Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of the National Medical Association logoLink to Journal of the National Medical Association
. 1989 Jan;81(1):27–38.

Adverse health consequences of cocaine abuse.

L L Cregler
PMCID: PMC2625905  PMID: 2657079

Abstract

Cocaine creates a strong physical addiction and is becoming recognized as one of the most dangerous illicit drugs abused today. The myth is that cocaine is harmless and nonaddictive. An estimated 30 million Americans have used cocaine, but the number may be as high as 40 million. Five to six million individuals are compulsive users. A review of the current literature revealed multiple reports of acute myocardial infarction and cerebrovascular accident with a temporal relation to cocaine use. Cocaine has also been associated with acute rupture of the aorta, cardiac arrhythmia, and sudden death. Cocaine has multisystem toxicity involving neurologic, psychiatric, obstetric, pulmonary, dermatologic, and gastrointestinal systems. The dopamine depletion hypothesis may explain why cocaine is repeatedly administered; cocaine produces a transient increase in synaptic dopamine. Alterations in dopamine neurotransmission may be responsible for the development of compulsive use patterns. When cocaine use becomes compulsive, psychosocial dysfunction, deviant behaviors, and a wide spectrum of social, financial, and family problems invariably result. Addiction, major medical complications, and death are true hazards of cocaine use.

Full text

PDF
32

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Abelson H. I., Miller J. D. A decade of trends in cocaine use in the household population. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:35–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Acker D., Sachs B. P., Tracey K. J., Wise W. E. Abruptio placentae associated with cocaine use. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983 May 15;146(2):220–221. doi: 10.1016/0002-9378(83)91060-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Adams E. H., Kozel N. J. Cocaine use in America: Introduction and overview. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:1–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Adrouny A., Magnusson P. Pneumopericardium from cocaine inhalation. N Engl J Med. 1985 Jul 4;313(1):48–49. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198507043130113. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Allred R. J., Ewer S. Fatal pulmonary edema following intravenous "freebase" cocaine use. Ann Emerg Med. 1981 Aug;10(8):441–442. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(81)80314-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Alonso K., Solomons E. T., Dawson J. B. Bacteremic death: sequel of persistent rhinitis precipitated by intranasal cocaine abuse. South Med J. 1986 Aug;79(8):1049–1049. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198608000-00039. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Ambre J. J., Ruo T. I., Smith G. L., Backes D., Smith C. M. Ecgonine methyl ester, a major metabolite of cocaine. J Anal Toxicol. 1982 Jan-Feb;6(1):26–29. doi: 10.1093/jat/6.1.26. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Anker A. L., Crowley T. J. Use of contingency contracts in specialty clinics for cocaine abuse. NIDA Res Monogr. 1982 Apr;41:452–459. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Antelman S. M., Kocan D., Rowland N., de Giovanni L., Chiodo L. A. Amitriptyline provides long-lasting immunization against sudden cardiac death from cocaine. Eur J Pharmacol. 1981 Jan 5;69(1):119–120. doi: 10.1016/0014-2999(81)90611-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Aroesty D. J., Stanley R. B., Crockett D. M. Pneumomediastinum and cervical emphysema from the inhalation of "free based" cocaine: report of three cases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1986 Mar;94(3):372–374. doi: 10.1177/019459988609400321. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Benchimol A., Bartall H., Desser K. B. Accelerated ventricular rhythm and cocaine abuse. Ann Intern Med. 1978 Apr;88(4):519–520. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-88-4-519. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Benowitz N. L., Rosenberg J., Becker C. E. Cardiopulmonary catastrophes in drug-overdosed patients. Med Clin North Am. 1979 Jan;63(1):267–296. doi: 10.1016/s0025-7125(16)31728-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Bettinger J. Cocaine intoxication: massive oral overdose. Ann Emerg Med. 1980 Aug;9(8):429–430. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(80)80157-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Bingol N., Fuchs M., Diaz V., Stone R. K., Gromisch D. S. Teratogenicity of cocaine in humans. J Pediatr. 1987 Jan;110(1):93–96. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(87)80297-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Boag F., Havard C. W. Cardiac arrhythmia and myocardial ischaemia related to cocaine and alcohol consumption. Postgrad Med J. 1985 Nov;61(721):997–999. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.61.721.997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Bozarth M. A., Wise R. A. Toxicity associated with long-term intravenous heroin and cocaine self-administration in the rat. JAMA. 1985 Jul 5;254(1):81–83. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Brust J. C., Richter R. W. Stroke associated with cocaine abuse--? N Y State J Med. 1977 Aug;77(9):1473–1475. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Bush M. N., Rubenstein R., Hoffman I., Bruno M. S. Spontaneous pneumomediastinum as a consequence of cocaine use. N Y State J Med. 1984 Dec;84(12):618–619. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Caplan L. R., Hier D. B., Banks G. Current concepts of cerebrovascular disease--stroke: stroke and drug abuse. Stroke. 1982 Nov-Dec;13(6):869–872. doi: 10.1161/01.str.13.6.869. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Caruana D. S., Weinbach B., Goerg D., Gardner L. B. Cocaine-packet ingestion. Diagnosis, management, and natural history. Ann Intern Med. 1984 Jan;100(1):73–74. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-100-1-73. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 11-1985. A 54-year-old woman with anorexia, nausea, and vomiting and a large mass in the right upper abdominal quadrant. N Engl J Med. 1985 Mar 14;312(11):706–711. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198503143121108. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Chambers H. F., Morris D. L., Täuber M. G., Modin G. Cocaine use and the risk for endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Jun;106(6):833–836. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-106-6-833. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Chasnoff I. J., Burns W. J., Schnoll S. H., Burns K. A. Cocaine use in pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1985 Sep 12;313(11):666–669. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198509123131105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Chasnoff I. J., Bussey M. E., Savich R., Stack C. M. Perinatal cerebral infarction and maternal cocaine use. J Pediatr. 1986 Mar;108(3):456–459. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3476(86)80896-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Clayton R. R. Cocaine use in the United States: in a blizzard or just being snowed? NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:8–34. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Coleman D. L., Ross T. F., Naughton J. L. Myocardial ischemia and infarction related to recreational cocaine use. West J Med. 1982 May;136(5):444–446. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Cooper C. B., Bai T. R., Heyderman E., Corrin B. Cellulose granuloma in the lungs of a cocaine sniffer. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983 Jun 25;286(6383):2021–2022. doi: 10.1136/bmj.286.6383.2021-a. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Cardiovascular dangers of cocaine abuse. Am J Cardiol. 1986 May 1;57(13):1185–1186. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(86)90696-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Cocaine-associated myocardial ischemia. Am J Med. 1987 Feb;82(2):388–388. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90101-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Medical complications of cocaine abuse. N Engl J Med. 1986 Dec 4;315(23):1495–1500. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198612043152327. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Myocardial infarction associated with cocaine abuse: a case report. Tex Heart Inst J. 1986 Mar;13(1):174–174. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Relation of acute myocardial infarction to cocaine abuse. Am J Cardiol. 1985 Nov 1;56(12):794–794. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(85)91140-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Cregler L. L., Mark H. Relation of stroke to cocaine abuse. N Y State J Med. 1987 Feb;87(2):128–129. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Cucco R. A., Yoo O. H., Cregler L., Chang J. C. Nonfatal pulmonary edema after "freebase" cocaine smoking. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Jul;136(1):179–181. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/136.1.179. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Dackis C. A., Gold M. S. New concepts in cocaine addiction: the dopamine depletion hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1985 Fall;9(3):469–477. doi: 10.1016/0149-7634(85)90022-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Dackis C. A., Gold M. S., Sweeney D. R., Byron J. P., Jr, Climko R. Single-dose bromocriptine reverses cocaine craving. Psychiatry Res. 1987 Apr;20(4):261–264. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(87)90086-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Devenyi P., Schneiderman J. F., Devenyi R. G., Lawby L. Cocaine-induced central retinal artery occlusion. CMAJ. 1988 Jan 15;138(2):129–130. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Di Maio V. J., Garriott J. C. Four deaths due to intravenous injection of cocaine. Forensic Sci Int. 1978 Sep-Oct;12(2):119–125. doi: 10.1016/0379-0738(78)90019-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Estroff T. W., Gold M. S. Medical and psychiatric complications of cocaine abuse with possible points of pharmacological treatment. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1985 Fall;5(1-2):61–76. doi: 10.1300/J251v05n01_05. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Fernandez M. S., Pichard A. D., Marchant E., Lindsay J., Jr Acute myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteries. In vivo demonstration of coronary thrombosis during the acute episode. Clin Cardiol. 1983 Nov;6(11):553–559. doi: 10.1002/clc.4960061107. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Fischman M. W., Schuster C. R., Resnekov L., Shick J. F., Krasnegor N. A., Fennell W., Freedman D. X. Cardiovascular and subjective effects of intravenous cocaine administration in humans. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976 Aug;33(8):983–989. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1976.01770080101010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Fishbain D. A., Wetli C. V. Cocaine intoxication, delirium, and death in a body packer. Ann Emerg Med. 1981 Oct;10(10):531–532. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(81)80010-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Gawin F. H., Ellinwood E. H., Jr Cocaine and other stimulants. Actions, abuse, and treatment. N Engl J Med. 1988 May 5;318(18):1173–1182. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198805053181806. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Gawin F. H., Kleber H. D. Cocaine use in a treatment: population: patterns and diagnostic distinctions. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:182–192. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Gay G. R. Clinical management of acute and chronic cocaine poisoning. Ann Emerg Med. 1982 Oct;11(10):562–572. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(82)80434-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Gay G. R. You've come a long way, baby! Coke time for the new American lady of the Eighties. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1981 Oct-Dec;13(4):297–318. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1981.10471887. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Gilder S. S. Cocaine and the cardiovascular system. S Afr Med J. 1987 Jan 10;71(1):1–1. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Golbe L. I., Merkin M. D. Cerebral infarction in a user of free-base cocaine ("crack"). Neurology. 1986 Dec;36(12):1602–1604. doi: 10.1212/wnl.36.12.1602. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Gold M. S., Dackis C. A. New insights and treatments: opiate withdrawal and cocaine addiction. Clin Ther. 1984;7(1):6–21. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Gold M. S., Dackis C. A. Role of the laboratory in the evaluation of suspected drug abuse. J Clin Psychiatry. 1986 Jan;47(1 Suppl):17–23. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Gold M. S., Galanter M., Stimmel B. Cocaine: a new epidemic. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1986 Winter;6(2):1–5. doi: 10.1300/J251v06n02_01. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Gold M. S., Washton A. M., Dackis C. A. Cocaine abuse: neurochemistry, phenomenology, and treatment. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:130–150. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Goldberg R. E., Lipuma J. P., Cohen A. M. Pneumomediastinum associated with cocaine abuse: a case report and review of the literature. J Thorac Imaging. 1987 Jul;2(3):88–89. doi: 10.1097/00005382-198707000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Gould L., Gopalaswamy C., Patel C., Betzu R. Cocaine-induced myocardial infarction. N Y State J Med. 1985 Nov;85(11):660–661. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Grinspoon L., Bakalar J. B. Adverse effects of cocaine: selected issues. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1981;362:125–131. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1981.tb12800.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Hamilton H. E., Wallace J. E., Shimek E. L., Jr, Land P., Harris S. C., Christenson J. G. Cocaine and benzoylecgonine excretion in humans. J Forensic Sci. 1977 Oct;22(4):697–707. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Heng M. C., Haberfeld G. Thrombotic phenomena associated with intravenous cocaine. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1987 Feb;16(2 Pt 2):462–468. doi: 10.1016/s0190-9622(87)70062-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Howard R. E., Hueter D. C., Davis G. J. Acute myocardial infarction following cocaine abuse in a young woman with normal coronary arteries. JAMA. 1985 Jul 5;254(1):95–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Hunter J. G., Loy H. C., Markovitz L., Kim U. S. Spontaneous pneumomediastinum following inhalation of alkaloidal cocaine and emesis: case report and review. Mt Sinai J Med. 1986 Jun;53(6):491–493. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Insley B. M., Grufferman S., Ayliffe H. E. Thallium poisoning in cocaine abusers. Am J Emerg Med. 1986 Nov;4(6):545–548. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Isner J. M., Estes N. A., 3rd, Thompson P. D., Costanzo-Nordin M. R., Subramanian R., Miller G., Katsas G., Sweeney K., Sturner W. Q. Acute cardiac events temporally related to cocaine abuse. N Engl J Med. 1986 Dec 4;315(23):1438–1443. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198612043152302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Jekel J. F., Allen D. F., Podlewski H., Clarke N., Dean-Patterson S., Cartwright P. Epidemic free-base cocaine abuse. Case study from the Bahamas. Lancet. 1986 Mar 1;1(8479):459–462. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92926-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Jekel J. F., Allen D. F., Podlewski H., Clarke N., Dean-Patterson S., Cartwright P. Epidemic free-base cocaine abuse. Case study from the Bahamas. Lancet. 1986 Mar 1;1(8479):459–462. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92926-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Jonas J. M., Gold M. S. Cocaine abuse and eating disorders. Lancet. 1986 Feb 15;1(8477):390–391. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92360-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Jones R. T. The pharmacology of cocaine. NIDA Res Monogr. 1984;50:34–53. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Jonsson S., O'Meara M., Young J. B. Acute cocaine poisoning. Importance of treating seizures and acidosis. Am J Med. 1983 Dec;75(6):1061–1064. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(83)90889-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Kissner D. G., Lawrence W. D., Selis J. E., Flint A. Crack lung: pulmonary disease caused by cocaine abuse. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987 Nov;136(5):1250–1252. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/136.5.1250. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Kleber H. D., Gawin F. H. Cocaine abuse: a review of current and experimental treatments. NIDA Res Monogr. 1984;50:111–129. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Kogan M. J., Verebey K. G., DePace A. C., Resnick R. B., Mulé S. J. Quantitative determination of benzoylecgonine and cocaine in human biofluids by gas-liquid chromatography. Anal Chem. 1977 Nov;49(13):1965–1969. doi: 10.1021/ac50021a020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Kossowsky W. A., Lyon A. F. Cocaine and acute myocardial infarction. A probable connection. Chest. 1984 Nov;86(5):729–731. doi: 10.1378/chest.86.5.729. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Kosten T. R., Kleber H. D. Sudden death in cocaine abusers: relation to neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Lancet. 1987 May 23;1(8543):1198–1199. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(87)92160-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Lehrer M., Gold M. S. Laboratory diagnosis of cocaine: intoxication and withdrawal. Adv Alcohol Subst Abuse. 1986 Winter;6(2):123–141. doi: 10.1300/J251v06n02_09. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Lichtenfeld P. J., Rubin D. B., Feldman R. S. Subarachnoid hemorrhage precipitated by cocaine snorting. Arch Neurol. 1984 Feb;41(2):223–224. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1984.04050140125041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Loghmanee F., Tobak M. Fatal malignant hyperthermia associated with recreational cocaine and ethanol abuse. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1986 Sep;7(3):246–248. doi: 10.1097/00000433-198607030-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Lowenstein D. H., Massa S. M., Rowbotham M. C., Collins S. D., McKinney H. E., Simon R. P. Acute neurologic and psychiatric complications associated with cocaine abuse. Am J Med. 1987 Nov;83(5):841–846. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(87)90640-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Lundberg G. D., Garriott J. C., Reynolds P. C., Cravey R. H., Shaw R. F. Cocaine-related death. J Forensic Sci. 1977 Apr;22(2):402–408. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Luque M. A., 3rd, Cavallaro D. L., Torres M., Emmanual P., Hillman J. V. Pneumomediastinum, pneumothorax, and subcutaneous emphysema after alternate cocaine inhalation and marijuana smoking. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1987 Jun;3(2):107–109. doi: 10.1097/00006565-198706000-00012. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Mathias D. W. Cocaine-associated myocardial ischemia. Review of clinical and angiographic findings. Am J Med. 1986 Oct;81(4):675–678. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(86)90556-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Mc Lellan A. T., Woody G. E., O'Brien C. P. Development of psychiatric illness in drug abusers. Possible role of drug preference. N Engl J Med. 1979 Dec 13;301(24):1310–1314. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197912133012403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. McCarron M. M., Wood J. D. The cocaine 'body packer' syndrome. Diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 1983 Sep 16;250(11):1417–1420. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Mittleman R. E., Wetli C. V. Death caused by recreational cocaine use. An update. JAMA. 1984 Oct 12;252(14):1889–1893. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Morris J. B., Shuck J. M. Pneumomediastinum in a young male cocaine user. Ann Emerg Med. 1985 Feb;14(2):194–196. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(85)81104-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Murray G. B. Cocaine kindling. JAMA. 1986 Dec 12;256(22):3094–3095. doi: 10.1001/jama.1986.03380220060017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Nahas G., Trouvé R., Demus J. R., von Sitbon M. A calcium-channel blocker as antidote to the cardiac effects of cocaine intoxication. N Engl J Med. 1985 Aug 22;313(8):519–520. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198508223130816. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Nalbandian H., Sheth N., Dietrich R., Georgiou J. Intestinal ischemia caused by cocaine ingestion: report of two cases. Surgery. 1985 Mar;97(3):374–376. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Nanji A. A., Filipenko J. D. Asystole and ventricular fibrillation associated with cocaine intoxication. Chest. 1984 Jan;85(1):132–133. doi: 10.1378/chest.85.1.132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Newald J. Cocaine infants: a new arrival at hospitals' step? Hospitals. 1986 Apr 5;60(7):96–96. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Nicholi A. M., Jr The nontherapeutic use of psychoactive drugs. A modern epidemic. N Engl J Med. 1983 Apr 21;308(16):925–933. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198304213081604. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Novick D. M., Khan I., Kreek M. J. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and infection with hepatitis viruses in individuals abusing drugs by injection. Bull Narc. 1986 Jan-Jun;38(1-2):15–25. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Olson K., Benowitz N. L., Pentel P. Management of cocaine poisoning. Ann Emerg Med. 1983 Oct;12(10):655–657. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(83)80222-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Pasternack P. F., Colvin S. B., Baumann F. G. Cocaine-induced angina pectoris and acute myocardial infarction in patients younger than 40 years. Am J Cardiol. 1985 Mar 1;55(6):847–847. doi: 10.1016/0002-9149(85)90172-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Patel R. C., Dutta D., Schonfeld S. A. Free-base cocaine use associated with bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Aug;107(2):186–187. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-107-2-186. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Pollin W. The danger of cocaine. JAMA. 1985 Jul 5;254(1):98–98. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Post R. M. Cocaine psychoses: a continuum model. Am J Psychiatry. 1975 Mar;132(3):225–231. doi: 10.1176/ajp.132.3.225. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Rappolt R. T., Gay G. R., Inaba D. S. Propranolol: a specific antagonist to cocaine. Clin Toxicol. 1977;10(3):265–271. doi: 10.3109/15563657708992422. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Roberts J. R., Quattrocchi E., Howland M. A. Severe hyperthermia secondary to intravenous drug abuse. Am J Emerg Med. 1984 Jul;2(4):373–373. doi: 10.1016/0735-6757(84)90178-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Rod J. L., Zucker R. P. Acute myocardial infarction shortly after cocaine inhalation. Am J Cardiol. 1987 Jan 1;59(1):161–161. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9149(87)80091-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Rollingher I. M., Belzberg A. S., Macdonald I. L. Cocaine-induced myocardial infarction. CMAJ. 1986 Jul 1;135(1):45–46. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Schachne J. S., Roberts B. H., Thompson P. D. Coronary-artery spasm and myocardial infarction associated with cocaine use. N Engl J Med. 1984 Jun 21;310(25):1665–1666. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198406213102511. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Schwartz K. A., Cohen J. A. Subarachnoid hemorrhage precipitated by cocaine snorting. Arch Neurol. 1984 Jul;41(7):705–705. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1984.04050180027008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Schweitzer V. G. Osteolytic sinusitis and pneumomediastinum: deceptive otolaryngologic complications of cocaine abuse. Laryngoscope. 1986 Feb;96(2):206–210. doi: 10.1288/00005537-198602000-00016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Sharff J. A. Renal infarction associated with intravenous cocaine use. Ann Emerg Med. 1984 Dec;13(12):1145–1147. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(84)80340-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Shesser R., Davis C., Edelstein S. Pneumomediastinum and pneumothorax after inhaling alkaloidal cocaine. Ann Emerg Med. 1981 Apr;10(4):213–215. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(81)80166-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Siegel R. K. Cocaine and sexual dysfunction: the curse of mama coca. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1982 Jan-Jun;14(1-2):71–74. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1982.10471912. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Siegel R. K. Cocaine smoking. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1982 Oct-Dec;14(4):271–359. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1982.10524303. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Siegel R. K. Cocaine smoking. N Engl J Med. 1979 Feb 15;300(7):373–373. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197902153000731. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Siegel R. K. New patterns of cocaine use: changing doses and routes. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:204–220. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Silverstein W., Lewin N. A., Goldfrank L. Management of the cocaine-intoxicated patient. Ann Emerg Med. 1987 Feb;16(2):234–235. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(87)80036-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Simpson R. W., Edwards W. D. Pathogenesis of cocaine-induced ischemic heart disease. Autopsy findings in a 21-year-old man. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1986 Jun;110(6):479–484. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Sinner W. N. The gastrointestinal tract as a vehicle for drug smuggling. Gastrointest Radiol. 1981;6(4):319–323. doi: 10.1007/BF01890277. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Smith D. E., Wesson D. R., Apter-Marsh M. Cocaine- and alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction in patients with addictive disease. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1984 Oct-Dec;16(4):359–361. doi: 10.1080/02791072.1984.10472306. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Stewart D. J., Inaba T., Lucassen M., Kalow W. Cocaine metabolism: cocaine and norcocaine hydrolysis by liver and serum esterases. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979 Apr;25(4):464–468. doi: 10.1002/cpt1979254464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Stripling J. S., Hendricks C. Effect of cocaine and lidocaine on the expression of kindled seizures in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981 Mar;14(3):397–403. doi: 10.1016/0091-3057(81)90408-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Stuck R. M., Doyle D. Superficial thrombophlebitis following parenteral cocaine abuse. A case report. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1987 Jul;77(7):351–353. doi: 10.7547/87507315-77-7-351. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Suarez C. A., Arango A., Lester J. L., 3rd Cocaine-codom ingestion. Surgical treatment. JAMA. 1977 Sep 26;238(13):1391–1392. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Tames S. M., Goldenring J. M. Madarosis from cocaine use. N Engl J Med. 1986 May 15;314(20):1324–1324. doi: 10.1056/nejm198605153142020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Tazelaar H. D., Karch S. B., Stephens B. G., Billingham M. E. Cocaine and the heart. Hum Pathol. 1987 Feb;18(2):195–199. doi: 10.1016/s0046-8177(87)80338-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Tuchman A. J., Daras M., Zalzal P., Mangiardi J. Intracranial hemorrhage after cocaine abuse. JAMA. 1987 Mar 6;257(9):1175–1175. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Van Dyke C., Barash P. G., Jatlow P., Byck R. Cocaine: plasma concentrations after intranasal application in man. Science. 1976 Feb 27;191(4229):859–861. doi: 10.1126/science.56036. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Van Dyke C., Byck R. Cocaine. Sci Am. 1982 Mar;246(3):128–141. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0382-128. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Van Dyke C., Jatlow P., Ungerer J., Barash P. G., Byck R. Oral cocaine: plasma concentrations and central effects. Science. 1978 Apr 14;200(4338):211–213. doi: 10.1126/science.24895. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Vilensky W. Illicit and licit drugs causing perforation of the nasal septum. J Forensic Sci. 1982 Oct;27(4):958–962. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Vincent G. M., Anderson J. L., Marshall H. W. Coronary spasm producing coronary thrombosis and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1983 Jul 28;309(4):220–223. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198307283090406. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Washton A. M., Gold M. S., Pottash A. C. Intranasal cocaine addiction. Lancet. 1983 Dec 10;2(8363):1374–1374. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(83)91143-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Wehbie C. S., Vidaillet H. J., Jr, Navetta F. I., Peter R. H. Acute myocardial infarction associated with initial cocaine use. South Med J. 1987 Jul;80(7):933–934. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198707000-00035. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Weinstein S. P., Gottheil E., Smith R. H., Migrala K. A. Cocaine users seen in medical practice. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1986;12(4):341–354. doi: 10.3109/00952998609016875. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Weiss R. D., Goldenheim P. D., Mirin S. M., Hales C. A., Mendelson J. H. Pulmonary dysfunction in cocaine smokers. Am J Psychiatry. 1981 Aug;138(8):1110–1112. doi: 10.1176/ajp.138.8.1110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Weiss R. D., Mirin S. M. Subtypes of cocaine abusers. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1986 Sep;9(3):491–501. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Weiss R. J. Recurrent myocardial infarction caused by cocaine abuse. Am Heart J. 1986 Apr;111(4):793–793. doi: 10.1016/0002-8703(86)90120-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Wesson D. R., Smith D. E. Cocaine: treatment perspectives. NIDA Res Monogr. 1985;61:193–203. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Wetli C. V. Drug abuse prevention: the physician's responsibility. N Y State J Med. 1984 Dec;84(12):587–587. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Wetli C. V. Fatal cocaine intoxication. A review. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1987 Mar;8(1):1–2. doi: 10.1097/00000433-198703000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Wetli C. V., Fishbain D. A. Cocaine-induced psychosis and sudden death in recreational cocaine users. J Forensic Sci. 1985 Jul;30(3):873–880. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Wetli C. V., Mittlemann R. E. The "body packer syndrome"-toxicity following ingestion of illicit drugs packaged for transportation. J Forensic Sci. 1981 Jul;26(3):492–500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Wetli C. V., Weiss S. D., Cleary T. J., Gyori E. Fungal cerebritis from intravenous drug abuse. J Forensic Sci. 1984 Jan;29(1):260–268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Wiener M. D., Putman C. E. Pain in the chest in a user of cocaine. JAMA. 1987 Oct 16;258(15):2087–2088. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Wiener R. S., Lockhart J. T., Schwartz R. G. Dilated cardiomyopathy and cocaine abuse. Report of two cases. Am J Med. 1986 Oct;81(4):699–701. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(86)90559-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Wilkins C. E., Mathur V. S., Ty R. C., Hall R. J. Myocardial infarction associated with cocaine abuse. Tex Heart Inst J. 1985 Dec;12(4):385–387. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Wohlman R. A. Renal artery thrombosis and embolization associated with intravenous cocaine injection. South Med J. 1987 Jul;80(7):928–930. doi: 10.1097/00007611-198707000-00033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Wojak J. C., Flamm E. S. Intracranial hemorrhage and cocaine use. Stroke. 1987 Jul-Aug;18(4):712–715. doi: 10.1161/01.str.18.4.712. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Woolverton W. L., Balster R. L. Effects of antipsychotic compounds in rhesus monkeys given a choice between cocaine and food. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1981 Aug;8(1):69–78. doi: 10.1016/0376-8716(81)90088-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Zamora-Quezada J. C., Dinerman H., Stadecker M. J., Kelly J. J. Muscle and skin infarction after free-basing cocaine (crack). Ann Intern Med. 1988 Apr;108(4):564–566. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-108-4-564. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Zimmerman F. H., Gustafson G. M., Kemp H. G., Jr Recurrent myocardial infarction associated with cocaine abuse in a young man with normal coronary arteries: evidence for coronary artery spasm culminating in thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987 Apr;9(4):964–968. doi: 10.1016/s0735-1097(87)80256-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of the National Medical Association are provided here courtesy of National Medical Association

RESOURCES