Skip to main content
PMC home page
Molecular Biology of the Cell logoLink to Molecular Biology of the Cell
. 1995 Dec;6(12):1619–1640. doi: 10.1091/mbc.6.12.1619

Force Generation by Microtubule Assembly/Disassembly in Mitosis and Related Movements

Shinya Inoué *,†, Edward D Salmon ‡
PMCID: PMC301321  PMID: 8590794

Abstract

In this article, we review the dynamic nature of the filaments (microtubules) that make up the labile fibers of the mitotic spindle and asters, we discuss the roles that assembly and disassembly of microtubules play in mitosis, and we consider how such assembling and disassembling polymer filaments can generate forces that are utilized by the living cell in mitosis and related movements.

Full text

PDF
1619

Images in this article

1623Image
on p.1623
1633Image
on p.1633

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Afshar K., Barton N. R., Hawley R. S., Goldstein L. S. DNA binding and meiotic chromosomal localization of the Drosophila nod kinesin-like protein. Cell. 1995 Apr 7;81(1):129–138. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90377-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Allan V. J., Vale R. D. Cell cycle control of microtubule-based membrane transport and tubule formation in vitro. J Cell Biol. 1991 Apr;113(2):347–359. doi: 10.1083/jcb.113.2.347. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Allan V., Vale R. Movement of membrane tubules along microtubules in vitro: evidence for specialised sites of motor attachment. J Cell Sci. 1994 Jul;107(Pt 7):1885–1897. doi: 10.1242/jcs.107.7.1885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Ault J. G., Rieder C. L. Centrosome and kinetochore movement during mitosis. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1994 Feb;6(1):41–49. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(94)90114-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bajer A. S. Functional autonomy of monopolar spindle and evidence for oscillatory movement in mitosis. J Cell Biol. 1982 Apr;93(1):33–48. doi: 10.1083/jcb.93.1.33. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Baron A. T., Greenwood T. M., Salisbury J. L. Localization of the centrin-related 165,000-Mr protein of PtK2 cells during the cell cycle. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1991;18(1):1–14. doi: 10.1002/cm.970180102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Belmont L. D., Hyman A. A., Sawin K. E., Mitchison T. J. Real-time visualization of cell cycle-dependent changes in microtubule dynamics in cytoplasmic extracts. Cell. 1990 Aug 10;62(3):579–589. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90022-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bergen L. G., Borisy G. G. Head-to-tail polymerization of microtubules in vitro. Electron microscope analysis of seeded assembly. J Cell Biol. 1980 Jan;84(1):141–150. doi: 10.1083/jcb.84.1.141. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Borisy G. G., Marcum J. M., Olmsted J. B., Murphy D. B., Johnson K. A. Purification of tubulin and associated high molecular weight proteins from porcine brain and characterization of microtubule assembly in vitro. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1975 Jun 30;253:107–132. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb19196.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Brinkley B. R., Cartwright J., Jr Cold-labile and cold-stable microtubules in the mitotic spindle of mammalian cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1975 Jun 30;253:428–439. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb19218.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Caplow M. Microtubule dynamics. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1992 Feb;4(1):58–65. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(92)90059-l. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Carlier M. F. Nucleotide hydrolysis in cytoskeletal assembly. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1991 Feb;3(1):12–17. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(91)90160-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cassimeris L., Inoué S., Salmon E. D. Microtubule dynamics in the chromosomal spindle fiber: analysis by fluorescence and high-resolution polarization microscopy. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1988;10(1-2):185–196. doi: 10.1002/cm.970100123. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Cassimeris L., Pryer N. K., Salmon E. D. Real-time observations of microtubule dynamic instability in living cells. J Cell Biol. 1988 Dec;107(6 Pt 1):2223–2231. doi: 10.1083/jcb.107.6.2223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cassimeris L., Rieder C. L., Rupp G., Salmon E. D. Stability of microtubule attachment to metaphase kinetochores in PtK1 cells. J Cell Sci. 1990 May;96(Pt 1):9–15. doi: 10.1242/jcs.96.1.9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cassimeris L., Rieder C. L., Salmon E. D. Microtubule assembly and kinetochore directional instability in vertebrate monopolar spindles: implications for the mechanism of chromosome congression. J Cell Sci. 1994 Jan;107(Pt 1):285–297. doi: 10.1242/jcs.107.1.285. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cassimeris L., Salmon E. D. Kinetochore microtubules shorten by loss of subunits at the kinetochores of prometaphase chromosomes. J Cell Sci. 1991 Feb;98(Pt 2):151–158. doi: 10.1242/jcs.98.2.151. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Centonze V. E., Borisy G. G. Pole-to-chromosome movements induced at metaphase: sites of microtubule disassembly. J Cell Sci. 1991 Sep;100(Pt 1):205–211. doi: 10.1242/jcs.100.1.205. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Chandra R., Endow S. A., Salmon E. D. An N-terminal truncation of the ncd motor protein supports diffusional movement of microtubules in motility assays. J Cell Sci. 1993 Mar;104(Pt 3):899–906. doi: 10.1242/jcs.104.3.899. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Chrétien D., Fuller S. D., Karsenti E. Structure of growing microtubule ends: two-dimensional sheets close into tubes at variable rates. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jun;129(5):1311–1328. doi: 10.1083/jcb.129.5.1311. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cortese J. D., Schwab B., 3rd, Frieden C., Elson E. L. Actin polymerization induces a shape change in actin-containing vesicles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989 Aug;86(15):5773–5777. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.15.5773. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Coue M., Lombillo V. A., McIntosh J. R. Microtubule depolymerization promotes particle and chromosome movement in vitro. J Cell Biol. 1991 Mar;112(6):1165–1175. doi: 10.1083/jcb.112.6.1165. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Desai A., Mitchison T. J. A new role for motor proteins as couplers to depolymerizing microtubules. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jan;128(1-2):1–4. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.1.1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Drechsel D. N., Hyman A. A., Cobb M. H., Kirschner M. W. Modulation of the dynamic instability of tubulin assembly by the microtubule-associated protein tau. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Oct;3(10):1141–1154. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.10.1141. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Drechsel D. N., Kirschner M. W. The minimum GTP cap required to stabilize microtubules. Curr Biol. 1994 Dec 1;4(12):1053–1061. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00243-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Dye R. B., Flicker P. F., Lien D. Y., Williams R. C., Jr End-stabilized microtubules observed in vitro: stability, subunit, interchange, and breakage. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1992;21(3):171–186. doi: 10.1002/cm.970210302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Endow S. A., Kang S. J., Satterwhite L. L., Rose M. D., Skeen V. P., Salmon E. D. Yeast Kar3 is a minus-end microtubule motor protein that destabilizes microtubules preferentially at the minus ends. EMBO J. 1994 Jun 1;13(11):2708–2713. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06561.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Erickson H. P. Assembly of microtubules from preformed, ring-shaped protofilaments and 6-S tubulin. J Supramol Struct. 1974;2(2-4):393–411. doi: 10.1002/jss.400020228. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Erickson H. P., O'Brien E. T. Microtubule dynamic instability and GTP hydrolysis. Annu Rev Biophys Biomol Struct. 1992;21:145–166. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bb.21.060192.001045. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. FORER A. LOCAL REDUCTION OF SPINDLE FIBER BIREFRINGENCE IN LIVING NEPHROTOMA SUTURALIS (LOEW) SPERMATOCYTES INDUCED BY ULTRAVIOLET MICROBEAM IRRADIATION. J Cell Biol. 1965 Apr;25:SUPPL–SUPPL117. doi: 10.1083/jcb.25.1.95. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Forer A. Characterization of the mitotic traction system, and evidence that birefringent spindle fibers neither produce nor transmit force for chromosome movement. Chromosoma. 1966;19(1):44–98. doi: 10.1007/BF00332793. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Fuller M. T. Riding the polar winds: chromosomes motor down east. Cell. 1995 Apr 7;81(1):5–8. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90364-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Gelfand V. I., Bershadsky A. D. Microtubule dynamics: mechanism, regulation, and function. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1991;7:93–116. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.07.110191.000521. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Gibbons I. R., Rowe A. J. Dynein: A Protein with Adenosine Triphosphatase Activity from Cilia. Science. 1965 Jul 23;149(3682):424–426. doi: 10.1126/science.149.3682.424. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Gliksman N. R., Parsons S. F., Salmon E. D. Okadaic acid induces interphase to mitotic-like microtubule dynamic instability by inactivating rescue. J Cell Biol. 1992 Dec;119(5):1271–1276. doi: 10.1083/jcb.119.5.1271. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Gliksman N. R., Salmon E. D. Microtubule-associated motility in cytoplasmic extracts of sea urchin eggs. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1993;24(3):167–178. doi: 10.1002/cm.970240304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Gliksman N. R., Skibbens R. V., Salmon E. D. How the transition frequencies of microtubule dynamic instability (nucleation, catastrophe, and rescue) regulate microtubule dynamics in interphase and mitosis: analysis using a Monte Carlo computer simulation. Mol Biol Cell. 1993 Oct;4(10):1035–1050. doi: 10.1091/mbc.4.10.1035. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Goldstein L. S. With apologies to scheherazade: tails of 1001 kinesin motors. Annu Rev Genet. 1993;27:319–351. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ge.27.120193.001535. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Goodson H. V., Kang S. J., Endow S. A. Molecular phylogeny of the kinesin family of microtubule motor proteins. J Cell Sci. 1994 Jul;107(Pt 7):1875–1884. doi: 10.1242/jcs.107.7.1875. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Gorbsky G. J., Ricketts W. A. Differential expression of a phosphoepitope at the kinetochores of moving chromosomes. J Cell Biol. 1993 Sep;122(6):1311–1321. doi: 10.1083/jcb.122.6.1311. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Gorbsky G. J., Sammak P. J., Borisy G. G. Chromosomes move poleward in anaphase along stationary microtubules that coordinately disassemble from their kinetochore ends. J Cell Biol. 1987 Jan;104(1):9–18. doi: 10.1083/jcb.104.1.9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Gorbsky G. J., Sammak P. J., Borisy G. G. Microtubule dynamics and chromosome motion visualized in living anaphase cells. J Cell Biol. 1988 Apr;106(4):1185–1192. doi: 10.1083/jcb.106.4.1185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. HARRIS P. Some structural and functional aspects of the mitotic apparatus in sea urchin embryos. J Cell Biol. 1962 Sep;14:475–487. doi: 10.1083/jcb.14.3.475. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Hartwell L. H., Weinert T. A. Checkpoints: controls that ensure the order of cell cycle events. Science. 1989 Nov 3;246(4930):629–634. doi: 10.1126/science.2683079. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hayden J. H., Bowser S. S., Rieder C. L. Kinetochores capture astral microtubules during chromosome attachment to the mitotic spindle: direct visualization in live newt lung cells. J Cell Biol. 1990 Sep;111(3):1039–1045. doi: 10.1083/jcb.111.3.1039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Heidemann S. R., McIntosh J. R. Visualization of the structural polarity of microtubules. Nature. 1980 Jul 31;286(5772):517–519. doi: 10.1038/286517a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Hill T. L., Kirschner M. W. Bioenergetics and kinetics of microtubule and actin filament assembly-disassembly. Int Rev Cytol. 1982;78:1–125. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Hill T. L. Theoretical problems related to the attachment of microtubules to kinetochores. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1985 Jul;82(13):4404–4408. doi: 10.1073/pnas.82.13.4404. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Horio T., Hotani H. Visualization of the dynamic instability of individual microtubules by dark-field microscopy. Nature. 1986 Jun 5;321(6070):605–607. doi: 10.1038/321605a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Hotani H., Miyamoto H. Dynamic features of microtubules as visualized by dark-field microscopy. Adv Biophys. 1990;26:135–156. doi: 10.1016/0065-227x(90)90010-q. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Howard W. D., Timasheff S. N. GDP state of tubulin: stabilization of double rings. Biochemistry. 1986 Dec 16;25(25):8292–8300. doi: 10.1021/bi00373a025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Hoyt M. A. Cellular roles of kinesin and related proteins. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1994 Feb;6(1):63–68. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(94)90117-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Hunt A. J., Gittes F., Howard J. The force exerted by a single kinesin molecule against a viscous load. Biophys J. 1994 Aug;67(2):766–781. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3495(94)80537-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Hyman A. A., Chrétien D., Arnal I., Wade R. H. Structural changes accompanying GTP hydrolysis in microtubules: information from a slowly hydrolyzable analogue guanylyl-(alpha,beta)-methylene-diphosphonate. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jan;128(1-2):117–125. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.1.117. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Hyman A. A., Middleton K., Centola M., Mitchison T. J., Carbon J. Microtubule-motor activity of a yeast centromere-binding protein complex. Nature. 1992 Oct 8;359(6395):533–536. doi: 10.1038/359533a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Hyman A. A., Mitchison T. J. Two different microtubule-based motor activities with opposite polarities in kinetochores. Nature. 1991 May 16;351(6323):206–211. doi: 10.1038/351206a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Hyman A. A., Salser S., Drechsel D. N., Unwin N., Mitchison T. J. Role of GTP hydrolysis in microtubule dynamics: information from a slowly hydrolyzable analogue, GMPCPP. Mol Biol Cell. 1992 Oct;3(10):1155–1167. doi: 10.1091/mbc.3.10.1155. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Inoué S. Cell division and the mitotic spindle. J Cell Biol. 1981 Dec;91(3 Pt 2):131s–147s. doi: 10.1083/jcb.91.3.131s. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Inoué S. Dynamics of mitosis and cleavage. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1990;582:1–14. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb21662.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Inoué S., Fuseler J., Salmon E. D., Ellis G. W. Functional organization of mitotic microtubules. Physical chemistry of the in vivo equilibrium system. Biophys J. 1975 Jul;15(7):725–744. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3495(75)85850-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Inoué S., Sato H. Cell motility by labile association of molecules. The nature of mitotic spindle fibers and their role in chromosome movement. J Gen Physiol. 1967 Jul;50(6 Suppl):259–292. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Jordan M. A., Thrower D., Wilson L. Effects of vinblastine, podophyllotoxin and nocodazole on mitotic spindles. Implications for the role of microtubule dynamics in mitosis. J Cell Sci. 1992 Jul;102(Pt 3):401–416. doi: 10.1242/jcs.102.3.401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Kirschner M. W., Honig L. S., Williams R. C. Quantitative electron microscopy of microtubule assembly in vitro. J Mol Biol. 1975 Dec 5;99(2):263–276. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2836(75)80144-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Kirschner M. W., Williams R. C., Weingarten M., Gerhart J. C. Microtubules from mammalian brain: some properties of their depolymerization products and a proposed mechanism of assembly and disassembly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1974 Apr;71(4):1159–1163. doi: 10.1073/pnas.71.4.1159. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Koshland D. E., Mitchison T. J., Kirschner M. W. Polewards chromosome movement driven by microtubule depolymerization in vitro. Nature. 1988 Feb 11;331(6156):499–504. doi: 10.1038/331499a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Kuo S. C., Sheetz M. P. Force of single kinesin molecules measured with optical tweezers. Science. 1993 Apr 9;260(5105):232–234. doi: 10.1126/science.8469975. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Leslie R. J. Chromosomes attain a metaphase position on half-spindles in the absence of an opposing spindle pole. J Cell Sci. 1992 Sep;103(Pt 1):125–130. doi: 10.1242/jcs.103.1.125. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Li X., Nicklas R. B. Mitotic forces control a cell-cycle checkpoint. Nature. 1995 Feb 16;373(6515):630–632. doi: 10.1038/373630a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Lombillo V. A., Nislow C., Yen T. J., Gelfand V. I., McIntosh J. R. Antibodies to the kinesin motor domain and CENP-E inhibit microtubule depolymerization-dependent motion of chromosomes in vitro. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jan;128(1-2):107–115. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.1.107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Lombillo V. A., Stewart R. J., McIntosh J. R. Minus-end-directed motion of kinesin-coated microspheres driven by microtubule depolymerization. Nature. 1995 Jan 12;373(6510):161–164. doi: 10.1038/373161a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Mandelkow E. M., Mandelkow E. Microtubule oscillations. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1992;22(4):235–244. doi: 10.1002/cm.970220403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Mandelkow E. M., Mandelkow E., Milligan R. A. Microtubule dynamics and microtubule caps: a time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy study. J Cell Biol. 1991 Sep;114(5):977–991. doi: 10.1083/jcb.114.5.977. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Mandelkow E. M., Schultheiss R., Rapp R., Müller M., Mandelkow E. On the surface lattice of microtubules: helix starts, protofilament number, seam, and handedness. J Cell Biol. 1986 Mar;102(3):1067–1073. doi: 10.1083/jcb.102.3.1067. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Margolis R. L., Wilson L. Opposite end assembly and disassembly of microtubules at steady state in vitro. Cell. 1978 Jan;13(1):1–8. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(78)90132-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. McDonald H. B., Stewart R. J., Goldstein L. S. The kinesin-like ncd protein of Drosophila is a minus end-directed microtubule motor. Cell. 1990 Dec 21;63(6):1159–1165. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90412-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. McDonald K. L., O'Toole E. T., Mastronarde D. N., McIntosh J. R. Kinetochore microtubules in PTK cells. J Cell Biol. 1992 Jul;118(2):369–383. doi: 10.1083/jcb.118.2.369. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. McIntosh J. R., Euteneuer U. Tubulin hooks as probes for microtubule polarity: an analysis of the method and an evaluation of data on microtubule polarity in the mitotic spindle. J Cell Biol. 1984 Feb;98(2):525–533. doi: 10.1083/jcb.98.2.525. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. McIntosh J. R., Koonce M. P. Mitosis. Science. 1989 Nov 3;246(4930):622–628. doi: 10.1126/science.2683078. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. McIntosh J. R., Pfarr C. M. Mitotic motors. J Cell Biol. 1991 Nov;115(3):577–585. doi: 10.1083/jcb.115.3.577. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. McIntosh J. R. Structural and mechanical control of mitotic progression. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1991;56:613–619. doi: 10.1101/sqb.1991.056.01.070. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Melki R., Carlier M. F., Pantaloni D., Timasheff S. N. Cold depolymerization of microtubules to double rings: geometric stabilization of assemblies. Biochemistry. 1989 Nov 14;28(23):9143–9152. doi: 10.1021/bi00449a028. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Merdes A., De Mey J. The mechanism of kinetochore-spindle attachment and polewards movement analyzed in PtK2 cells at the prophase-prometaphase transition. Eur J Cell Biol. 1990 Dec;53(2):313–325. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Middleton K., Carbon J. KAR3-encoded kinesin is a minus-end-directed motor that functions with centromere binding proteins (CBF3) on an in vitro yeast kinetochore. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Jul 19;91(15):7212–7216. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.15.7212. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Mitchison T. J. Localization of an exchangeable GTP binding site at the plus end of microtubules. Science. 1993 Aug 20;261(5124):1044–1047. doi: 10.1126/science.8102497. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Mitchison T. J. Microtubule dynamics and kinetochore function in mitosis. Annu Rev Cell Biol. 1988;4:527–549. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.04.110188.002523. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Mitchison T. J. Polewards microtubule flux in the mitotic spindle: evidence from photoactivation of fluorescence. J Cell Biol. 1989 Aug;109(2):637–652. doi: 10.1083/jcb.109.2.637. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Mitchison T. J., Salmon E. D. Poleward kinetochore fiber movement occurs during both metaphase and anaphase-A in newt lung cell mitosis. J Cell Biol. 1992 Nov;119(3):569–582. doi: 10.1083/jcb.119.3.569. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Mitchison T., Evans L., Schulze E., Kirschner M. Sites of microtubule assembly and disassembly in the mitotic spindle. Cell. 1986 May 23;45(4):515–527. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90283-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Mitchison T., Kirschner M. Dynamic instability of microtubule growth. Nature. 1984 Nov 15;312(5991):237–242. doi: 10.1038/312237a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Mitchison T., Kirschner M. Microtubule assembly nucleated by isolated centrosomes. Nature. 1984 Nov 15;312(5991):232–237. doi: 10.1038/312232a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Miyata H., Hotani H. Morphological changes in liposomes caused by polymerization of encapsulated actin and spontaneous formation of actin bundles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Dec 1;89(23):11547–11551. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.23.11547. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Murphy T. D., Karpen G. H. Interactions between the nod+ kinesin-like gene and extracentromeric sequences are required for transmission of a Drosophila minichromosome. Cell. 1995 Apr 7;81(1):139–148. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90378-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Murray A. W., Mitchison T. J. Mitosis. Kinetochores pass the IQ test. Curr Biol. 1994 Jan 1;4(1):38–41. doi: 10.1016/s0960-9822(00)00007-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Murray A. Cell cycle checkpoints. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1994 Dec;6(6):872–876. doi: 10.1016/0955-0674(94)90059-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Nicklas R. B. The forces that move chromosomes in mitosis. Annu Rev Biophys Biophys Chem. 1988;17:431–449. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bb.17.060188.002243. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Nicklas R. B., Ward S. C. Elements of error correction in mitosis: microtubule capture, release, and tension. J Cell Biol. 1994 Sep;126(5):1241–1253. doi: 10.1083/jcb.126.5.1241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Nicklas R. B., Ward S. C., Gorbsky G. J. Kinetochore chemistry is sensitive to tension and may link mitotic forces to a cell cycle checkpoint. J Cell Biol. 1995 Aug;130(4):929–939. doi: 10.1083/jcb.130.4.929. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Oakley B. R. Gamma-tubulin: the microtubule organizer? Trends Cell Biol. 1992 Jan;2(1):1–5. doi: 10.1016/0962-8924(92)90125-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Olmsted J. B., Borisy G. G. Ionic and nucleotide requirements for microtubule polymerization in vitro. Biochemistry. 1975 Jul;14(13):2996–3005. doi: 10.1021/bi00684a032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Ookata K., Hisanaga S., Bulinski J. C., Murofushi H., Aizawa H., Itoh T. J., Hotani H., Okumura E., Tachibana K., Kishimoto T. Cyclin B interaction with microtubule-associated protein 4 (MAP4) targets p34cdc2 kinase to microtubules and is a potential regulator of M-phase microtubule dynamics. J Cell Biol. 1995 Mar;128(5):849–862. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.5.849. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Peskin C. S., Odell G. M., Oster G. F. Cellular motions and thermal fluctuations: the Brownian ratchet. Biophys J. 1993 Jul;65(1):316–324. doi: 10.1016/S0006-3495(93)81035-X. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Pfarr C. M., Coue M., Grissom P. M., Hays T. S., Porter M. E., McIntosh J. R. Cytoplasmic dynein is localized to kinetochores during mitosis. Nature. 1990 May 17;345(6272):263–265. doi: 10.1038/345263a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Pierre P., Scheel J., Rickard J. E., Kreis T. E. CLIP-170 links endocytic vesicles to microtubules. Cell. 1992 Sep 18;70(6):887–900. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90240-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Pryer N. K., Walker R. A., Skeen V. P., Bourns B. D., Soboeiro M. F., Salmon E. D. Brain microtubule-associated proteins modulate microtubule dynamic instability in vitro. Real-time observations using video microscopy. J Cell Sci. 1992 Dec;103(Pt 4):965–976. doi: 10.1242/jcs.103.4.965. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Rayment I., Holden H. M., Whittaker M., Yohn C. B., Lorenz M., Holmes K. C., Milligan R. A. Structure of the actin-myosin complex and its implications for muscle contraction. Science. 1993 Jul 2;261(5117):58–65. doi: 10.1126/science.8316858. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Rayment I., Rypniewski W. R., Schmidt-Bäse K., Smith R., Tomchick D. R., Benning M. M., Winkelmann D. A., Wesenberg G., Holden H. M. Three-dimensional structure of myosin subfragment-1: a molecular motor. Science. 1993 Jul 2;261(5117):50–58. doi: 10.1126/science.8316857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Rieder C. L., Alexander S. P. Kinetochores are transported poleward along a single astral microtubule during chromosome attachment to the spindle in newt lung cells. J Cell Biol. 1990 Jan;110(1):81–95. doi: 10.1083/jcb.110.1.81. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Rieder C. L., Davison E. A., Jensen L. C., Cassimeris L., Salmon E. D. Oscillatory movements of monooriented chromosomes and their position relative to the spindle pole result from the ejection properties of the aster and half-spindle. J Cell Biol. 1986 Aug;103(2):581–591. doi: 10.1083/jcb.103.2.581. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Rieder C. L., Salmon E. D. Motile kinetochores and polar ejection forces dictate chromosome position on the vertebrate mitotic spindle. J Cell Biol. 1994 Feb;124(3):223–233. doi: 10.1083/jcb.124.3.223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Rieder C. L., Schultz A., Cole R., Sluder G. Anaphase onset in vertebrate somatic cells is controlled by a checkpoint that monitors sister kinetochore attachment to the spindle. J Cell Biol. 1994 Dec;127(5):1301–1310. doi: 10.1083/jcb.127.5.1301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Rieder C. L. The formation, structure, and composition of the mammalian kinetochore and kinetochore fiber. Int Rev Cytol. 1982;79:1–58. doi: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)61672-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Rieder C. L. The structure of the cold-stable kinetochore fiber in metaphase PtK1 cells. Chromosoma. 1981;84(1):145–158. doi: 10.1007/BF00293368. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Salmon E. D., Goode D., Maugel T. K., Bonar D. B. Pressure-induced depolymerization of spindle microtubules. III. Differential stability in HeLa cells. J Cell Biol. 1976 May;69(2):443–454. doi: 10.1083/jcb.69.2.443. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Salmon E. D., Leslie R. J., Saxton W. M., Karow M. L., McIntosh J. R. Spindle microtubule dynamics in sea urchin embryos: analysis using a fluorescein-labeled tubulin and measurements of fluorescence redistribution after laser photobleaching. J Cell Biol. 1984 Dec;99(6):2165–2174. doi: 10.1083/jcb.99.6.2165. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Salmon E. D. Pressure-induced depolymerization of brain microtubules in vitro. Science. 1975 Sep 12;189(4206):884–886. doi: 10.1126/science.1171523. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Sato H., Ellis G. W., Inoué S. Microtubular origin of mitotic spindle form birefringence. Demonstration of the applicability of Wiener's equation. J Cell Biol. 1975 Dec;67(3):501–517. doi: 10.1083/jcb.67.3.501. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Saunders W. S., Hoyt M. A. Kinesin-related proteins required for structural integrity of the mitotic spindle. Cell. 1992 Aug 7;70(3):451–458. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90169-d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Sawin K. E., Endow S. A. Meiosis, mitosis and microtubule motors. Bioessays. 1993 Jun;15(6):399–407. doi: 10.1002/bies.950150606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Sawin K. E., Mitchison T. J. Microtubule flux in mitosis is independent of chromosomes, centrosomes, and antiparallel microtubules. Mol Biol Cell. 1994 Feb;5(2):217–226. doi: 10.1091/mbc.5.2.217. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Saxton W. M., Stemple D. L., Leslie R. J., Salmon E. D., Zavortink M., McIntosh J. R. Tubulin dynamics in cultured mammalian cells. J Cell Biol. 1984 Dec;99(6):2175–2186. doi: 10.1083/jcb.99.6.2175. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Scheel J., Kreis T. E. Motor protein independent binding of endocytic carrier vesicles to microtubules in vitro. J Biol Chem. 1991 Sep 25;266(27):18141–18148. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Shelden E., Wadsworth P. Microinjection of biotin-tubulin into anaphase cells induces transient elongation of kinetochore microtubules and reversal of chromosome-to-pole motion. J Cell Biol. 1992 Mar;116(6):1409–1420. doi: 10.1083/jcb.116.6.1409. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Shelden E., Wadsworth P. Observation and quantification of individual microtubule behavior in vivo: microtubule dynamics are cell-type specific. J Cell Biol. 1993 Feb;120(4):935–945. doi: 10.1083/jcb.120.4.935. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Simon J. R., Parsons S. F., Salmon E. D. Buffer conditions and non-tubulin factors critically affect the microtubule dynamic instability of sea urchin egg tubulin. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1992;21(1):1–14. doi: 10.1002/cm.970210102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Simon J. R., Salmon E. D. The structure of microtubule ends during the elongation and shortening phases of dynamic instability examined by negative-stain electron microscopy. J Cell Sci. 1990 Aug;96(Pt 4):571–582. doi: 10.1242/jcs.96.4.571. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Skibbens R. V., Rieder C. L., Salmon E. D. Kinetochore motility after severing between sister centromeres using laser microsurgery: evidence that kinetochore directional instability and position is regulated by tension. J Cell Sci. 1995 Jul;108(Pt 7):2537–2548. doi: 10.1242/jcs.108.7.2537. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Skibbens R. V., Skeen V. P., Salmon E. D. Directional instability of kinetochore motility during chromosome congression and segregation in mitotic newt lung cells: a push-pull mechanism. J Cell Biol. 1993 Aug;122(4):859–875. doi: 10.1083/jcb.122.4.859. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Snyder M. The spindle pole body of yeast. Chromosoma. 1994 Oct;103(6):369–380. doi: 10.1007/BF00362281. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Song Y. H., Mandelkow E. The anatomy of flagellar microtubules: polarity, seam, junctions, and lattice. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jan;128(1-2):81–94. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.1.81. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Spurck T. P., Stonington O. G., Snyder J. A., Pickett-Heaps J. D., Bajer A., Mole-Bajer J. UV microbeam irradiations of the mitotic spindle. II. Spindle fiber dynamics and force production. J Cell Biol. 1990 Oct;111(4):1505–1518. doi: 10.1083/jcb.111.4.1505. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Steuer E. R., Wordeman L., Schroer T. A., Sheetz M. P. Localization of cytoplasmic dynein to mitotic spindles and kinetochores. Nature. 1990 May 17;345(6272):266–268. doi: 10.1038/345266a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Stewart R. J., Farrell K. W., Wilson L. Role of GTP hydrolysis in microtubule polymerization: evidence for a coupled hydrolysis mechanism. Biochemistry. 1990 Jul 10;29(27):6489–6498. doi: 10.1021/bi00479a022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Stewart R. J., Thaler J. P., Goldstein L. S. Direction of microtubule movement is an intrinsic property of the motor domains of kinesin heavy chain and Drosophila ncd protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Jun 1;90(11):5209–5213. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.11.5209. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Svoboda K., Block S. M. Force and velocity measured for single kinesin molecules. Cell. 1994 Jun 3;77(5):773–784. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(94)90060-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  135. Telzer B. R., Haimo L. T. Decoration of spindle microtubules with Dynein: evidence for uniform polarity. J Cell Biol. 1981 May;89(2):373–378. doi: 10.1083/jcb.89.2.373. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  136. Theurkauf W. E., Hawley R. S. Meiotic spindle assembly in Drosophila females: behavior of nonexchange chromosomes and the effects of mutations in the nod kinesin-like protein. J Cell Biol. 1992 Mar;116(5):1167–1180. doi: 10.1083/jcb.116.5.1167. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  137. Tomkiel J., Cooke C. A., Saitoh H., Bernat R. L., Earnshaw W. C. CENP-C is required for maintaining proper kinetochore size and for a timely transition to anaphase. J Cell Biol. 1994 May;125(3):531–545. doi: 10.1083/jcb.125.3.531. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  138. Vale R. D., Malik F., Brown D. Directional instability of microtubule transport in the presence of kinesin and dynein, two opposite polarity motor proteins. J Cell Biol. 1992 Dec;119(6):1589–1596. doi: 10.1083/jcb.119.6.1589. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  139. Vale R. D., Soll D. R., Gibbons I. R. One-dimensional diffusion of microtubules bound to flagellar dynein. Cell. 1989 Dec 1;59(5):915–925. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90614-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  140. Vallee R. Molecular analysis of the microtubule motor dynein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993 Oct 1;90(19):8769–8772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.19.8769. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  141. Vasquez R. J., Gard D. L., Cassimeris L. XMAP from Xenopus eggs promotes rapid plus end assembly of microtubules and rapid microtubule polymer turnover. J Cell Biol. 1994 Nov;127(4):985–993. doi: 10.1083/jcb.127.4.985. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  142. Verde F., Dogterom M., Stelzer E., Karsenti E., Leibler S. Control of microtubule dynamics and length by cyclin A- and cyclin B-dependent kinases in Xenopus egg extracts. J Cell Biol. 1992 Sep;118(5):1097–1108. doi: 10.1083/jcb.118.5.1097. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  143. Vernos I., Raats J., Hirano T., Heasman J., Karsenti E., Wylie C. Xklp1, a chromosomal Xenopus kinesin-like protein essential for spindle organization and chromosome positioning. Cell. 1995 Apr 7;81(1):117–127. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90376-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  144. Voter W. A., O'Brien E. T., Erickson H. P. Dilution-induced disassembly of microtubules: relation to dynamic instability and the GTP cap. Cell Motil Cytoskeleton. 1991;18(1):55–62. doi: 10.1002/cm.970180106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  145. Wadsworth P. Mitosis: spindle assembly and chromosome motion. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1993 Feb;5(1):123–128. doi: 10.1016/s0955-0674(05)80017-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  146. Wadsworth P., Salmon E. D. Analysis of the treadmilling model during metaphase of mitosis using fluorescence redistribution after photobleaching. J Cell Biol. 1986 Mar;102(3):1032–1038. doi: 10.1083/jcb.102.3.1032. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  147. Wadsworth P., Shelden E., Rupp G., Rieder C. L. Biotin-tubulin incorporates into kinetochore fiber microtubules during early but not late anaphase. J Cell Biol. 1989 Nov;109(5):2257–2265. doi: 10.1083/jcb.109.5.2257. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  148. Walker R. A., Inoué S., Salmon E. D. Asymmetric behavior of severed microtubule ends after ultraviolet-microbeam irradiation of individual microtubules in vitro. J Cell Biol. 1989 Mar;108(3):931–937. doi: 10.1083/jcb.108.3.931. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  149. Walker R. A., O'Brien E. T., Pryer N. K., Soboeiro M. F., Voter W. A., Erickson H. P., Salmon E. D. Dynamic instability of individual microtubules analyzed by video light microscopy: rate constants and transition frequencies. J Cell Biol. 1988 Oct;107(4):1437–1448. doi: 10.1083/jcb.107.4.1437. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  150. Walker R. A., Pryer N. K., Salmon E. D. Dilution of individual microtubules observed in real time in vitro: evidence that cap size is small and independent of elongation rate. J Cell Biol. 1991 Jul;114(1):73–81. doi: 10.1083/jcb.114.1.73. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  151. Walker R. A., Salmon E. D., Endow S. A. The Drosophila claret segregation protein is a minus-end directed motor molecule. Nature. 1990 Oct 25;347(6295):780–782. doi: 10.1038/347780a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  152. Walker R. A., Sheetz M. P. Cytoplasmic microtubule-associated motors. Annu Rev Biochem. 1993;62:429–451. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.62.070193.002241. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  153. Wang S. Z., Adler R. Chromokinesin: a DNA-binding, kinesin-like nuclear protein. J Cell Biol. 1995 Mar;128(5):761–768. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.5.761. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  154. Waterman-Storer C. M., Gregory J., Parsons S. F., Salmon E. D. Membrane/microtubule tip attachment complexes (TACs) allow the assembly dynamics of plus ends to push and pull membranes into tubulovesicular networks in interphase Xenopus egg extracts. J Cell Biol. 1995 Sep;130(5):1161–1169. doi: 10.1083/jcb.130.5.1161. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  155. Weisenberg R. C. Microtubule formation in vitro in solutions containing low calcium concentrations. Science. 1972 Sep 22;177(4054):1104–1105. doi: 10.1126/science.177.4054.1104. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  156. Wendell K. L., Wilson L., Jordan M. A. Mitotic block in HeLa cells by vinblastine: ultrastructural changes in kinetochore-microtubule attachment and in centrosomes. J Cell Sci. 1993 Feb;104(Pt 2):261–274. doi: 10.1242/jcs.104.2.261. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  157. Wilson P. J., Forer A., Leggiadro C. Evidence that kinetochore microtubules in crane-fly spermatocytes disassemble during anaphase primarily at the poleward end. J Cell Sci. 1994 Nov;107(Pt 11):3015–3027. doi: 10.1242/jcs.107.11.3015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  158. Wordeman L., Mitchison T. J. Identification and partial characterization of mitotic centromere-associated kinesin, a kinesin-related protein that associates with centromeres during mitosis. J Cell Biol. 1995 Jan;128(1-2):95–104. doi: 10.1083/jcb.128.1.95. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  159. Yen T. J., Compton D. A., Wise D., Zinkowski R. P., Brinkley B. R., Earnshaw W. C., Cleveland D. W. CENP-E, a novel human centromere-associated protein required for progression from metaphase to anaphase. EMBO J. 1991 May;10(5):1245–1254. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1991.tb08066.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  160. Yen T. J., Li G., Schaar B. T., Szilak I., Cleveland D. W. CENP-E is a putative kinetochore motor that accumulates just before mitosis. Nature. 1992 Oct 8;359(6395):536–539. doi: 10.1038/359536a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Molecular Biology of the Cell are provided here courtesy of American Society for Cell Biology

RESOURCES