Abstract
Background and Objectives:
Total fat intake is linked to the intake of other nutrients. Little data are available on the extent to which total fat affects diet quality in Japanese people. We investigated the relationship between total fat intake and other nutrient intake using INTERLIPID/INTERMAP data on Japanese people living in Japan.
Methods and Study Design:
The participants included 371 men and 401 women with a healthy body mass index and between the ages of 40 and 59 from 4 population samples in Japan. Nutrient intake data were based on four in-depth 24-hour dietary recalls per person.
Results:
Analysis of covariance adjusted for age revealed that total fat intake was positively related to intakes of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin, meat, eggs, and milks and dairy products for both sexes. Total fat intake was inversely associated with carbohydrate and cereals intake for both sexes. On average, men with total fat intake between 25.0 and 27.4% of total energy had saturated fatty acids above 7%, which is the upper limit recommended for preventing lifestyle-related diseases. Men with total fat intake less than 20% of total energy had a higher risk of not meeting the Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (2015) for some nutrients.
Conclusions:
Total fat intake was positively associated with calcium, thiamine, and riboflavin intakes and inversely associated with carbohydrate intake. Our results suggest that in 40–59-year-old men with a healthy body mass index, total fat intake between 20 and 27% of total energy may best support adequate intake of other nutrients.
Keywords: total fat intake, nutrient intake, diet quality, food group intake, Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese
INTRODUCTION
Dietary fat is an important source of energy. It facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and provides essential fatty acids.1–3 Fat enhances taste and acceptability of foods, and lipid components largely determine the texture, flavor, and aroma of foods.1
Most organizations recommend that adult consume a total fat intake that is 20–35% of total energy.1,2 The Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (2015) (DRIs) took into consideration data from Western countries and set the upper boundary of total fat intake at 30% of total energy.3 In most Asian countries including Japan, total fat intake is lower than that in Western countries.4 For example, between 1997 and 1999, which is when the INTERLIPID survey was conducted, the mean total fat intake in Japanese men and women was 25% of total energy, while total fat intake contributed an average of 33% of total energy for men and women in the United Kingdom and the United States.5 Owing to different dietary patterns, data about total fat intake in Japanese populations are necessary to determine the appropriate upper limit of total fat intake for Japanese people.
Total fat intake affects the intake of other nutrients. However, evidence for this remains limited within the Japanese population.4 We surmised that if a nutritional deficiency existed concurrent with a specific level of total fat intake, investigations regarding the relationship between total fat intake and other nutrient intake would be informative. Using INTERLIPID/INTERMAP data collected from 1997 to 1999,6–8 we assessed the relationships between total fat intake and various other nutrient intakes. We analyzed data from Japanese population samples in the INTERLIPID Study, an ancillary study of the population-based INTERMAP investigation. INTERMAP was a highly standardized, international population-based cooperative study of macro and micronutrient intakes and blood pressure in individuals whose food and nutrient intake was assessed by four in-depth 24-hour dietary recalls and two 24-hour urine collections.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
The participants included Japanese living in Japan who participated in the INTERLIPID Study, an INTERMAP ancillary study.6–8 The detailed methods of these two studies are summarized below. A series of four in-depth 24-hour dietary recalls were obtained. In addition, non-fasting blood samples were drawn from all participants. Four research centers recruited random samples of Japanese men and women aged 40–59 years old. The study protocol was approved by the ethics committees of Sapporo Medical University, Kanazawa Medical University, Shiga University of Medical Science, Wakayama Medical University, and Northwestern University. Our study was performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Body mass index (BMI) is a tool that may be used to assess adequacy of energy intake within a population.3 BMI is calculated as weight divided by height squared (kg/m2). It may be assumed that those with a BMI within the healthy range (18.5–24.9 kg/m2 for 40–49-year-old participants and 20.0–24.9 kg/m2 for 50–59-year-old participants) are consuming adequate energy.3 Of the 1145 individuals initially surveyed, we excluded individuals with a BMI outside of the healthy range (n=373), resulting in a study population of 772 (371 men and 401 women).
Anthropometric assessment and blood examination
Participants visited the research centers four times over two sets of consecutive days. These visit sets took place on average 3 weeks apart. Height and weight while wearing light clothing were measured at each visit, and the four height and weight measurements were averaged.
Non-fasting blood samples were drawn on the second day of the first two-day visit set. The time of last meal was recorded. Serum and plasma samples were obtained via centrifugation within 30 minutes of blood drawing; specimens were immediately refrigerated. Within 24 hours, all specimens were frozen and stored locally at 70°C. The central laboratory was standardized by the Lipid Standardization Program (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA); it successfully met the criteria of precision and accuracy of control.9 The laboratory is currently a member of the Cholesterol Reference Method Laboratory Network.10 Serum concentrations of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), and non-fasting triglycerides (TG) were directly measured by enzymatic methods using an auto-analyzer (Hitachi 7107; Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan).
Dietary assessment
Four 24-hour dietary recalls per participant were conducted during each of the four visits by specially trained dietary interviewers. Standardized quality control procedures were used to assess and maximize the quality of all dietary data. Nutrient intakes of participants were calculated based on a special food table from the INTERMAP Japan study. This food table was developed based on the Standard Table of Food Composition in Japan (fourth edition),11 taking into consideration changes in weight and nutrient content due to cooking and/or processing.7,12 Food groups were classified according to the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (fourth edition).11
For this study, energy including and excluding alcohol was used to calculate nutrient density. Energy derived from alcohol was calculated as alcohol intake (g/day) × 7 kcal/g, and energy excluding from alcohol (i.e., only energy from food: total protein, total fat, and available carbohydrate) was calculated as total energy minus energy derived from alcohol. Energy densities for protein, total fat, saturated fatty acids, and available carbohydrate were calculated using energy including or excluding alcohol.
We selected nutrients based on priorities recommended in the DRIs (2010), which include protein, available carbohydrates, alcohol, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin C.13 We also examined dietary fat quality, including fatty acids (saturated fatty acids, and n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids), cholesterol, and Keys dietary score. The Keys dietary lipid score, which is predictive of serum total cholesterol, was calculated as 1.35 × (2SFA – PUFA) + 1.5 × C1/2, where SFA is % of total energy from saturated fatty acids; PUFA, % of total energy from polyunsaturated fatty acids; C dietary cholesterol in mg/1000 kcal.14
Comparison with Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese 2015
Nutrient intakes of participants were compared with the DRIs (2015).3 For saturated fatty acids and sodium, intakes values less than the tentative dietary goal for preventing life-style related diseases (DG) were considered as meeting the DRIs (2015). For dietary fiber, intake more than the DG was considered as meeting the DRIs (2015). For n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and potassium, intakes more than the adequate intake (AI) values were considered as meeting the DRIs (2015). For calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin C, intake values higher than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) were considered as meeting the DRIs (2015). Similarly, the estimated average requirement (EAR) was also used to evaluate intakes of these 6 nutrients.
Previously, the 2010 DRIs recommended that cholesterol intake be limited to no more than 750 mg/day for men and 600 mg/day for women.15 The 2015 DRIs does not support this recommendation, because available evidence shows no appreciable relationship between consumption of dietary cholesterol and serum cholesterol.3
Calculation of nutrient score
To evaluate nutrients at the individual level, we created two nutrient scores: the Recommended Daily Allowance nutrient score (DG/AI/RDA) and the Estimated Average Requirement nutrient score (DG/AI/EAR). The 12 nutrients we used to evaluate nutrient scores, i.e., saturated fatty acids, n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin C, were selected based on the priorities recommended in the DRIs (2010),13 as well as dietary fat quality. For each nutrient, participants whose consumption did not meet the DRIs (2015) were assigned a value of 0, and individuals whose consumption met the DRIs (2015) were assigned a value of 1, where RDA was set as the criteria for meeting the DRIs (2015) for calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, and vitamin C. The total of these twelve scores were defined as the Recommended Daily Allowance nutrient score (DG/AI/RDA). Similarly, the Estimated Average Requirement nutrient score (DG/AI/EAR) was calculated using the cutoff points for DG, AI or EAR (instead of DG, AI or RDA). These scores are ranged from 0 (for poor quality diets) to 12 (for high quality diets).
Statistical analyses
We divided total fat intake into the following 6 groups:<20.0%, 20.0–22.4%, 22.5–24.9%, 25.0–27.4%, 27.5–29.9%, and ≥30.0%. For descriptive purposes, means and standard errors were calculated. Analysis of covariance was used in trend analyses of continuously distributed covariates (anthropometric measurements, serum cholesterol, and dietary intakes); adjustments were made for the confounding effects of age. The Mantel-Haenszel test was used to identify trends in prevalence of meeting the DRIs (2015) by total fat intake. We stratified analyses of the prevalence of meeting the DRIs (2015) by two age groups (40–49-years-old and 50–59-years-old), and we observed similar results compared to the unstratified analyses (data not shown). Therefore, we showed only data not stratified by age groups.
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS for Windows version 20 (IBM Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). All p-values were two-tailed; p-values <0.05 were considered significant.
RESULTS
As shown in Table 1, total fat intake (% energy including alcohol) declined with age. For men total fat intake was positively associated with weight and BMI. For women total fat intake was positively associated with height and weight, while there was no significant association with BMI. Total fat intake was positively associated with HDL-c levels in women.
Table 1.
Characteristics of Japanese participants by sex and total fat intake (as % energy including alcohol). Participants included 371 men and 401 women with healthy BMI between 40–59 years of age (1997–1999).
| Total fat intake (%energy including alcohol) |
Trend p | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <20.0% | 20.0–22.4% | 22.5–24.9% | 25.0–27.4% | 27.5–29.9% | ≥30.0% | ||
| Men | |||||||
| Number of participants | 87 | 68 | 71 | 69 | 41 | 35 | |
| Age (years) | 50.8 (0.6) | 48.9 (0.7) | 48.2 (0.6) | 49.5 (0.6) | 48.8 (0.8) | 47.7 (0.7) | 0.021 |
| Height (cm) | 168 (0.6) | 168 (0.7) | 168 (0.7) | 167 (0.7) | 169 (0.9) | 169 (1.0) | 0.341 |
| Weight (kg) | 62.7 (0.7) | 63.5 (0.7) | 63.9 (0.7) | 63.5 (0.7) | 65.0 (0.9) | 65.5 (1.0) | 0.013 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.3 (0.2) | 22.6 (0.2) | 22.6 (0.2) | 22.7 (0.2) | 22.8 (0.2) | 23.0 (0.3) | 0.016 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 200 (3.0) | 194 (3.4) | 193 (3.3) | 203 (3.3) | 185 (4.4) | 199 (4.7) | 0.411 |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 54.6 (1.5) | 55.3 (1.7) | 54.0 (1.6) | 58.4 (1.7) | 53.2 (2.2) | 56.1 (2.3) | 0.721 |
| LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 122 (3.1) | 116 (3.4) | 116 (3.4) | 122 (3.4) | 111.0 (4.5) | 120 (4.8) | 0.596 |
| Nonfasting TG (mg/dL) | 153 (93.2) | 135 (77.3) | 169 (119.6) | 132 (110.4) | 114.0 (53.0) | 141 (80.7) | 0.157 |
| Women | |||||||
| Number of participants | 48 | 37 | 68 | 96 | 59 | 93 | |
| Age (years) | 52.4 (0.7) | 49.9 (0.9) | 48.1 (0.6) | 49.2 (0.5) | 48.6 (0.7) | 47.4 (0.5) | <0.001 |
| Height (cm) | 154 (0.8) | 153 (0.9) | 156 (0.6) | 154 (0.5) | 156 (0.7) | 156 (0.5) | 0.004 |
| Weight (kg) | 52.1 (0.8) | 51.7 (0.8) | 54.1 (0.6) | 53.3 (0.5) | 53.6 (0.7) | 53.6 (0.5) | 0.034 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 22.0 (0.2) | 22.2 (0.2) | 22.3 (0.2) | 22.5 (0.2) | 22.0 (0.2) | 22.1 (0.2) | 0.866 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 195 (4.4) | 195 (4.8) | 199 (3.6) | 200 (3.0) | 198 (3.8) | 206 (3.1) | 0.051 |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 58.4 (2.0) | 58.2 (2.2) | 59.2 (1.6) | 62.0 (1.4) | 61.6 (1.8) | 62.8 (1.4) | 0.023 |
| LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 115 (4.3) | 118 (4.8) | 121 (3.5) | 122 (3.0) | 121 (3.8) | 124 (3.1) | 0.090 |
| Nonfasting TG (mg/dL) | 117 (61.4) | 99.6 (43.3) | 109 (47.9) | 98.0 (51.4) | 97.6 (67.4) | 105 (57.9) | 0.198 |
Values are expressed as the means (standard errors) and are adjusted for age.
Table 2 shows the nutrient intakes for the six groups of total fat (% energy including alcohol). In men, total fat intake was positively associated with the DG/AI/RDA nutrient score and the DG/AI/EAR nutrient score, as well as the intake values of non–alcohol energy, protein, potassium, calcium, iron, thiamine, and riboflavin. Total fat intake was inversely associated with carbohydrates and alcohol. The mean difference of the DG/AI/RDA nutrient score between the groups with the highest and lowest total fat intake was 1.4 points. For the DG/AI/EAR nutrient score, the mean difference was 1.5 points. Compared with the <20.0% of total energy group, both types of age-adjusted nutrient scores were significantly higher compared to the other five groups of total fat intake (p<0.05; data not shown). In women, our analyses showed no significant trends for either nutrient score; however, total fat intake was positively associated with protein, calcium, vitamin A, thiamin, and riboflavin intakes and was inversely associated with carbohydrate and dietary fiber intakes. For both sexes, the means of all dietary lipid variables were significantly higher in individuals with higher total fat intake.
Table 2.
Daily nutrient intake and total fat intake (as % energy including alcohol). Participants included 371 men and 401 women with healthy BMI between 40−-59 years of age (1997–1999).
| Total fat intake (% energy including alcohol) |
Trend p | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <20.0% | 20.0–22.4% | 22.5–24.9% | 25.0–27.4% | 27.5–29.9% | ≥30.0% | ||
| Men | |||||||
| Number of participants | 87 | 68 | 71 | 69 | 41 | 35 | |
| Nutrient score (RDA/AI/DG) | 4.9 (0.2) | 5.8 (0.3) | 6.1 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.4) | 0.001 |
| Nutrient score (EAR/AI/DG) | 6.1 (0.2) | 6.8 (0.2) | 7.4 (0.2) | 7.3 (0.2) | 7.4 (0.3) | 7.6 (0.3) | <0.001 |
| Energy (kcal) | 2222 (45) | 2252 (51) | 2286 (50) | 2297 (50) | 2273 (65) | 2274 (71) | 0.497 |
| No alcohol energy (kcal) | 1983 (42) | 2034 (47) | 2086 (47) | 2113 (47) | 2156 (61) | 2185 (66) | 0.003 |
| Protein (g) | 82.4 (2.0) | 85.4 (2.2) | 88.7 (2.2) | 90.2 (2.2) | 89.4 (2.8) | 92.0 (3.1) | 0.004 |
| Protein (%E) | 14.9 (0.2) | 15.3 (0.3) | 15.6 (0.3) | 15.8 (0.3) | 15.7 (0.3) | 16.4 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (g) | 42.5 (1.3) | 54.0 (1.5) | 60.7 (1.4) | 67.3 (1.5) | 73.3 (1.9) | 81.8 (2.1) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (%E) | 17.2 (0.1) | 21.3 (0.2) | 23.7 (0.2) | 26.1 (0.2) | 28.6 (0.2) | 31.9 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| SFA (g) | 11.0 (0.4) | 13.6 (0.5) | 15.4 (0.5) | 18.1 (0.5) | 19.1 (0.6) | 21.7 (0.7) | <0.001 |
| SFA (%E) | 4.5 (0.1) | 5.4 (0.1) | 6.0 (0.1) | 7.0 (0.1) | 7.4 (0.2) | 8.5 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA (g) | 8.7 (0.4) | 11.1 (0.4) | 12.7 (0.4) | 13.0 (0.4) | 14.7 (0.5) | 16.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA (g) | 2.5 (0.1) | 3.0 (0.1) | 3.4 (0.1) | 3.6 (0.1) | 3.7 (0.2) | 4.3 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 366 (19) | 436 (21) | 443 (21) | 482 (21) | 487 (27) | 485 (29) | <0.001 |
| Keys dietary lipid score | 24.8 (0.6) | 27.5 (0.6) | 28.5 (0.6) | 31.4 (0.6) | 31.8 (0.8) | 33.7 (0.9) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 317 (7.1) | 301 (8.0) | 296 (7.8) | 286 (7.9) | 285 (10.3) | 270 (11.1) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (%E) | 57.2 (0.8) | 54.1 (0.9) | 51.9 (0.8) | 50.4 (0.9) | 50.7 (1.1) | 48.2 (1.2) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol (g) | 34.2 (2.5) | 31.1 (2.8) | 28.7 (2.8) | 26.3 (2.8) | 16.8 (3.6) | 12.7 (3.9) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol (%E) | 10.6 (0.7) | 9.2 (0.8) | 8.7 (0.8) | 7.6 (0.8) | 4.9 (1.0) | 3.4 (1.1) | <0.001 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 14.8 (0.5) | 15.3 (0.6) | 15.6 (0.6) | 15.0 (0.6) | 15.8 (0.7) | 16.1 (0.8) | 0.187 |
| Sodium (mg) | 4902 (132) | 5011 (147) | 5153 (145) | 5032 (146) | 4952 (190) | 4987 (206) | 0.930 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2709 (75) | 2802 (84) | 2889 (82) | 2919 (83) | 2986 (108) | 2971 (117) | 0.022 |
| Calcium (mg) | 542 (23) | 546 (26) | 593 (26) | 650 (26) | 655 (34) | 680 (37) | <0.001 |
| Iron (mg) | 10.4 (0.3) | 10.9 (0.3) | 11.4 (0.3) | 11.5 (0.3) | 12.0 (0.4) | 11.9 (0.5) | 0.001 |
| Vitamin A (μgRAE) | 839 (90) | 888 (100) | 762 (98) | 976 (100) | 897 (129) | 949 (140) | 0.419 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.88 (0.03) | 0.93 (0.03) | 0.98 (0.03) | 1.03 (0.03) | 1.03 (0.04) | 1.06 (0.05) | <0.001 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.35 (0.04) | 1.41 (0.05) | 1.47 (0.05) | 1.60 (0.05) | 1.55 (0.06) | 1.61 (0.07) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 115 (8) | 127 (9) | 121 (9) | 125 (9) | 143 (12) | 118 (13) | 0.475 |
| Women | |||||||
| Number of participants | 48 | 37 | 68 | 96 | 59 | 93 | |
| Nutrient score (RDA/AI/DG) | 6.4 (0.3) | 6.7 (0.3) | 6.9 (0.3) | 7.0 (0.2) | 6.6 (0.3) | 6.7 (0.2) | 0.629 |
| Nutrient score (EAR/AI/DG) | 7.4 (0.3) | 7.9 (0.3) | 7.8 (0.2) | 8.2 (0.2) | 7.8 (0.2) | 7.9 (0.2) | 0.339 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1771 (47) | 1765 (52) | 1747 (38) | 1765 (32) | 1811 (41) | 1867 (33) | 0.078 |
| No alcohol energy (kcal) | 1740 (47) | 1734 (52) | 1718 (38) | 1741 (32) | 1787 (41) | 1836 (33) | 0.065 |
| Protein (g) | 66.7 (2.3) | 69.5 (2.5) | 71.4 (1.9) | 70.6 (1.6) | 71.6 (2.0) | 75.3 (1.6) | 0.006 |
| Protein (%E) | 15.1 (0.3) | 15.9 (0.4) | 16.4 (0.3) | 16.1 (0.2) | 15.9 (0.3) | 16.2 (0.2) | 0.036 |
| Total fat (g) | 35.8 (1.5) | 42.5 (1.7) | 46.7 (1.2) | 52.0 (1.0) | 57.8 (1.3) | 68.6 (1.1) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (%E) | 17.8 (0.2) | 21.3 (0.2) | 23.8 (0.2) | 26.2 (0.2) | 28.5 (0.2) | 32.9 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| SFA (g) | 8.8 (0.5) | 11.2 (0.6) | 12.4 (0.4) | 14.3 (0.4) | 15.7 (0.5) | 19.2 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| SFA (%E) | 4.4 (0.2) | 5.6 (0.2) | 6.4 (0.1) | 7.2 (0.1) | 7.7 (0.1) | 9.1 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA (g) | 7.8 (0.4) | 9.0 (0.5) | 9.3 (0.3) | 10.3 (0.3) | 11.6 (0.4) | 13.1 (0.3) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA (g) | 2.1 (0.1) | 2.4 (0.1) | 2.6 (0.1) | 2.6 (0.1) | 2.9 (0.1) | 3.1 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 288 (19) | 319 (22) | 349 (16) | 352 (13) | 345 (17) | 418 (14) | <0.001 |
| Keys dietary lipid score | 23.9 (0.8) | 27.4 (0.9) | 29.8 (0.6) | 31.7 (0.5) | 31.5 (0.7) | 36.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 287 (7.2) | 268 (8.0) | 253 (5.9) | 248 (4.9) | 245 (6.3) | 229 (5.1) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (%E) | 65.3 (0.6) | 61.0 (0.7) | 58.1 (0.5) | 56.4 (0.4) | 54.3 (0.5) | 49.3 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol (g) | 4.4 (1.2) | 4.4 (1.3) | 4.1 (1.0) | 3.4 (0.8) | 3.4 (1.1) | 4.4 (0.9) | 0.674 |
| Alcohol (%E) | 1.7 (0.5) | 1.8 (0.5) | 1.6 (0.4) | 1.3 (0.3) | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.5 (0.3) | 0.407 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 16.8 (0.7) | 16.8 (0.8) | 15.3 (0.6) | 15.9 (0.5) | 15.4 (0.6) | 15.0 (0.5) | 0.017 |
| Sodium (mg) | 4246 (161) | 4250 (178) | 4259 (132) | 4175 (111) | 4152 (141) | 4122 (114) | 0.418 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2526 (99) | 2696 (110) | 2639 (81) | 2666 (68) | 2671 (87) | 2732 (70) | 0.198 |
| Calcium (mg) | 522 (33) | 563 (36) | 602 (27) | 616 (22) | 608 (29) | 659 (23) | 0.001 |
| Iron (mg) | 9.1 (0.4) | 10.0 (0.4) | 9.8 (0.3) | 10.0 (0.3) | 9.8 (0.3) | 10.0 (0.3) | 0.130 |
| Vitamin A (μgRAE) | 729 (78) | 754 (86) | 795 (64) | 867 (53) | 868 (68) | 900 (55) | 0.033 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.80 (0.0) | 0.82 (0.0) | 0.83 (0.0) | 0.86 (0.0) | 0.86 (0.0) | 0.92 (0.0) | 0.002 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.07 (0.1) | 1.16 (0.1) | 1.27 (0.0) | 1.30 (0.0) | 1.31 (0.0) | 1.45 (0.0) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 135 (11) | 140 (12) | 125 (9) | 130 (7) | 130 (9) | 135 (8) | 0.764 |
%E: percent energy including alcohol; RAE: retinol activity equivalent.
Values are adjusted by age and means (standard errors).
The nutritional variables of participants according to the six group of total fat (% energy excluding alcohol) are shown in Appendix. In men, total fat intake was positively associated with both types of the nutrient scores, as well as intakes of total energy, protein, potassium, calcium, iron, thiamine, and riboflavin. The mean difference of the DG/AI/RDA nutrient score between the groups with the highest and lowest total fat intake was 1.2 points. For the DG/AI/EAR nutrient score, the mean difference was 1.1 points. Compared with <20.0% energy group, the both types of age-adjusted nutrient scores were significantly higher across the other five groups of total fat intake (p<0.05; data not shown). In women, our analyses showed no significant trends in either nutrient score. Total fat intake was positively associated with protein, calcium, thiamin, and riboflavin intakes and inversely associated with carbohydrate and dietary fiber intakes. For both sexes, means of all dietary lipid variables were significantly higher in individuals with higher total fat intake.
Table 3 shows the percentage of individuals who met the DRIs (2015) for each of the six groups of total fat intake (as a percentage of energy including alcohol). For men, the percentage of individuals who met the AI for n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids; the RDA for calcium, iron, and riboflavin; and the EAR for vitamin A, thiamine, and riboflavin was greater in those with higher total fat intake. For women, the percentage of individuals who met the AI for n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, the RDA for riboflavin, and the EAR for vitamin A was greater in those with higher total fat intake. For both sexes, the percentage of those who did not meet the DG for saturated fatty acids was greater among those with higher total fat intake. The percentage of participants who did not achieve the EAR for calcium and thiamine was 49% and 52%, respectively. For both sexes, the percentage of those whose intake fell below the RDA for protein was extremely low (data not shown).
Table 3.
Percentage of individuals who met the Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese (2015) by total fat intake (as % of energy including alcohol). Participants included 371 men and 401 women with healthy BMI between 40–59 years of age (1997–1999).
| Total fat intake (% energy including alcohol) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <20.0% | 20.0–22.4% | 22.5–24.9% | 25.0–27.4% | 27.5–29.9% | ≥30.0% | Trend p | |
| Men | |||||||
| Number of participants | 87 | 68 | 71 | 69 | 41 | 35 | |
| SFA† | 87 (100) | 66 (97.1) | 61 (85.9) | 37 (53.6) | 16 (39.0) | 6 (17.1) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA‡ | 25 (28.7) | 45 (66.2) | 52 (73.2) | 56 (81.2) | 39 (95.1) | 31 (88.6) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA‡ | 52 (59.8) | 54 (79.4) | 63 (88.7) | 65 (94.2) | 37 (90.2) | 34 (97.1) | <0.001 |
| Dietary fiber‡ | 16 (18.4) | 8 (11.8) | 13 (18.3) | 9 (13.0) | 7 (17.1) | 6 (17.1) | 0.914 |
| Sodium† | 6 (6.9) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (7.0) | 4 (5.8) | 3 (7.3) | 3 (8.6) | 0.387 |
| Potassium§ | 52 (59.8) | 45 (66.2) | 44 (62.0) | 45 (65.2) | 27 (65.9) | 26 (74.3) | 0.202 |
| Calcium¶ | 20 (23.0) | 9 (13.2) | 18 (25.4) | 29 (42.0) | 14 (34.1) | 13 (37.1) | 0.002 |
| Iron¶ | 75 (86.2) | 64 (94.1) | 69 (97.2) | 67 (97.1) | 41 (100) | 35 (100) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin A¶ | 23 (26.4) | 19 (27.9) | 19 (26.8) | 23 (33.3) | 15 (36.6) | 14 (40.0) | 0.072 |
| Thiamine¶ | 5 (5.7) | 8 (11.8) | 8 (11.3) | 10 (14.5) | 5 (12.2) | 5 (14.3) | 0.113 |
| Riboflavin¶ | 35 (40.2) | 38 (55.9) | 43 (60.6) | 52 (75.4) | 30 (73.2) | 22 (62.9) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C¶ | 40 (46.0) | 37 (54.4) | 36 (50.7) | 39 (56.5) | 23 (56.1) | 20 (57.1) | 0.184 |
| Calcium†† | 31 (35.6) | 23 (33.8) | 36 (50.7) | 41 (59.4) | 21 (51.2) | 22 (62.9) | <0.001 |
| Iron†† | 85 (97.7) | 67 (98.5) | 70 (98.6) | 69 (100) | 41 (100) | 35 (100) | 0.109 |
| Vitamin A†† | 42 (48.3) | 36 (52.9) | 39 (54.9) | 42 (60.9) | 24 (58.5) | 25 (71.4) | 0.016 |
| Thiamine†† | 25 (28.7) | 18 (26.5) | 23 (32.4) | 30 (43.5) | 20 (48.8) | 18 (51.4) | 0.001 |
| Riboflavin†† | 67 (77.0) | 57 (83.8) | 64 (90.1) | 64 (92.8) | 38 (92.7) | 29 (82.9) | 0.026 |
| Vitamin C†† | 54 (62.1) | 44 (64.7) | 49 (69.0) | 44 (63.8) | 28 (68.3) | 25 (71.4) | 0.350 |
| Women | |||||||
| Number of participants | 48 | 37 | 68 | 96 | 59 | 93 | |
| SFA† | 48 (100) | 33 (89.2) | 53 (77.9) | 45 (46.9) | 14 (23.7) | 4 (4.3) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA‡ | 23 (47.9) | 26 (70.3) | 47 (69.1) | 81 (84.4) | 52 (88.1) | 89 (95.7) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA‡ | 36 (75.0) | 29 (78.4) | 52 (76.5) | 79 (82.3) | 54 (91.5) | 88 (94.6) | <0.001 |
| Dietary fiber‡ | 18 (37.5) | 13 (35.1) | 20 (29.4) | 23 (24.0) | 13 (22.0) | 19 (20.4) | 0.008 |
| Sodium† | 4 (8.3) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (5.9) | 5 (5.2) | 2 (3.4) | 8 (8.6) | 0.569 |
| Potassium§ | 37 (77.1) | 31 (83.8) | 56 (82.4) | 92 (95.8) | 50 (84.7) | 78 (83.9) | 0.288 |
| Calcium¶ | 14 (29.2) | 10 (27.0) | 25 (36.8) | 37 (38.5) | 22 (37.3) | 38 (40.9) | 0.101 |
| Iron¶ | 44 (91.7) | 36 (97.3) | 64 (94.1) | 93 (96.9) | 57 (96.6) | 85 (91.4) | 0.763 |
| Vitamin A¶ | 21 (43.8) | 17 (45.9) | 31 (45.6) | 54 (56.3) | 30 (50.8) | 51 (54.8) | 0.130 |
| Thiamine¶ | 13 (27.1) | 7 (18.9) | 21 (30.9) | 25 (26.0) | 15 (25.4) | 21 (22.6) | 0.646 |
| Riboflavin¶ | 25 (52.1) | 25 (67.6) | 51 (75.0) | 84 (87.5) | 45 (76.3) | 77 (82.8) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C¶ | 32 (66.7) | 23 (62.2) | 40 (58.8) | 57 (59.4) | 32 (54.2) | 56 (60.2) | 0.403 |
| Calcium†† | 21 (43.8) | 17 (45.9) | 36 (52.9) | 58 (60.4) | 33 (55.9) | 52 (55.9) | 0.109 |
| Iron†† | 47 (97.9) | 37 (100.0) | ﾡ (97.1) | 96 (100) | 58 (98.3) | 90 (96.8) | 0.528 |
| Vitamin A†† | 29 (60.4) | 28 (75.7) | 50 (73.5) | 75 (78.1) | 50 (84.7) | 75 (80.6) | 0.006 |
| Thiamine†† | 23 (47.9) | 22 (59.5) | 38 (55.9) | 62 (64.6) | 32 (54.2) | 60 (64.5) | 0.118 |
| Riboflavin†† | 43 (89.6) | 31 (83.8) | 64 (94.1) | 95 (99.0) | 55 (93.2) | 88 (94.6) | 0.069 |
| Vitamin C†† | 35 (72.9) | 26 (70.3) | 45 (66.2) | 73 (76.0) | 44 (74.6) | 73 (78.5) | 0.206 |
SFA: saturated fatty acids. PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Values are numbers (%).
Less than tentative dietary goal for preventing life-style related diseases (DG).
More than DG
more than adequate intake (AI).
More than recommended dietary allowance (RDA).
More than estimated average requirement (EAR).
The participants’ consumption of various food groups (in g/day) according to the six groups of total fat intake (as a percentage of energy including alcohol) are shown in Table 4. For men, mean intakes of fats and oils, nuts and seeds, meats, eggs, dairy products, and prepared foods were significantly greater in individuals with higher total fat intake; mean intakes of cereals and beverages were significantly lower in those with higher total fat intake. For women, mean intakes of fats and oils, meats, eggs, and dairy products were significantly greater in those with higher total fat intake; mean intakes of cereals and sugars and sweeteners were significantly lower than in individuals with higher total fat intake.
Table 4.
Total fat intake (as % energy including alcohol) and intake by food group (g/day) of Japanese participants between 40–59 years of age (1997–1999) (men=371, women=401).
| Total fat intake (% energy including alcohol) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <20.0% | 20.0–22.4% | 22.5–24.9% | 25.0–27.4% | 27.5–29.9% | ≥30.0% | Trend p | |
| Men | |||||||
| Number of participants | 87 | 68 | 71 | 69 | 41 | 35 | |
| Cereals | 705 (19.9) | 626 (22.3) | 612 (21.9) | 558 (22.1) | 554 (28.7) | 512 (31.6) | <0.001 |
| Potatoes and starches | 48.6 (4.1) | 48.4 (4.6) | 51.8 (4.5) | 42.9 (4.5) | 48.5 (5.9) | 54.8 (6.5) | 0.617 |
| Sugars and sweetners | 10.4 (0.7) | 11.1 (0.8) | 12.4 (0.8) | 12.4 (0.8) | 12.6 (1.1) | 9.1 (1.2) | 0.795 |
| Confectioneries | 21.0 (3.4) | 27.0 (3.8) | 28.2 (3.8) | 34.6 (3.8) | 27.9 (4.9) | 31.2 (5.4) | 0.111 |
| Fats and oils | 7.8 (0.6) | 11.2 (0.7) | 13.7 (0.7) | 14.0 (0.7) | 16.2 (0.9) | 19.5 (1.0) | <0.001 |
| Nuts and seeds | 1.6 (0.8) | 4.0 (0.9) | 3.7 (0.9) | 4.1 (0.9) | 5.2 (1.1) | 5.1 (1.3) | 0.014 |
| Pulses | 203 (11.8) | 173 (13.3) | 201 (13.0) | 190 (13.2) | 219 (17.1) | 193 (18.8) | 0.548 |
| Fishes and shellfishes | 113 (5.7) | 103 (6.4) | 108 (6.3) | 109 (6.4) | 100 (8.3) | 103 (9.1) | 0.360 |
| Meats | 47.6 (4.0) | 61.6 (4.5) | 65.7 (4.4) | 69.2 (4.5) | 73.6 (5.8) | 79.6 (6.4) | <0.001 |
| Eggs | 34.1 (2.9) | 41.0 (3.2) | 44.0 (3.1) | 50.3 (3.2) | 54.6 (4.1) | 47.7 (4.5) | <0.001 |
| Milks and dairy products | 70.8 (11.7) | 84.7 (13.1) | 112 (12.9) | 136 (13.0) | 130 (16.9) | 173 (18.6) | <0.001 |
| Vegetables | 224 (10.6) | 235 (11.9) | 218 (11.7) | 222 (11.8) | 247 (15.3) | 252 (16.9) | 0.124 |
| Fruits | 96.5 (10.5) | 94.4 (11.7) | 89.6 (11.5) | 103 (11.7) | 102 (15.1) | 112 (16.7) | 0.320 |
| Fungi | 10.4 (1.3) | 10.6 (1.5) | 9.9 (1.4) | 7.6 (1.4) | 11.1 (1.9) | 10.4 (2.1) | 0.952 |
| Algae | 8.8 (1.0) | 10.6 (1.2) | 9.2 (1.1) | 7.6 (1.2) | 8.6 (1.5) | 7.7 (1.7) | 0.262 |
| Beverages | 1208 (55.0) | 1170 (61.5) | 981 (60.4) | 1042 (61.1) | 919 (79.2) | 820 (87.3) | <0.001 |
| Seasonings and spices | 100 (7.7) | 108 (8.6) | 118 (8.4) | 97.7 (8.5) | 99.3 (11.1) | 110 (12.2) | 0.985 |
| Prepared foods | 12.9 (2.4) | 14.0 (2.6) | 13.2 (2.6) | 19.1 (2.6) | 24.5 (3.4) | 32.2 (3.7) | <0.001 |
| Women | |||||||
| Number of participants | 48 | 37 | 68 | 96 | 59 | 93 | |
| Cereals | 537 (17.5) | 494 (19.4) | 460 (14.3) | 436 (12.0) | 411 (15.3) | 365 (12.4) | <0.001 |
| Potatoes and starches | 49.6 (5.4) | 60.2 (6.0) | 52.1 (4.4) | 48.5 (3.7) | 42.7 (4.8) | 45.8 (3.9) | 0.070 |
| Sugars and sweetners | 15.8 (1.0) | 11.4 (1.2) | 12.3 (0.9) | 10.8 (0.7) | 11.4 (0.9) | 10.4 (0.7) | <0.001 |
| Confectioneries | 43.8 (4.6) | 41.4 (5.1) | 40.9 (3.8) | 46.4 (3.2) | 43.2 (4.0) | 47.5 (3.3) | 0.413 |
| Fats and oils | 6.7 (0.8) | 7.6 (0.9) | 8.9 (0.7) | 10.6 (0.6) | 13.4 (0.7) | 16.5 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| Nuts and seeds | 2.3 (1.0) | 1.9 (1.1) | 2.9 (0.8) | 3.3 (0.7) | 3.1 (0.8) | 5.6 (0.7) | 0.006 |
| Pulses | 176 (14.3) | 192 (15.8) | 184 (11.7) | 161 (9.8) | 165 (12.5) | 155 (10.1) | 0.055 |
| Fishes and shellfishes | 86.3 (6.3) | 88.7 (7.0) | 84.7 (5.2) | 78.9 (4.3) | 77.0 (5.5) | 79.6 (4.5) | 0.126 |
| Meats | 26.6 (3.8) | 30.7 (4.2) | 39.2 (3.1) | 41.9 (2.6) | 47.0 (3.3) | 60.2 (2.7) | <0.001 |
| Eggs | 25.3 (2.9) | 29.9 (3.2) | 32.9 (2.4) | 34.7 (2.0) | 32.5 (2.5) | 40.4 (2.1) | <0.001 |
| Milks and dairy products | 70.5 (17.3) | 109 (19.2) | 148 (14.2) | 153 (11.9) | 162 (15.2) | 194 (12.3) | <0.001 |
| Vegetables | 250 (15.5) | 245 (17.1) | 242 (12.7) | 254 (10.6) | 249 (13.6) | 236 (11.0) | 0.689 |
| Fruits | 175 (15.9) | 151 (17.6) | 148 (13.0) | 149 (10.9) | 152 (13.9) | 136 (11.3) | 0.116 |
| Fungi | 8.2 (1.3) | 9.4 (1.5) | 10.1 (1.1) | 7.6 (0.9) | 10.1 (1.2) | 10.1 (0.9) | 0.385 |
| Algae | 5.9 (1.7) | 10.7 (1.9) | 9.0 (1.4) | 7.3 (1.2) | 7.5 (1.5) | 10.0 (1.2) | 0.499 |
| Beverages | 630 (55.9) | 664 (62.0) | 663 (45.8) | 659 (38.4) | 697 (49.0) | 667 (39.7) | 0.514 |
| Seasonings and spices | 88.0 (7.7) | 78.8 (8.5) | 75.5 (6.3) | 71.8 (5.3) | 78.2 (6.7) | 82.4 (5.4) | 0.567 |
| Prepared foods | 9.2 (3.1) | 14.9 (3.5) | 9.1 (2.6) | 13.9 (2.1) | 15.6 (2.7) | 12.4 (2.2) | 0.346 |
Values are adjusted by age and means (standard errors).
Similar results were observed regarding the association between total fat intake (as a percentage of energy excluding alcohol) and food group intakes (data not shown). For men, total fat intake was positively associated with intakes of fats and oils, nuts and seeds, meats, eggs, and dairy products, and inversely associated with cereals intake. For women, total fat intake was positively associated with intakes of fats and oils, nuts and seeds, pulses, meats, eggs, dairy products, and beverages, and inversely associated with intakes of cereals, potatoes and starches, sugars and sweeteners, and fruits.
DISCUSSION
The main findings of this study demonstrated that, in combined data from four middle-aged population samples of Japanese people living in Japan, a relatively low mean total fat intake (25% of total energy) showed a significant positive association with intakes of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin, meats, eggs, and milks and dairy products for both sexes. The associations between total fat intake with intakes of various nutrients and food groups were similar regardless of whether energy from alcohol were included or excluded.
Japanese men had one of the highest alcohol intake in the world.16 Moreover, alcohol consumption has effects on dietary intake in Japanese middle-aged men.17 Alcoholic beverages contain virtually no nutrients, but contribute to energy intake. Therefore, we calculated the two types of total fat intake as % energy including and excluding alcohol.
For men, total fat intake (% energy, excluding alcohol) was higher than total fat intake (% energy, including alcohol) because most men consumed alcohol. It is important to be careful in reading the numerical values of total fat intake. Although for men, total fat intake (as % energy) was quite varying if including and excluding alcohol intake, similar associations of total fat with other nutrients intake were observed regardless of the method for calculating the total fat intake. However, for women, the two total fat intake values were similar because most women had no alcohol intake.
Total fat intake was associated with intakes of meats, eggs, and milks and dairy products. Increased intakes of these food groups contributed to higher intakes of thiamine, riboflavin, calcium, and saturated fatty acids. The positive correlations between intakes of thiamin and calcium with total fat intake are useful since a significant number of Japanese consume less than optimal levels of these nutrients. Because dietary inadequacy for participants was determined using the EAR cut-point method,3 the percentage of individuals with calcium and thiamine inadequacy was estimated to be 49% and 52 %, respectively.
Total fat intake was associated with saturated fatty acids intake. These results are important because higher saturated fatty acids intake are associated with a higher incidence of hyperlipidemia,17 diabetes,18–20 and coronary heart disease.23 To reduce these risks, the DG upper limit for saturated fatty acids was set at 7.0% of energy including alcohol.3 For men, average saturated fatty acids intake in the group who consumed 25.0–27.5% of energy from fat reached this upper limit.
Total fat intake was inversely associated with dietary fiber intake in women. Dietary fiber is a nutrient of public health concern owing to its general under-consumption across the Japanese population relative to DG.3 A growing body of evidence also suggests that dietary fiber may play a role in preventing cardiovascular disease, 24–28 some cancer types,29,30 and type 2 diabetes.28,31
The mean for both nutrient scores were higher in men who consumed more total fat, while there was no association between nutrient scores and total fat intake in women. This may be explained by the fact that the percentage of women with cooking skills was higher than in men, and women eat out less frequently than men do.32,33 Accordingly, women are more likely to consume a higher quality diet regardless of total fat intake compared with men.
A significant reduction in both DG/AI/RDA and DG/AI/EAR nutrient scores was evident among men who consumed less than 20.0% of total energy from fat, including alcohol, which became evident when the cut points for two types of total fat intake (as a percentage of total energy, including alcohol) were analyzed in descending order. As such, we recommend that the cutoff for total fat intake among men should be set at 20% of total energy in order to ensure nutrient adequacy. Similar results were observed for total fat intake excluding energy from alcohol.
The EAR is used to assess the adequacy of nutrient intake within a group.3 Although theoretically the percentage of individuals who consume less than the EAR corresponded to the percentage of individuals with a deficiency within the group, it is impossible to determine whether an individual consumed more than the minimum requirement.3 The EAR is the intake level that corresponds to a 50% probability that an individual consumes an insufficient level of a certain nutrient, and the RDA is the intake level that corresponds to a nearly 0% probability that an individual will experience a deficiency for a certain nutrient. In order to ensure dietary adequacy, an individual should aim to approach achieve the RDA for all nutrients. Therefore, in this study, we assessed nutrient intake using the RDA as well as the EAR.
The components and cutoff values for the nutrient scores were defined based on the DRIs (2015) and dietary fat quality. Besides the decision regarding which nutrients to include, no additional weights were applied. It is not plausible that all nutrients have the same impact on health; however, there is also not enough evidence to define the relative contributions of different nutrients to overall health. Further study is warranted to clarify priorities regarding the impact that various nutrients have on for overall health in Japanese people.
Recommendations for total fat intake need to be weighed against possible threats to nutritional adequacy at the upper or lower boundaries of total fat intake, as well as the role that total fat intake plays in the prevention of life-style related diseases. However, few studies have examined the relationship between total fat intake and intakes of other nutrients consumed by Japanese people.3 Studies in the United States have shown that total fat intake is positively associated with intakes of protein, sodium, processed and red meats, whole milk and cheese, eggs, and desserts, and inversely associated with intakes of carbohydrates, vitamin C, dietary fiber, vegetables, fruits, cereals, fish, chicken, and low-fat milk.34,35 Fat intakes are much higher in Western countries than in Japan. Dietary sources of fat should be considered, because even when two foods contain equivalent amounts of fat, foods differ in their micronutrient contents. Therefore, the effects of fat replacement may depend on the diet, which can differ among populations.
The main strengths of this study were: (1) its population-based samples; (2) the standardized collection of high quality nutrition and laboratory measurements; and (3) the use of multiple procedures to ensure quality control. This study was limited by its cross-sectional design. Owing to the cross-sectional nature of this study, the results must be interpreted cautiously in regards to causeand--effect relationships. We were unable to assess the relationship between energy intake and changes in BMI. However, because food intake patterns change slowly over time, it was reasonable to assume that food intake and hence, energy intakes of participants, remained similar over a substantial period prior to this study. Therefore, we believe that it is appropriate to use healthy BMI as an indicator of adequate energy intake. These findings may not be generalizable to other populations. Especially in particular, because participants in this study were between the ages of 40 and −59 years old, our results limited generalizability to persons within this age range. Fieldwork for the INTERMAP/INTERLIPID studies was conducted from 1997 to 1999, so it is necessary to consider whether the typical Japanese diet has changed since that time. Available data indicates that the Japanese diet has not changed much; according to the National Health and Nutritional Survey in Japan, the percentages of total energy consumed from protein, fat, and carbohydrates were 16.0, 26.3, and 57.7 % in 1998, respectively, compared with 14.9, 26.2, and 58.9% in 2013, respectively.36,37
Male participants who consumed more than 27.5% total energy from total fat consumed more than the DG for saturated fatty acids, indicating a higher risk of coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes. On the other hand, male participants who consumed less than 20% of total energy from total fat had lower nutrient scores, i.e., less desirable nutrient intake levels. From these facts, we consider that fat intake between 20–27% of total energy, including energy from alcohol, is optimal for desirable adequate nutrient intakes in healthy Japanese men aged 40–59 years old with a healthy BMI.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank all INTERMAP and INTERLIPID staff at the local, national, and international centers for their invaluable efforts; a partial listing of these colleagues is cited in References 6 and 8 of this manuscript.
AUTHOR DISCLOSURES
This study was supported in part by a grant–in–aid of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Grant–in–aid for Scientific Research: (A) 090357003, (C) 17590563, and (C) 19590655) in Japan and by the Suntory Company. The INTERMAP Study is supported by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, U.S.A. (Grant 2–ROI–HL504090).
Appendix.
Daily nutrient intake and total fat intake (% energy excluding alcohol). Participants included 371 men and 401 women with healthy BMI between 40–59 years of age (1997–1999).
| Total fat intake (% energy including alcohol) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <20.0% | 20.0–22.4% | 22.5–24.9% | 25.0–27.4% | 27.5–29.9% | ≥30.0% | Trend p | |
| Men | |||||||
| Number of participants | 44 | 52 | 66 | 63 | 64 | 82 | |
| Nutrient score (RDA/AI/DG) | 4.8 (0.3) | 5.1 (0.3) | 6.1 (0.3) | 6.1 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.3) | 6.0 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| Nutrient score (EAR/AI/DG) | 6.1 (0.3) | 6.3 (0.3) | 7.2 (0.3) | 7.3 (0.3) | 7.5 (0.3) | 7.2 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| Energy (kcal) | 2272 (62) | 2118 (58) | 2236 (51) | 2260 (52) | 2339 (52) | 2320 (46) | 0.044 |
| No alcohol energy (kcal) | 2116 (59) | 1921 (55) | 2057 (48) | 2086 (49) | 2111 (49) | 2125 (43) | 0.138 |
| Protein (g) | 80.9 (2.7) | 80.5 (2.5) | 85.8 (2.2) | 89.1 (2.3) | 92.1 (2.2) | 91.0 (2.0) | <0.001 |
| Protein (%E) | 15.4 (0.4) | 17.0 (0.4) | 16.9 (0.3) | 17.2 (0.3) | 17.6 (0.3) | 17.2 (0.3) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (g) | 40.0 (1.8) | 46.1 (1.7) | 54.3 (1.5) | 61.2 (1.5) | 67.1 (1.5) | 76.9 (1.3) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (%E) | 17.1 (0.2) | 21.6 (0.2) | 23.8 (0.2) | 26.4 (0.2) | 28.7 (0.2) | 32.5 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| SFA (g) | 10.2 (0.6) | 11.7 (0.6) | 13.9 (0.5) | 15.8 (0.5) | 17.9 (0.5) | 20.1 (0.5) | <0.001 |
| SFA (%E) | 4.4 (0.2) | 5.5 (0.2) | 6.1 (0.1) | 6.9 (0.1) | 7.6 (0.1) | 8.4 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA (g) | 8.4 (0.5) | 9.6 (0.5) | 11.1 (0.4) | 12.5 (0.4) | 13.2 (0.4) | 15.2 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA (g) | 2.4 (0.2) | 2.6 (0.1) | 3.0 (0.1) | 3.3 (0.1) | 3.6 (0.1) | 4.1 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 302 (25) | 409 (23) | 418 (21) | 486 (21) | 461 (21) | 499 (19) | <0.001 |
| Keys dietary lipid score | 22.3 (0.8) | 26.7 (0.7) | 27.4 (0.6) | 30.4 (0.7) | 30.6 (0.6) | 32.2 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 357 (9.3) | 296 (8.6) | 306 (7.6) | 294 (7.8) | 284 (7.7) | 267 (6.8) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (%E) | 67.4 (0.5) | 61.4 (0.4) | 59.2 (0.4) | 56.3 (0.4) | 53.6 (0.4) | 50.2 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol (g) | 22.3 (3.6) | 28.2 (3.3) | 25.5 (3.0) | 25.0 (3.0) | 32.6 (3.0) | 27.8 (2.7) | 0.132 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 15.7 (0.7) | 14.6 (0.7) | 16.0 (0.6) | 16.0 (0.6) | 14.9 (0.6) | 14.9 (0.5) | 0.595 |
| Sodium (mg) | 4761 (183) | 4951 (169) | 4968 (149) | 5060 (153) | 5161 (152) | 5048 (134) | 0.110 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2771 (104) | 2555 (95) | 2924 (84) | 2922 (86) | 2975 (86) | 2890 (76) | 0.015 |
| Calcium (mg) | 570 (33) | 511 (30) | 583 (27) | 610 (27) | 648 (27) | 633 (24) | 0.002 |
| Iron (mg) | 10.3 (0.4) | 10.4 (0.4) | 11.3 (0.3) | 11.4 (0.4) | 11.7 (0.4) | 11.5 (0.3) | 0.001 |
| Vitamin A (μgRAE) | 755 (125) | 961 (115) | 873 (102) | 760 (104) | 1012 (103) | 870 (91) | 0.500 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.91 (0.04) | 0.86 (0.04) | 0.94 (0.03) | 0.99 (0.03) | 1.05 (0.03) | 1.01 (0.03) | <0.001 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.26 (0.06) | 1.38 (0.06) | 1.47 (0.05) | 1.50 (0.05) | 1.57 (0.05) | 1.56 (0.04) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 128 (11) | 104 (11) | 136 (9) | 122 (10) | 123 (10) | 124 (8) | 0.744 |
| Women | |||||||
| Number of participants | 36 | 36 | 63 | 97 | 60 | 109 | |
| Nutrient score (RDA/AI/DG) | 6.3 (0.3) | 6.6 (0.3) | 7.2 (0.3) | 6.9 (0.2) | 6.8 (0.3) | 6.5 (0.2) | 0.560 |
| Nutrient score (EAR/AI/DG) | 7.4 (0.3) | 7.8 (0.3) | 8.1 (0.2) | 8.0 (0.2) | 8.1 (0.2) | 7.7 (0.2) | 0.411 |
| Energy (kcal) | 1793 (54) | 1725 (54) | 1784 (40) | 1752 (32) | 1788 (41) | 1858 (31) | 0.212 |
| No alcohol energy (kcal) | 1784 (54) | 1709 (54) | 1753 (40) | 1735 (32) | 1770 (41) | 1808 (31) | 0.456 |
| Protein (g) | 68.3 (2.6) | 65.6 (2.6) | 73.2 (1.9) | 69.9 (1.6) | 71.2 (2.0) | 74.7 (1.5) | 0.015 |
| Protein (%E) | 15.3 (0.4) | 15.4 (0.4) | 16.7 (0.3) | 16.2 (0.2) | 16.1 (0.3) | 16.6 (0.2) | 0.005 |
| Total fat (g) | 34.9 (1.8) | 40.4 (1.8) | 46.4 (1.3) | 50.9 (1.1) | 56.5 (1.3) | 66.9 (1.0) | <0.001 |
| Total fat (%E) | 17.2 (0.3) | 20.6 (0.3) | 23.3 (0.2) | 25.8 (0.2) | 28.1 (0.2) | 32.1 (0.2) | <0.001 |
| Saturated fat (g) | 8.6 (0.6) | 10.5 (0.6) | 12.4 (0.5) | 13.9 (0.4) | 15.3 (0.5) | 18.5 (0.4) | <0.001 |
| Saturated fat (%E) | 4.3 (0.2) | 5.5 (0.2) | 6.4 (0.1) | 7.2 (0.1) | 7.8 (0.2) | 9.2 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| N-6 PUFA (g) | 7.5 (0.5) | 8.9 (0.5) | 9.3 (0.4) | 10.1 (0.3) | 11.4 (0.4) | 12.8 (0.3) | <0.001 |
| N-3 PUFA (g) | 2.1 (0.1) | 2.2 (0.1) | 2.6 (0.1) | 2.5 (0.1) | 2.9 (0.1) | 3.1 (0.1) | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol (mg) | 288 (22) | 292 (22) | 339 (16) | 347 (13) | 347 (17) | 419 (13) | <0.001 |
| Keys dietary lipid score | 23.9 (0.9) | 26.1 (0.9) | 29.0 (0.7) | 31.4 (0.5) | 31.5 (0.7) | 35.8 (0.5) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (g) | 299 (8) | 270 (8) | 260 (6) | 249 (5) | 244 (6) | 227 (5) | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates (%E) | 67.1 (0.5) | 63.3 (0.5) | 59.4 (0.4) | 57.4 (0.3) | 55.1 (0.4) | 50.1 (0.3) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol (g) | 1.3 (1.3) | 2.4 (1.3) | 4.5 (1.0) | 2.5 (0.8) | 2.6 (1.0) | 7.1 (0.8) | 0.004 |
| Dietary fiber (g) | 17.6 (0.8) | 17.1 (0.8) | 16.1 (0.6) | 15.6 (0.5) | 15.6 (0.6) | 14.5 (0.5) | 0.001 |
| Sodium (mg) | 4404 (183) | 4019 (183) | 4424 (136) | 4094 (109) | 4158 (139) | 4141 (104) | 0.347 |
| Potassium (mg) | 2598 (114) | 2567 (114) | 2759 (85) | 2613 (68) | 2682 (86) | 2695 (65) | 0.398 |
| Calcium (mg) | 516 (38) | 561 (37) | 621 (28) | 599 (22) | 620 (28) | 641 (21) | 0.004 |
| Iron (mg) | 9.3 (0.4) | 9.6 (0.4) | 10.2 (0.3) | 9.9 (0.3) | 10.0 (0.3) | 9.8 (0.2) | 0.282 |
| Vitamin A (μgRAE) | 783 (89) | 760 (89) | 777 (66) | 829 (53) | 945 (68) | 858 (51) | 0.123 |
| Thiamine (mg) | 0.82 (0.0) | 0.79 (0.0) | 0.86 (0.0) | 0.85 (0.0) | 0.87 (0.0) | 0.89 (0.0) | 0.024 |
| Riboflavin (mg) | 1.07 (0.1) | 1.08 (0.1) | 1.30 (0.0) | 1.28 (0.0) | 1.31 (0.0) | 1.44 (0.0) | <0.001 |
| Vitamin C (mg) | 146 (12) | 138 (12) | 134 (9) | 128 (7) | 133 (9) | 127 (7) | 0.192 |
%E: percent energy excluding alcohol; SFA: saturated fatty acids; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; RAE: retinol activity equivalent.
Values are adjusted by age and means (standard errors).
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