchesoni Diego, Damante Giuseppe. Frequency of factor V, prothrombin and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene variants in preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2002;53(2):84–87. doi: 10.1159/000052998. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. David R. J., Collins J. W., Jr Differing birth weight among infants of U.S.-born blacks, African-born blacks, and U.S.-born whites. N Engl J Med. 1997 Oct 23;337(17):1209–1214. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199710233371706. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Dizon-Townson D. S., Major H., Varner M., Ward K. A promoter mutation that increases transcription of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene is not associated with preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997 Oct;177(4):810–813. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(97)70273-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Dowling N. F., Austin H., Dilley A., Whitsett C., Evatt B. L., Hooper W. C. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism in Caucasians and African-Americans: the GATE Study. J Thromb Haemost. 2003 Jan;1(1):80–87. doi: 10.1046/j.1538-7836.2003.00031.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Dysart J. M., Treiber F. A., Pflieger K., Davis H., Strong W. B. Ethnic differences in the myocardial and vascular reactivity to stress in normotensive girls. Am J Hypertens. 1994 Jan;7(1):15–22. doi: 10.1093/ajh/7.1.15. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Ekwo E., Moawad A. The risk for recurrence of premature births to African-American and white women. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys. 1998;9(1):16–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. English Paul B., Kharrazi Martin, Davies Stephanie, Scalf Rusty, Waller Lance, Neutra Raymond. Changes in the spatial pattern of low birth weight in a southern California county: the role of individual and neighborhood level factors. Soc Sci Med. 2003 May;56(10):2073–2088. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00202-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Esfahani Setareh Torabian, Cogger Edward A., Caudill Marie A. Heterogeneity in the prevalence of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene polymorphisms in women of different ethnic groups. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003 Feb;103(2):200–207. doi: 10.1053/jada.2003.50030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Fang J., Madhavan S., Alderman M. H. Low birth weight: race and maternal nativity--impact of community income. Pediatrics. 1999 Jan;103(1):E5–E5. doi: 10.1542/peds.103.1.e5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Ferrand Pedro E., Fujimoto Toshio, Chennathukuzhi Vargheese, Parry Samuel, Macones George A., Sammel Mary, Kuivaniemi Helena, Romero Roberto, Strauss Jerome F., 3rd The CARD15 2936insC mutation and TLR4 896 A>G polymorphism in African Americans and risk of preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM). Mol Hum Reprod. 2002 Nov;8(11):1031–1034. doi: 10.1093/molehr/8.11.1031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Ferrand Pedro E., Parry Samuel, Sammel Mary, Macones George A., Kuivaniemi Helena, Romero Roberto, Strauss Jerome F., 3rd A polymorphism in the matrix metalloproteinase-9 promoter is associated with increased risk of preterm premature rupture of membranes in African Americans. Mol Hum Reprod. 2002 May;8(5):494–501. doi: 10.1093/molehr/8.5.494. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Fiscella K. Race, perinatal outcome, and amniotic infection. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1996 Jan;51(1):60–66. doi: 10.1097/00006254-199601000-00022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Fiscella K. Racial disparities in preterm births. The role of urogenital infections. Public Health Rep. 1996 Mar-Apr;111(2):104–113. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Fiscella Kevin. Racial disparity in infant and maternal mortality: confluence of infection, and microvascular dysfunction. Matern Child Health J. 2004 Jun;8(2):45–54. doi: 10.1023/b:maci.0000025726.53515.65. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Flynn C. A., Helwig A. L., Meurer L. N. Bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy and the risk of prematurity: a meta-analysis. J Fam Pract. 1999 Nov;48(11):885–892. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Ford E. S., Ballew C. Dietary folate intake in US adults: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Ethn Dis. 1998 Autumn;8(3):299–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Fortunato Stephen J., Lombardi Salvatore J., Menon Ramkumar. Racial disparity in membrane response to infectious stimuli: a possible explanation for observed differences in the incidence of prematurity. Community Award Paper. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jun;190(6):1557–1563. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.03.053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Foster H. W., Wu L., Bracken M. B., Semenya K., Thomas J., Thomas J. Intergenerational effects of high socioeconomic status on low birthweight and preterm birth in African Americans. J Natl Med Assoc. 2000 May;92(5):213–221. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Franco Maria do Carmo P., Dantas Ana Paula V., Akamine Eliana Hiromi, Kawamoto Elisa Mitiko, Fortes Zuleica B., Scavone Cristoforo, Tostes Rita C. A., Carvalho Maria Helena C., Nigro Dorothy. Enhanced oxidative stress as a potential mechanism underlying the programming of hypertension in utero. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002 Oct;40(4):501–509. doi: 10.1097/00005344-200210000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Fujimoto Toshio, Parry Samuel, Urbanek Margrit, Sammel Mary, Macones George, Kuivaniemi Helena, Romero Roberto, Strauss Jerome F., 3rd A single nucleotide polymorphism in the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) promoter influences amnion cell MMP-1 expression and risk for preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. J Biol Chem. 2001 Dec 11;277(8):6296–6302. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M107865200. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Garte S., Gaspari L., Alexandrie A. K., Ambrosone C., Autrup H., Autrup J. L., Baranova H., Bathum L., Benhamou S., Boffetta P. Metabolic gene polymorphism frequencies in control populations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001 Dec;10(12):1239–1248. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Genc Mehmet R., Vardhana Santosh, Delaney Mary L., Onderdonk Andrew, Tuomala Ruth, Norwitz Errol, Witkin Steven S., MAP Study Group Relationship between a toll-like receptor-4 gene polymorphism, bacterial vaginosis-related flora and vaginal cytokine responses in pregnant women. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004 Oct 15;116(2):152–156. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.02.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Genç Mehmet R., Gerber Stefan, Nesin Mirjana, Witkin Steven S. Polymorphism in the interleukin-1 gene complex and spontaneous preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Jul;187(1):157–163. doi: 10.1067/mob.2002.122407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Goldenberg R. L., Andrews W. W. Intrauterine infection and why preterm prevention programs have failed. Am J Public Health. 1996 Jun;86(6):781–783. doi: 10.2105/ajph.86.6.781. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Goldenberg R. L., Andrews W. W., Yuan A. C., MacKay H. T., St Louis M. E. Sexually transmitted diseases and adverse outcomes of pregnancy. Clin Perinatol. 1997 Mar;24(1):23–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Goldenberg R. L., Cliver S. P., Mulvihill F. X., Hickey C. A., Hoffman H. J., Klerman L. V., Johnson M. J. Medical, psychosocial, and behavioral risk factors do not explain the increased risk for low birth weight among black women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996 Nov;175(5):1317–1324. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(96)70048-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Goldenberg R. L., Hauth J. C., Andrews W. W. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 18;342(20):1500–1507. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200005183422007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Goldenberg R. L., Iams J. D., Mercer B. M., Meis P. J., Moawad A. H., Copper R. L., Das A., Thom E., Johnson F., McNellis D. The preterm prediction study: the value of new vs standard risk factors in predicting early and all spontaneous preterm births. NICHD MFMU Network. Am J Public Health. 1998 Feb;88(2):233–238. doi: 10.2105/ajph.88.2.233. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Goldenberg R. L., Klebanoff M. A., Nugent R., Krohn M. A., Hillier S., Andrews W. W. Bacterial colonization of the vagina during pregnancy in four ethnic groups. Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996 May;174(5):1618–1621. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(96)70617-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Goldenberg Robert L., Iams Jay D., Mercer Brian M., Meis Paul, Moawad Atef, Das Anita, Copper Rachel, Johnson Francee, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network What we have learned about the predictors of preterm birth. Semin Perinatol. 2003 Jun;27(3):185–193. doi: 10.1016/s0146-0005(03)00017-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Grandone E., Margaglione M., Colaizzo D., Cappucci G., Paladini D., Martinelli P., Montanaro S., Pavone G., Di Minno G. Factor V Leiden, C > T MTHFR polymorphism and genetic susceptibility to preeclampsia. Thromb Haemost. 1997 Jun;77(6):1052–1054. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Greenlund Kurt J., Croft Janet B., Mensah George A. Prevalence of heart disease and stroke risk factors in persons with prehypertension in the United States, 1999-2000. Arch Intern Med. 2004 Oct 25;164(19):2113–2118. doi: 10.1001/archinte.164.19.2113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Guendelman S., Buekens P., Blondel B., Kaminski M., Notzon F. C., Masuy-Stroobant G. Birth outcomes of immigrant women in the United States, France, and Belgium. Matern Child Health J. 1999 Dec;3(4):177–187. doi: 10.1023/a:1022328020935. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Haas Jennifer S., Fuentes-Afflick Elena, Stewart Anita L., Jackson Rebecca A., Dean Mitzi L., Brawarsky Phyllis, Escobar Gabriel J. Prepregnancy health status and the risk of preterm delivery. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005 Jan;159(1):58–63. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.159.1.58. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Hao Ke, Wang Xiaobin, Niu Tianhua, Xu Xin, Li Ang, Chang Weili, Wang Lin, Li Guang, Laird Nan, Xu Xiping. A candidate gene association study on preterm delivery: application of high-throughput genotyping technology and advanced statistical methods. Hum Mol Genet. 2004 Feb 19;13(7):683–691. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddh091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Hassan Mohamed I., Aschner Yael, Manning Carolina H., Xu Jianfeng, Aschner Judy L. Racial differences in selected cytokine allelic and genotypic frequencies among healthy, pregnant women in North Carolina. Cytokine. 2003 Jan 7;21(1):10–16. doi: 10.1016/s1043-4666(02)00489-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Heiskanen J. T., Pirskanen M. M., Hiltunen M. J., Mannermaa A. J., Punnonen K. R., Heinonen S. T. Insertion-deletion polymorphism in the gene for angiotensin-converting enzyme is associated with obstetric cholestasis but not with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Sep;185(3):600–603. doi: 10.1067/mob.2001.116722. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Henriksen Tore, Clausen Torun. The fetal origins hypothesis: placental insufficiency and inheritance versus maternal malnutrition in well-nourished populations. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002 Feb;81(2):112–114. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0412.2002.810204.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Hoffman J. D., Ward K. Genetic factors in preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1999 Mar;54(3):203–210. doi: 10.1097/00006254-199903000-00025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Hoffmann Steven C., Stanley Eran M., Cox E. Darrin, DiMercurio Barbara S., Koziol Deloris E., Harlan David M., Kirk Allan D., Blair Patrick J. Ethnicity greatly influences cytokine gene polymorphism distribution. Am J Transplant. 2002 Jul;2(6):560–567. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-6143.2002.20611.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Hofman Paul L., Regan Fiona, Jackson Wendy E., Jefferies Craig, Knight David B., Robinson Elizabeth M., Cutfield Wayne S. Premature birth and later insulin resistance. N Engl J Med. 2004 Nov 18;351(21):2179–2186. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa042275. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Hooper W. Craig, Dowling Nicole F., Wenger Nanette K., Dilley Anne, Ellingsen Dorothy, Evatt Bruce L. Relationship of venous thromboembolism and myocardial infarction with the renin-angiotensin system in African-Americans. Am J Hematol. 2002 May;70(1):1–8. doi: 10.1002/ajh.10078. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Hutchings A., Guay-Woodford L., Thomas J. M., Young C. J., Purcell W. M., Pravica V., Perrey C., Hutchinson I. V., Benfield M. R. Association of cytokine single nucleotide polymorphisms with B7 costimulatory molecules in kidney allograft recipients. Pediatr Transplant. 2002 Feb;6(1):69–77. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3046.2002.1o444.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Härtel Ch, Finas D., Ahrens P., Kattner E., Schaible Th, Müller D., Segerer H., Albrecht K., Möller J., Diedrich K. Polymorphisms of genes involved in innate immunity: association with preterm delivery. Mol Hum Reprod. 2004 Oct 29;10(12):911–915. doi: 10.1093/molehr/gah120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Iliadou A., Cnattingius S., Lichtenstein P. Low birthweight and Type 2 diabetes: a study on 11 162 Swedish twins. Int J Epidemiol. 2004 May 27;33(5):948–954. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyh117. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Jackson Benita, Kubzansky Laura D., Cohen Sheldon, Weiss Scott, Wright Rosalind J., CARDIA Study A matter of life and breath: childhood socioeconomic status is related to young adult pulmonary function in the CARDIA study. Int J Epidemiol. 2004 Apr;33(2):271–278. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyh003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Jeremias J., Giraldo P., Durrant S., Ribeiro-Filho A., Witkin S. S. Relationship between Ureaplasma urealyticum vaginal colonization and polymorphism in the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene. J Infect Dis. 1999 Sep;180(3):912–914. doi: 10.1086/314935. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Johnson William G., Scholl Theresa O., Spychala John R., Buyske Steven, Stenroos Edward S., Chen Xinhua. Common dihydrofolate reductase 19-base pair deletion allele: a novel risk factor for preterm delivery. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Mar;81(3):664–668. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/81.3.664. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Jorde Lynn B., Wooding Stephen P. Genetic variation, classification and 'race'. Nat Genet. 2004 Nov;36(11 Suppl):S28–S33. doi: 10.1038/ng1435. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Jurajda M., Kanková K., Muzik J., Unzeitig V., Drábková M., Izakovicová-Hollá L., Vácha J. Lack of an association of a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter of the matrix metalloproteinase-1 gene in Czech women with pregnancy-induced hypertension. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2001;52(2):124–127. doi: 10.1159/000052956. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Kaiser T., Brennecke S. P., Moses E. K. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphisms are not a risk factor for pre-eclampsia/eclampsia in Australian women. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2000;50(2):100–102. doi: 10.1159/000010291. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Karhukorpi Jari, Laitinen Tarja, Kivelä Helena, Tiilikainen Anja, Hurme Mikko. IL-1 receptor antagonist gene polymorphism in recurrent spontaneous abortion. J Reprod Immunol. 2003 Feb;58(1):61–67. doi: 10.1016/s0165-0378(02)00044-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Kaufman J. S., Cooper R. S., McGee D. L. Socioeconomic status and health in blacks and whites: the problem of residual confounding and the resiliency of race. Epidemiology. 1997 Nov;8(6):621–628. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Kaufman Jay S., Dole Nancy, Savitz David A., Herring Amy H. Modeling community-level effects on preterm birth. Ann Epidemiol. 2003 May;13(5):377–384. doi: 10.1016/s1047-2797(02)00480-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Kempe A., Wise P. H., Barkan S. E., Sappenfield W. M., Sachs B., Gortmaker S. L., Sobol A. M., First L. R., Pursley D., Rinehart H. Clinical determinants of the racial disparity in very low birth weight. N Engl J Med. 1992 Oct 1;327(14):969–973. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199210013271401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Khoshnood B., Lee K. S., Wall S., Hsieh H. L., Mittendorf R. Short interpregnancy intervals and the risk of adverse birth outcomes among five racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Oct 15;148(8):798–805. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009701. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Khoury M. J., Cohen B. H. Genetic heterogeneity of prematurity and intrauterine growth retardation: clues from the Old Order Amish. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987 Aug;157(2):400–410. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(87)80181-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Kim Y. J., Williamson R. A., Murray J. C., Andrews J., Pietscher J. J., Peraud P. J., Merrill D. C. Genetic susceptibility to preeclampsia: roles of cytosineto-thymine substitution at nucleotide 677 of the gene for methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, 68-base pair insertion at nucleotide 844 of the gene for cystathionine beta-synthase, and factor V Leiden mutation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 May;184(6):1211–1217. doi: 10.1067/mob.2001.110411. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Kimball P., Elswick R. K., Shiffman M. Ethnicity and cytokine production gauge response of patients with hepatitis C to interferon-alpha therapy. J Med Virol. 2001 Nov;65(3):510–516. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. King Dana E., Egan Brent M., Mainous Arch G., 3rd, Geesey Mark E. Elevation of C-reactive protein in people with prehypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2004 Oct;6(10):562–568. doi: 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2004.03577.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Kistner Anna, Jacobson Lena, Jacobson Stefan H., Svensson Elisabeth, Hellstrom Ann. Low gestational age associated with abnormal retinal vascularization and increased blood pressure in adult women. Pediatr Res. 2002 Jun;51(6):675–680. doi: 10.1203/00006450-200206000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Klebanoff M. A., Secher N. J., Mednick B. R., Schulsinger C. Maternal size at birth and the development of hypertension during pregnancy: a test of the Barker hypothesis. Arch Intern Med. 1999 Jul 26;159(14):1607–1612. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.14.1607. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Kobashi G., Shido K., Hata A., Yamada H., Kato E. H., Kanamori M., Fujimoto S., Kondo K. Multivariate analysis of genetic and acquired factors; T235 variant of the angiotensinogen gene is a potent independent risk factor for preeclampsia. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2001;27(2):143–147. doi: 10.1055/s-2001-14073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Koeppen-Schomerus G., Wardle J., Plomin R. A genetic analysis of weight and overweight in 4-year-old twin pairs. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001 Jun;25(6):838–844. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801589. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Kramer M. S., Séguin L., Lydon J., Goulet L. Socio-economic disparities in pregnancy outcome: why do the poor fare so poorly? Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2000 Jul;14(3):194–210. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3016.2000.00266.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Krieger N., Rowley D. L., Herman A. A., Avery B., Phillips M. T. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med. 1993 Nov-Dec;9(6 Suppl):82–122. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Lachmeijer A. M., Crusius J. B., Pals G., Dekker G. A., Arngrímsson R., ten Kate L. P. Polymorphisms in the tumor necrosis factor and lymphotoxin-alpha gene region and preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Oct;98(4):612–619. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(01)01487-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Lachmeijer Augusta M. A., Nosti-Escanilla Maria P., Bastiaans Esther B., Pals G., Sandkuijl Lodewijk A., Kostense Pieter J., Aarnoudse Jan G., Crusius J. Bart A., Peña A. Salvador, Dekker Guustaaf A. Linkage and association studies of IL1B and IL1RN gene polymorphisms in preeclampsia. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2002;21(1):23–38. doi: 10.1081/PRG-120002907. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Laivuori H., Kaaja R., Ylikorkala O., Hiltunen T., Kontula K. 677 C-->T polymorphism of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene and preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2000 Aug;96(2):277–280. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(00)00896-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Landau Ruth, Xie Hong-Guang, Dishy Victor, Stein C. Micheal, Wood Alastair J. J., Emala Charles W., Smiley Richard M. beta2-Adrenergic receptor genotype and preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Nov;187(5):1294–1298. doi: 10.1067/mob.2002.128524. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Lang C. C., Stein C. M., Brown R. M., Deegan R., Nelson R., He H. B., Wood M., Wood A. J. Attenuation of isoproterenol-mediated vasodilatation in blacks. N Engl J Med. 1995 Jul 20;333(3):155–160. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199507203330304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Laumann E. O., Youm Y. Racial/ethnic group differences in the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: a network explanation. Sex Transm Dis. 1999 May;26(5):250–261. doi: 10.1097/00007435-199905000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Leitich Harald, Bodner-Adler Barbara, Brunbauer Mathias, Kaider Alexandra, Egarter Christian, Husslein Peter. Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for preterm delivery: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Jul;189(1):139–147. doi: 10.1067/mob.2003.339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Lespinasse Antoine Alexandra, David Richard J., Collins James W., Handler Arden S., Wall Stephen N. Maternal support in the delivery room and birthweight among African-American women. J Natl Med Assoc. 2004 Feb;96(2):187–195. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Lorenz Eva, Hallman Mikko, Marttila Riitta, Haataja Ritva, Schwartz David A. Association between the Asp299Gly polymorphisms in the Toll-like receptor 4 and premature births in the Finnish population. Pediatr Res. 2002 Sep;52(3):373–376. doi: 10.1203/00006450-200209000-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Lu Michael C., Halfon Neal. Racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes: a life-course perspective. Matern Child Health J. 2003 Mar;7(1):13–30. doi: 10.1023/a:1022537516969. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. MacDorman Marian F., Martin Joyce A., Mathews T. J., Hoyert Donna L., Ventura Stephanie J. Explaining the 2001-02 infant mortality increase: data from the linked birth/infant death data set. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2005 Jan 24;53(12):1–22. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. MacGregor A. J., Antoniades L., Matson M., Andrew T., Spector T. D. The genetic contribution to radiographic hip osteoarthritis in women: results of a classic twin study. Arthritis Rheum. 2000 Nov;43(11):2410–2416. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200011)43:11<2410::AID-ANR6>3.0.CO;2-E. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Macones George A., Parry Samuel, Elkousy Mohammed, Clothier Bonnie, Ural Serdar H., Strauss Jerome F., 3rd A polymorphism in the promoter region of TNF and bacterial vaginosis: preliminary evidence of gene-environment interaction in the etiology of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jun;190(6):1504–3A. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.01.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Martin A-M, Athanasiadis G., Greshock J. D., Fisher J., Lux M. P., Calzone K., Rebbeck T. R., Weber B. L. Population frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in immuno-modulatory genes. Hum Hered. 2003;55(4):171–178. doi: 10.1159/000073201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Mañalich R., Reyes L., Herrera M., Melendi C., Fundora I. Relationship between weight at birth and the number and size of renal glomeruli in humans: a histomorphometric study. Kidney Int. 2000 Aug;58(2):770–773. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2000.00225.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Mello Giorgio, Parretti Elena, Gensini Francesca, Sticchi Elena, Mecacci Federico, Scarselli Gianfranco, Genuardi Maurizio, Abbate Rosanna, Fatini Cinzia. Maternal-fetal flow, negative events, and preeclampsia: role of ACE I/D polymorphism. Hypertension. 2003 Mar 24;41(4):932–937. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000063146.40351.AD. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Moore S., Ide M., Randhawa M., Walker J. J., Reid J. G., Simpson N. A. B. An investigation into the association among preterm birth, cytokine gene polymorphisms and periodontal disease. BJOG. 2004 Feb;111(2):125–132. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-0528.2003.00024.x-i1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Morgan L., Crawshaw S., Baker P. N., Broughton Pipkin F., Kalsheker N. Maternal and fetal angiotensinogen gene allele sharing in pre-eclampsia. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1999 Mar;106(3):244–251. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.1999.tb08238.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Mountain Joanna L., Risch Neil. Assessing genetic contributions to phenotypic differences among 'racial' and 'ethnic' groups. Nat Genet. 2004 Nov;36(11 Suppl):S48–S53. doi: 10.1038/ng1456. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Mustillo Sarah, Krieger Nancy, Gunderson Erica P., Sidney Stephen, McCreath Heather, Kiefe Catarina I. Self-reported experiences of racial discrimination and Black-White differences in preterm and low-birthweight deliveries: the CARDIA Study. Am J Public Health. 2004 Dec;94(12):2125–2131. doi: 10.2105/ajph.94.12.2125. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Mwantembe O., Gaillard M. C., Barkhuizen M., Pillay V., Berry S. D., Dewar J. B., Song E. Ethnic differences in allelic associations of the interleukin-1 gene cluster in South African patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and in control individuals. Immunogenetics. 2001;52(3-4):249–254. doi: 10.1007/s002510000265. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Ness Roberta B., Haggerty Catherine L., Harger Gail, Ferrell Robert. Differential distribution of allelic variants in cytokine genes among African Americans and White Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Dec 1;160(11):1033–1038. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwh325. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Ness Roberta B., Hillier Sharon, Richter Holly E., Soper David E., Stamm Carol, Bass Debra C., Sweet Richard L., Rice Peter. Can known risk factors explain racial differences in the occurrence of bacterial vaginosis? J Natl Med Assoc. 2003 Mar;95(3):201–212. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Nguyen Daniel P., Genc Mehmet, Vardhana Santosh, Babula Oksana, Onderdonk Andrew, Witkin Steven S. Ethnic differences of polymorphisms in cytokine and innate immune system genes in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Aug;104(2):293–300. doi: 10.1097/01.AOG.0000133486.85400.5e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Ogden Cynthia L., Flegal Katherine M., Carroll Margaret D., Johnson Clifford L. Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. JAMA. 2002 Oct 9;288(14):1728–1732. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.14.1728. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Okosun I. S., Boltri J. M., Anochie L. K., Chandra K. M. D. Racial/ethnic differences in prehypertension in American adults: population and relative attributable risks of abdominal obesity. J Hum Hypertens. 2004 Dec;18(12):849–855. doi: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001771. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Okosun I. S., Dever G. E. A., Choi S. T. Low birth weight is associated with elevated serum lipoprotein(a) in white and black American children ages 5-11 y. Public Health. 2002 Jan;116(1):33–38. doi: 10.1038/sj/ph/1900810. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Onipinla A. K., Barley J., Carter N. D., MacGregor G. A., Sagnella G. A. Relationship between the M235T and G(-6)A polymorphisms of the angiotensinogen gene. J Hum Hypertens. 1999 Dec;13(12):865–866. doi: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1000906. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Ordúez-García P. O., Espinosa-Brito A. D., Cooper R. S., Kaufman J. S., Nieto F. J. Hypertension in Cuba: evidence of a narrow black-white difference. J Hum Hypertens. 1998 Feb;12(2):111–116. doi: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1000562. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Orr S. T., Miller C. A., James S. A., Babones S. Unintended pregnancy and preterm birth. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2000 Oct;14(4):309–313. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3016.2000.00289.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Osiri M., McNicholl J., Moreland L. W., Bridges S. L., Jr A novel single nucleotide polymorphism and five probable haplotypes in the 5' flanking region of the IL-6 gene in African-Americans. Genes Immun. 1999 Nov;1(2):166–167. doi: 10.1038/sj.gene.6363652. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Owen John, Yost Nicole, Berghella Vincenzo, MacPherson Cora, Swain Melissa, Dildy Gary A., 3rd, Miodovnik Menachem, Langer Oded, Sibai Baha, Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network Can shortened midtrimester cervical length predict very early spontaneous preterm birth? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Jul;191(1):298–303. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2003.11.025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Ozkur M., Dogulu F., Ozkur A., Gokmen B., Inaloz S. S., Aynacioglu A. S. Association of the Gln27Glu polymorphism of the beta-2-adrenergic receptor with preterm labor. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2002 Jun;77(3):209–215. doi: 10.1016/s0020-7292(02)00035-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Papazoglou Dimitrios, Galazios Georgios, Koukourakis Michael I., Kontomanolis Emmanuel N., Maltezos Efstratios. Association of -634G/C and 936C/T polymorphisms of the vascular endothelial growth factor with spontaneous preterm delivery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004 May;83(5):461–465. doi: 10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00403.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Peacock J. L., Bland J. M., Anderson H. R. Preterm delivery: effects of socioeconomic factors, psychological stress, smoking, alcohol, and caffeine. BMJ. 1995 Aug 26;311(7004):531–535. doi: 10.1136/bmj.311.7004.531. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Pearce Neil, Foliaki Sunia, Sporle Andrew, Cunningham Chris. Genetics, race, ethnicity, and health. BMJ. 2004 May 1;328(7447):1070–1072. doi: 10.1136/bmj.328.7447.1070. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Pegoraro Rosemary J., Chikosi Aggrey, Rom Lee, Roberts Candice, Moodley Jack. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene polymorphisms in black South Africans and the association with preeclampsia. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004 May;83(5):449–454. doi: 10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.0355.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Prasmusinto D., Skrablin S., Hofstaetter C., Fimmers R., van der Ven K. The methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase 677 C-->T polymorphism and preeclampsia in two populations. Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Jun;99(6):1085–1092. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(02)01997-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Roberts A. K., Monzon-Bordonaba F., Van Deerlin P. G., Holder J., Macones G. A., Morgan M. A., Strauss J. F., 3rd, Parry S. Association of polymorphism within the promoter of the tumor necrosis factor alpha gene with increased risk of preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999 May;180(5):1297–1302. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9378(99)70632-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Rovin Brad H., Lu Ling, Zhang Xiaolan. A novel interleukin-8 polymorphism is associated with severe systemic lupus erythematosus nephritis. Kidney Int. 2002 Jul;62(1):261–265. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2002.00438.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Rowley D. L., Hogue C. J., Blackmore C. A., Ferre C. D., Hatfield-Timajchy K., Branch P., Atrash H. K. Preterm delivery among African-American women: a research strategy. Am J Prev Med. 1993 Nov-Dec;9(6 Suppl):1–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Rundek Tanja, Elkind Mitchell S., Pittman John, Boden-Albala Bernadette, Martin Steve, Humphries Steve E., Juo Suh-Hang Hank, Sacco Ralph L. Carotid intima-media thickness is associated with allelic variants of stromelysin-1, interleukin-6, and hepatic lipase genes: the Northern Manhattan Prospective Cohort Study. Stroke. 2002 May;33(5):1420–1423. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.0000015558.63492.B6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Salafia C. M., Ghidini A., Lopèz-Zeno J. A., Pezzullo J. C. Uteroplacental pathology and maternal arterial mean blood pressure in spontaneous prematurity. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 1998 Mar-Apr;5(2):68–71. doi: 10.1016/S1071-5576(97)00104-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Samadi A. R., Mayberry R. M., Reed J. W. Preeclampsia associated with chronic hypertension among African-American and White women. Ethn Dis. 2001 Spring-Summer;11(2):192–200. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Sankar Pamela, Cho Mildred K., Condit Celeste M., Hunt Linda M., Koenig Barbara, Marshall Patricia, Lee Sandra Soo-Jin, Spicer Paul. Genetic research and health disparities. JAMA. 2004 Jun 23;291(24):2985–2989. doi: 10.1001/jama.291.24.2985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Simhan Hyagriv N., Caritis Steve N., Krohn Marijane A., Martinez de Tejada Begoña, Landers Daniel V., Hillier Sharon L. Decreased cervical proinflammatory cytokines permit subsequent upper genital tract infection during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Aug;189(2):560–567. doi: 10.1067/s0002-9378(03)00518-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Simhan Hyagriv N., Krohn Marijane A., Roberts James M., Zeevi Adriana, Caritis Steve N. Interleukin-6 promoter -174 polymorphism and spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Oct;189(4):915–918. doi: 10.1067/s0002-9378(03)00843-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Simhan Hyagriv N., Krohn Marijane A., Zeevi Adriana, Daftary Ashi, Harger Gail, Caritis Steve N. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter gene polymorphism -308 and chorioamnionitis. Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Jul;102(1):162–166. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(03)00406-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Singhal A., Cole T. J., Lucas A. Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomised trials. Lancet. 2001 Feb 10;357(9254):413–419. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04004-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Snieder Harold, Harshfield Gregory A., Treiber Frank A. Heritability of blood pressure and hemodynamics in African- and European-American youth. Hypertension. 2003 Apr 28;41(6):1196–1201. doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000072269.19820.0D. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Spencer J., Wang Z., Hoy W. Low birth weight and reduced renal volume in Aboriginal children. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001 May;37(5):915–920. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(05)80006-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Treloar S. A., Macones G. A., Mitchell L. E., Martin N. G. Genetic influences on premature parturition in an Australian twin sample. Twin Res. 2000 Jun;3(2):80–82. doi: 10.1375/136905200320565526. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Vefring Hege, Lie Rolv Terje, ØDegård Rønnaug, Mansoor M. Azam, Nilsen Stein Tore. Maternal and fetal variants of genetic thrombophilias and the risk of preeclampsia. Epidemiology. 2004 May;15(3):317–322. doi: 10.1097/01.ede.0000112217.33111.23. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Via Marc, González-Pérez Emili, Esteban Esther, López-Alomar Antonio, Vacca Lucia, Vona Giuseppe, Dugoujon Jean Michel, Harich Nourdin, Moral Pedro. Molecular variation in endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene (eNOS) in western Mediterranean populations. Coll Antropol. 2003 Jun;27(1):117–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Wang X., Zuckerman B., Coffman G. A., Corwin M. J. Familial aggregation of low birth weight among whites and blacks in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1995 Dec 28;333(26):1744–1749. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199512283332606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Wang Xiaobin, Zuckerman Barry, Pearson Colleen, Kaufman Gary, Chen Changzhong, Wang Guoying, Niu Tianhua, Wise Paul H., Bauchner Howard, Xu Xiping. Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight. JAMA. 2002 Jan 9;287(2):195–202. doi: 10.1001/jama.287.2.195. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Wilcken B., Bamforth F., Li Z., Zhu H., Ritvanen A., Renlund M., Stoll C., Alembik Y., Dott B., Czeizel A. E. Geographical and ethnic variation of the 677C>T allele of 5,10 methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR): findings from over 7000 newborns from 16 areas world wide. J Med Genet. 2003 Aug;40(8):619–625. doi: 10.1136/jmg.40.8.619. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Wilson Melissa L., Goodwin Thomas Murphy, Pan Vivien L., Ingles Sue Ann. Molecular epidemiology of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2003 Jan;58(1):39–66. doi: 10.1097/00006254-200301000-00022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Wise P. H., Wampler N., Barfield W. The importance of extreme prematurity and low birthweight to US neonatal mortality patterns: implications for prenatal care and women's health. J Am Med Womens Assoc. 1995 Sep-Oct;50(5):152–155. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Xie H. G., Stein C. M., Kim R. B., Xiao Z. S., He N., Zhou H. H., Gainer J. V., Brown N. J., Haines J. L., Wood A. J. Frequency of functionally important beta-2 adrenoceptor polymorphisms varies markedly among African-American, Caucasian and Chinese individuals. Pharmacogenetics. 1999 Aug;9(4):511–516. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Yoshimura T., Yoshimura M., Tabata A., Shimasaki Y., Nakayama M., Miyamoto Y., Saito Y., Nakao K., Yasue H., Okamura H. Association of the missense Glu298Asp variant of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene with severe preeclampsia. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2000 Jul-Aug;7(4):238–241. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Zeitlin J., Bucourt M., Rivera L., Topuz B., Papiernik E. Preterm birth and maternal country of birth in a French district with a multiethnic population. BJOG. 2004 Aug;111(8):849–855. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00184.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  161. Zhang Xiu Quan, Varner Michael, Dizon-Townson Donna, Song Francis, Ward Kenneth. A molecular variant of angiotensinogen is associated with idiopathic intrauterine growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb;101(2):237–242. doi: 10.1016/s0029-7844(02)02512-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  162. Zusterzeel P. L., Visser W., Blom H. J., Peters W. H., Heil S. G., Steegers E. A. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphisms in preeclampsia and the HELLP syndrome. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2000;19(3):299–307. doi: 10.1081/prg-100101991. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  163. van den Oord E. J., Rowe D. C. Racial differences in birth health risk: a quantitative genetic approach. Demography. 2000 Aug;37(3):285–298. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of the National Medical Association are provided here courtesy of National Medical Association

RESOURCES