Skip to main content
PMC home page
Journal of Clinical Pathology logoLink to Journal of Clinical Pathology
. 1983 Jul;36(7):723–733. doi: 10.1136/jcp.36.7.723

Granulomatous inflammation--a review.

G T Williams, W J Williams
PMCID: PMC498378  PMID: 6345591

Abstract

The granulomatous inflammatory response is a special type of chronic inflammation characterised by often focal collections of macrophages, epithelioid cells and multinucleated giant cells. In this review the characteristics of these cells of the mononuclear phagocyte series are considered, with particular reference to the properties of epithelioid cells and the formation of multinucleated giant cells. The initiation and development of granulomatous inflammation is discussed, stressing the importance of persistence of the inciting agent and the complex role of the immune system, not only in the perpetuation of the granulomatous response but also in the development of necrosis and fibrosis.

Full text

PDF
723

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Adams D. O. The structure of mononuclear phagocytes differentiating in vivo. I. Sequential fine and histologic studies of the effect of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). Am J Pathol. 1974 Jul;76(1):17–48. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Allison A. C. Macrophage activation and nonspecific immunity. Int Rev Exp Pathol. 1978;18:303–346. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Babior B. M. Oxygen-dependent microbial killing by phagocytes (first of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1978 Mar 23;298(12):659–668. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197803232981205. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Black M. M., Epstein W. L. Formation of multinucleate giant cells in organized epitheloid cell granulomas. Am J Pathol. 1974 Feb;74(2):263–274. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Boros D. L. Granulomatous inflammations. Prog Allergy. 1978;24:183–267. doi: 10.1159/000401230. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Boros D. L., Lande M. A., Carrick L., Jr The artificial granuloma. III. Collagen synthesis during the cell-mediated granulomatous response as determined in explanted granulomas. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1981 Feb;18(2):276–286. doi: 10.1016/0090-1229(81)90034-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Boros D. L., Warren K. S. The bentonite granuloma. Characterization of a model system for infectious and foreign body granulomatous inflammation using soluble mycobacterial, histoplasma and schistosoma antigens. Immunology. 1973 Mar;24(3):511–529. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bowers R. R., Houston F., Clinton R., Lewis M., Ballard R. A histological study of the carrageenan-induced granuloma in the rat lung. J Pathol. 1980 Nov;132(3):243–253. doi: 10.1002/path.1711320306. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Breard J., Reinherz E. L., Kung P. C., Goldstein G., Schlossman S. F. A monoclonal antibody reactive with human peripheral blood monocytes. J Immunol. 1980 Apr;124(4):1943–1948. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Cain H., Kraus B. Cellular aspects of granulomas. Pathol Res Pract. 1982 Oct;175(1):13–37. doi: 10.1016/S0344-0338(82)80040-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Chambers T. J. Failure of altered macrophage surface to lead to the formation of polykaryons. J Pathol. 1977 Aug;122(4):185–189. doi: 10.1002/path.1711220402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Chambers T. J. Multinucleate giant cells. J Pathol. 1978 Nov;126(3):125–148. doi: 10.1002/path.1711260302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Chambers T. J. Studies on the phagocytic capacity of macrophage polykaryons. J Pathol. 1977 Oct;123(2):65–77. doi: 10.1002/path.1711230202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chensue S. W., Boros D. L. Modulation of granulomatous hypersensitivity. I. Characterization of T lymphocytes involved in the adoptive suppression of granuloma formation in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice. J Immunol. 1979 Sep;123(3):1409–1414. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Chensue S. W., Wellhausen S. R., Boros D. L. Modulation of granulomatous hypersensitivity. II. Participation of Ly 1+ and Ly 2+ T lymphocytes in the suppression of granuloma formation and lymphokine production in Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice. J Immunol. 1981 Jul;127(1):363–367. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Czop J. K., Fearon D. T., Austen K. F. Opsonin-independent phagocytosis of activators of the alternative complement pathway by human monocytes. J Immunol. 1978 Apr;120(4):1132–1138. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Davies B. H., Williams J. D., Smith M. D., Jones-Williams W., Jones K. Peripheral blood lymphocytes in sarcoidosis. Pathol Res Pract. 1982 Oct;175(1):97–109. doi: 10.1016/S0344-0338(82)80045-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Elias P. M., Epstein W. L. Ultrastructural observations on experimentally induced foreign-body and organized epithelioid-cell granulomas in man. Am J Pathol. 1968 Jun;52(6):1207–1223. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Epstein W. L., Fukuyama K., Danno K., Kwan-Wong E. Granulomatous inflammation in normal and athymic mice infected with schistosoma mansoni: an ultrastructural study. J Pathol. 1979 Apr;127(4):207–215. doi: 10.1002/path.1711270408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Epstein W. L. Granuloma formation in man. Pathobiol Annu. 1977;7:1–30. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Epstein W. L. Granulomatous hypersensitivity. Prog Allergy. 1967;11:36–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Epstein W. L. Methal-induced granulomatous hypersensitivity in man. Adv Biol Skin. 1971;11:313–335. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Galindo B., Lazdins J., Castillo R. Fusion of normal rabbit alveolar macrophages induced by supernatant fluids from BCG-sensitized lymph node cells after elicitation by antigen. Infect Immun. 1974 Feb;9(2):212–216. doi: 10.1128/iai.9.2.212-216.1974. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Gordon S., Cohn Z. A. The macrophage. Int Rev Cytol. 1973;36:171–214. doi: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60218-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Griffin F. M., Jr, Bianco C., Silverstein S. C. Characterization of the macrophage receptro for complement and demonstration of its functional independence from the receptor for the Fc portion of immunoglobulin G. J Exp Med. 1975 Jun 1;141(6):1269–1277. doi: 10.1084/jem.141.6.1269. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Heppleston A. G., Styles J. A. Activity of a macrophage factor in collagen formation by silica. Nature. 1967 Apr 29;214(5087):521–522. doi: 10.1038/214521a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hunninghake G. W., Crystal R. G. Pulmonary sarcoidosis: a disorder mediated by excess helper T-lymphocyte activity at sites of disease activity. N Engl J Med. 1981 Aug 20;305(8):429–434. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198108203050804. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Isaacson P., Jones D. B., Millward-Sadler G. H., Judd M. A., Payne S. Alpha-1-antitrypsin in human macrophages. J Clin Pathol. 1981 Sep;34(9):982–990. doi: 10.1136/jcp.34.9.982. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. JONES WILLIAMS W. The nature and origin of Schaumann bodies. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1960 Jan;79:193–201. doi: 10.1002/path.1700790126. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. James E. M., Williams W. J. Fine structure and histochemistry of epithelioid cells in sarcoidosis. Thorax. 1974 Jan;29(1):115–120. doi: 10.1136/thx.29.1.115. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Jimenez S. A., McArthur W., Rosenbloom J. Inhibition of collagen synthesis by mononuclear cell supernates. J Exp Med. 1979 Dec 1;150(6):1421–1431. doi: 10.1084/jem.150.6.1421. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Knecht H., Hedinger C. E. Ultrastructural findings in Hashimoto's thyroiditis and focal lymphocytic thyroiditis with reference to giant cell formation. Histopathology. 1982 Sep;6(5):511–538. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2559.1982.tb02748.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Leibovich S. J., Ross R. A macrophage-dependent factor that stimulates the proliferation of fibroblasts in vitro. Am J Pathol. 1976 Sep;84(3):501–514. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Leibovich S. J., Ross R. The role of the macrophage in wound repair. A study with hydrocortisone and antimacrophage serum. Am J Pathol. 1975 Jan;78(1):71–100. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. LoBuglio A. F., Cotran R. S., Jandl J. H. Red cells coated with immunoglobulin G: binding and sphering by mononuclear cells in man. Science. 1967 Dec 22;158(3808):1582–1585. doi: 10.1126/science.158.3808.1582. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. MACKANESS G. B. Cellular resistance to infection. J Exp Med. 1962 Sep 1;116:381–406. doi: 10.1084/jem.116.3.381. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Mariano M., Nikitin T., Malucelli B. E. Immunological and non-immunological phagocytosis by inflammatory macrophages, epithelioid cells and macrophage polykaryons from foreign body granulomata. J Pathol. 1976 Nov;120(3):151–159. doi: 10.1002/path.1711200304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Mariano M., Spector W. G. The formation and properties of macrophage polykaryons (inflammatory giant cells). J Pathol. 1974 May;113(1):1–19. doi: 10.1002/path.1711130102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Michl J. Receptor mediated endocytosis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1980 Nov;33(11 Suppl):2462–2471. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/33.11.2462. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Mokhtar N. M., Spector W. G. Facsimile epithelioid cells obtained from stimulated peritoneal macrophages and their secretory activity in vitro. J Pathol. 1979 Jul;128(3):117–126. doi: 10.1002/path.1711280302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Murch A. R., Grounds M. D., Marshall C. A., Papadimitriou J. M. Direct evidence that inflammatory multinucleate giant cells form by fusion. J Pathol. 1982 Jul;137(3):177–180. doi: 10.1002/path.1711370302. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Müller-Hermelink H. K., Kaiserling E., Sonntag H. G. Modulation of epithelioid cell granuloma formation to apathogenic mycobacteria by cyclosporin A. Pathol Res Pract. 1982 Oct;175(1):80–96. doi: 10.1016/S0344-0338(82)80044-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Narayanan R. B., Badenoch-Jones P., Curtis J., Turk J. L. Comparison of mycobacterial granulomas in guinea-pig lymph nodes. J Pathol. 1982 Nov;138(3):219–233. doi: 10.1002/path.1711380304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Narayanan R. B., Badenoch-Jones P., Turk J. L. Experimental mycobacterial granulomas in guinea pig lymph nodes: ultrastructural observations. J Pathol. 1981 Aug;134(4):253–265. doi: 10.1002/path.1711340402. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Nath I., Poulter L. W., Turk J. L. Effect of lymphocyte mediators on macrophages in vitro. A correlation of morphological and cytochemical changes. Clin Exp Immunol. 1973 Mar;13(3):455–466. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Nathan C. F., Murray H. W., Cohn Z. A. The macrophage as an effector cell. N Engl J Med. 1980 Sep 11;303(11):622–626. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198009113031106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Nelson D. S. Macrophages: progress and problems. Clin Exp Immunol. 1981 Aug;45(2):225–233. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Ogmundsdóttir H. M., Weir D. M. Mechanisms of macrophage activation. Clin Exp Immunol. 1980 May;40(2):223–234. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Olds G. R., Olveda R., Tracy J. W., Mahmoud A. A. Adoptive transfer of modulation of granuloma formation and hepatosplenic disease in murine schistosomiasis japonica by serum from chronically infected animals. J Immunol. 1982 Mar;128(3):1391–1393. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Papadimitriou J. M., Archer M. The morphology of murine foreign body multinucleate giant cells. J Ultrastruct Res. 1974 Dec;49(3):372–386. doi: 10.1016/s0022-5320(74)90051-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Papadimitriou J. M., Robertson T. A., Walters M. N. An analysis of the Phagocytic potential of multinucleate foreign body giant cells. Am J Pathol. 1975 Feb;78(2):343–358. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Papadimitriou J. M., Spector W. G. The origin, properties and fate of epithelioid cells. J Pathol. 1971 Nov;105(3):187–203. doi: 10.1002/path.1711050305. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Papadimitriou J. M. The influence of the thymus on multinucleate giant cell formation. J Pathol. 1976 Mar;118(3):153–156. doi: 10.1002/path.1711180304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Parks D. E., Weiser R. S. The role of phagocytosis and natural lymphokines in the fusion of alveolar macrophages to form Langhans giant cells. J Reticuloendothel Soc. 1975 Apr;17(4):219–228. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Pelley R. P., Warren K. S. Immunoregulation in chronic infectious disease: schistosomiasis as a model. J Invest Dermatol. 1978 Jul;71(1):49–55. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12543940. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Pertschuk L. P., Silverstein E., Friedland J. Immunohistologic diagnosis of sarcoidosis. Detection of angiotensin-converting enzyme in sarcoid granulomas. Am J Clin Pathol. 1981 Mar;75(3):350–354. doi: 10.1093/ajcp/75.3.350. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Postlethwaite A. E., Snyderman R., Kang A. H. The chemotactic attraction of human fibroblasts to a lymphocyte-derived factor. J Exp Med. 1976 Nov 2;144(5):1188–1203. doi: 10.1084/jem.144.5.1188. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Poulter L. W., Turk J. L. Studies on the effect of soluble lymphocyte products (lymphokines) on macrophage physiology. I. Early changes in enzyme activity and permeability. Cell Immunol. 1975 Nov;20(1):12–24. doi: 10.1016/0008-8749(75)90079-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Quesenberry P., Levitt L. Hematopoietic stem cells (second of three parts). N Engl J Med. 1979 Oct 11;301(15):819–823. doi: 10.1056/NEJM197910113011505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Ridley D. S. Histological classification and the immunological spectrum of leprosy. Bull World Health Organ. 1974;51(5):451–465. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Ridley M. J., Marianayagam Y., Spector W. G. Experimental granulomas induced by mycobacterial immune complexes in rats. J Pathol. 1982 Jan;136(1):59–72. doi: 10.1002/path.1711360106. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Ridley M. J., Ridley D. S., Turk J. L. Surface markers on lymphocytes and cells of the mononuclear phagocyte series in skin sections in leprosy. J Pathol. 1978 Jun;125(2):91–98. doi: 10.1002/path.1711250204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Ridley M. J. The mononuclear cell series in leprosy: an ultrastructural report. Lepr Rev. 1981 Mar;52(1):35–50. doi: 10.5935/0305-7518.19810006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Rosenthal A. S. Regulation of the immune response--role of the macrophage. N Engl J Med. 1980 Nov 13;303(20):1153–1156. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198011133032005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Ryan G. B., Spector W. G. Macrophage turnover in inflamed connective tissue. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1970 Aug 4;174(1040):269–292. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1970.0023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Schmidt J. A., Mizel S. B., Cohen D., Green I. Interleukin 1, a potential regulator of fibroblast proliferation. J Immunol. 1982 May;128(5):2177–2182. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Sikora K. Monoclonal antibodies in oncology. J Clin Pathol. 1982 Apr;35(4):369–375. doi: 10.1136/jcp.35.4.369. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Simpson L. O., Blennerhassett J. B., Browett P. J., Newhook C. J. Pseudo-lymphocyte monocytes--the memory cells responsible for the development of epitheloid cell granulomata. A new hypothesis. Pathology. 1981 Jul;13(3):557–569. doi: 10.3109/00313028109059073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Smithers S. R., Terry R. J., Hockley D. J. Host antigens in schistosomiasis. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1969 Feb 25;171(1025):483–494. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1969.0007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Spector W. G., Heesom N. The production of granulomata by antigen-antibody complexes. J Pathol. 1969 May;98(1):31–39. doi: 10.1002/path.1710980105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Spector W. G., Lykke A. W. The cellular evolution of inflammatory granulomata. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1966 Jul;92(1):163–167. doi: 10.1002/path.1700920117. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Spector W. G., Marianayagam Y., Ridley M. J. The role of antibody in primary and reinfection BCG granulomas of rat skin. J Pathol. 1982 Jan;136(1):41–57. doi: 10.1002/path.1711360105. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Spector W. G., Reichhold N., Ryan G. B. Degradation of granuloma-inducing micro-organisms by macrophages. J Pathol. 1970 Aug;101(4):339–354. doi: 10.1002/path.1711010407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Spector W. G., Ryan G. B. New evidence for the existence of long lived macrophages. Nature. 1969 Mar 1;221(5183):860–860. doi: 10.1038/221860a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Spector W. G. The granulomatous inflammatory exudate. Int Rev Exp Pathol. 1969;8:1–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Spector W. G., Willoughby D. A. The origin of mononuclear cells in chronic inflammation and tuberculin reactions in the rat. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1968 Oct;96(2):389–399. doi: 10.1002/path.1700960217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Springer T., Galfré G., Secher D. S., Milstein C. Mac-1: a macrophage differentiation antigen identified by monoclonal antibody. Eur J Immunol. 1979 Apr;9(4):301–306. doi: 10.1002/eji.1830090410. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Stossel T. P. Phagocytosis: recognition and ingestion. Semin Hematol. 1975 Jan;12(1):83–116. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Suga M., Dannenberg A. M., Jr, Higuchi S. Macrophage functional heterogeneity in vivo. Macrolocal and microlocal macrophage activation, identified by double-staining tissue sections of BCG granulomas for pairs of enzymes. Am J Pathol. 1980 May;99(2):305–323. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Sutton J. S., Weiss L. Transformation of monocytes in tissue culture into macrophages, epithelioid cells, and multinucleated giant cells. An electron microscope study. J Cell Biol. 1966 Feb;28(2):303–332. doi: 10.1083/jcb.28.2.303. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Tanaka A., Emori K., Nagao S., Kushima K., Kohashi O., Saitoh M., Kataoka T. Epithelioid granuloma formation requiring no T-cell function. Am J Pathol. 1982 Feb;106(2):165–170. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Tannenbaum H., Pinkus G. S., Schur P. H. Immunological characterization of subpopulations of mononuclear cells in tissue and peripheral blood from patients with sarcoidosis. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1976 Jan;5(1):133–141. doi: 10.1016/0090-1229(76)90156-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Tsukamoto Y., Helsel W. E., Wahl S. M. Macrophage production of fibronectin, a chemoattractant for fibroblasts. J Immunol. 1981 Aug;127(2):673–678. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Turk J. L., Badenoch-Jones P., Parker D. Ultrastructural observations on epithelioid cell granulomas induced by zirconium in the guinea-pig. J Pathol. 1978 Jan;124(1):45–49. doi: 10.1002/path.1711240110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Turk J. L. Immunologic and nonimmunologic activation of macrophages. J Invest Dermatol. 1980 May;74(5):301–306. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12543509. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Turk J. L., Parker D. Granuloma formation in normal guinea pigs injected intradermally with aluminum and zirconium compounds. J Invest Dermatol. 1977 Jun;68(6):336–340. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12496358. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Turk J. L., Parker D. Sensitization with Cr, Ni and Zr salts and allergic type granuloma formation in the guinea pig. J Invest Dermatol. 1977 Jun;68(6):341–345. doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12496465. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Unanue E. R. Cooperation between mononuclear phagocytes and lymphocytes in immunity. N Engl J Med. 1980 Oct 23;303(17):977–985. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198010233031706. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Unanue E. R. Secretory function of mononuclear phagocytes: a review. Am J Pathol. 1976 May;83(2):396–418. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Van Voorhis W. C., Kaplan G., Sarno E. N., Horwitz M. A., Steinman R. M., Levis W. R., Nogueira N., Hair L. S., Gattass C. R., Arrick B. A. The cutaneous infiltrates of leprosy: cellular characteristics and the predominant T-cell phenotypes. N Engl J Med. 1982 Dec 23;307(26):1593–1597. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198212233072601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Volkman A. Disparity in origin of mononuclear phagocyte populations. J Reticuloendothel Soc. 1976 Apr;19(4):249–268. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Wahl S. M., Wahl L. M., McCarthy J. B. Lymphocyte-mediated activation of fibroblast proliferation and collagen production. J Immunol. 1978 Sep;121(3):942–946. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Wanstrup J., Christensen H. E. Sarcoidosis. 1. Ultrastructural investigations on epithelioid cell granulomas. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1966;66(2):169–185. doi: 10.1111/apm.1966.66.2.169. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Ward P. A. Leukotaxis and leukotactic disorders. A review. Am J Pathol. 1974 Dec;77(3):520–538. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Warren K. S. A functional classification of granulomatous inflammation. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;278:7–18. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb47011.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Warren K. S., Boros D. L., Hang L. M., Mahmoud A. A. The Schistosoma japonicum egg granuloma. Am J Pathol. 1975 Aug;80(2):279–294. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Warren K. S., Domingo E. O., Cowan R. B. Granuloma formation around schistosome eggs as a manifestation of delayed hypersensitivity. Am J Pathol. 1967 Nov;51(5):735–756. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Weinstock J. V., Boros D. L. Alteration of granuloma angiotensin I-converting enzyme activity by regulatory T lymphocytes in murine schistosomiasis. Infect Immun. 1982 Feb;35(2):465–470. doi: 10.1128/iai.35.2.465-470.1982. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Weiss S. J., LoBuglio A. F. Phagocyte-generated oxygen metabolites and cellular injury. Lab Invest. 1982 Jul;47(1):5–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Williams G. T. Isolated epithelioid cells from disaggregated BCG granulomas - an ultrastructural study. J Pathol. 1982 Jan;136(1):1–13. doi: 10.1002/path.1711360102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Williams G. T. Isolated epithelioid cells from disaggregated BCG granulomas - some functional studies. J Pathol. 1982 Jan;136(1):15–25. doi: 10.1002/path.1711360103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Williams W. J., James E. M., Erasmus D. A., Davies T. The fine structure of sarcoid and tuberculous granulomas. Postgrad Med J. 1970 Aug;46(538):496–500. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.46.538.496. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Williams W. J., Williams D. The properties and development of conchoidal bodies in sarcoid and sarcoid-like granulomas. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1968 Oct;96(2):491–496. doi: 10.1002/path.1700960229. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Wing E. J., Gardner I. D., Ryning F. W., Remington J. S. Dissociation of effector functions in populations of activated macrophages. Nature. 1977 Aug 18;268(5621):642–644. doi: 10.1038/268642a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Wyler D. J., Wahl S. M., Cheever A. W., Wahl L. M. Fibroblast stimulation in schistosomiasis. I. Stimulation in vitro of fibroblasts by soluble products of egg granulomas. J Infect Dis. 1981 Sep;144(3):254–262. doi: 10.1093/infdis/144.3.254. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Wyler D. J., Wahl S. M., Wahl L. M. Hepatic fibrosis in schistosomiasis: egg granulomas secrete fibroblast stimulating factor in vitro. Science. 1978 Oct 27;202(4366):438–440. doi: 10.1126/science.705337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. van Furth R., Cohn Z. A., Hirsch J. G., Humphrey J. H., Spector W. G., Langevoort H. L. The mononuclear phagocyte system: a new classification of macrophages, monocytes, and their precursor cells. Bull World Health Organ. 1972;46(6):845–852. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. van der Meer J. W., Beelen R. H., Fluitsma D. M., van Furth R. Ultrastructure of mononuclear phagocytes developing in liquid bone marrow cultures. A study on peroxidatic activity. J Exp Med. 1979 Jan 1;149(1):17–26. doi: 10.1084/jem.149.1.17. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Clinical Pathology are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES