The Health of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada

Morton Beiser

doi:10.1007/BF03403701

. 2005 Mar 1;96(Suppl 2):S30–S44. doi: 10.1007/BF03403701

Show available content in

The Health of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada

Morton Beiser ^13,^23,^33,^✉

PMCID: PMC6976041 PMID: 16078554

Abstract

Canada admits between more than 200,000 immigrants every year. National policy emphasizes rigorous selection to ensure that Canada admits healthy immigrants. However, remarkably little policy is directed to ensuring that they stay healthy. This neglect is wrong-headed: keeping new settlers healthy is just, humane, and consistent with national self-interest.

By identifying personal vulnerabilities, salient resettlement stressors that act alone or interact with predisposition in order to create health risk, and the personal and social resources that reduce risk and promote well-being, health research can enlighten policy and practice. However, the paradigms that have dominated immigrant health research over the past 100 years–the “sick” and “healthy immigrant,” respectively–have been inadequate. Part of the problem is that socio-political controversy has influenced the questions asked about immigrant health, and the manner of their investigation.

Beginning with a review of studies that point out the shortcomings of the sick immigrant and healthy immigrant paradigms, this article argues that an interaction model that takes into account both predisposition and socio-environmental factors, provides the best explanatory framework for extant findings, and the best guide for future research. Finally, the article argues that forging stronger links between research, policy and the delivery of services will not only help make resettlement a more humane process, it will help ensure that Canada benefits from the human capital that its newest settlers bring with them.

MeSH terms: Canada, immigrants, settlement and resettlement, migration policy

Résumé

Le Canada accueille un peu plus de 200 000 immigrants chaque année. La politique nationale impose une sélection rigoureuse de ces gens afin de s’assurer qu’ils sont en bonne santé, mais il existe remarquablement peu de politiques pour s’assurer qu’ils le restent. Cette négligence est aberrante quand on considère que maintenir les immigrants en bonne santé c’est faire preuve de justice et d’humanité dans l’intérêt national.

En isolant les vulnérabilités de nature personnelle et les principaux facteurs de stress liés à la réinstallation qui agissent isolément ou en conjonction avec les prédispositions naturelles et se traduisent par un risque pour la santé et, d’autre part, les ressources personnelles et sociales qui réduisent ce risque et favorisent le bien être, la recherche sur la santé serait en mesure d’apporter une contribution à la politique et aux pratiques. Cependant, les paradigmes sur lesquels la recherche sur la santé des immigrants s’est appuyée au cours des cent dernières années–l’immigrant « malade » ou « en bonne santé » respectivement–se sont révélés inadéquats. Une partie du problème vient du fait que la controverse sociopolitique a eu de l’influence sur la nature des questions posées aux immigrants au sujet de leur santé et la façon de les examiner.

Après avoir fait une revue des études qui soulignent les carences des paradigmes de l’immigrant malade ou de l’immigrant en bonne santé, l’auteur de l’article affirme qu’un modèle d’interaction tenant compte tout à la fois des facteurs de prédisposition et des facteurs socio environnementaux offrirait le meilleur cadre explicatif des constatations qui se perpétuent et serait la façon la plus sûre d’orienter la recherche à l’avenir. Enfin, l’auteur de l’article affirme qu’en renforçant les liens entre la recherche, la politique et la prestation des services, on pourrait rendre le processus de réinstallation plus humain, et donner ainsi au Canada la possibilité de profiter du capital humain que les nouveaux arrivants amènent avec eux.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements and Sources of Support: The Reducing Health Disparities Cross-cutting Initiative, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, commissioned an initial draft of this article for an International Think-Tank held in Ottawa, Sept. 21–23, 2003. The author wishes to acknowledge the support of the CIHR for the preparation of this report, and the Think-Tank participants, whose helpful comments led to what is hoped to be a much-improved revision.

References

1.Gushulak BD, Williams LS. National immigration health policy: Existing policy, changing needs, and future directions. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):127–29. doi: 10.1007/BF03403662. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
2.DesMueles M, Gold J, Kazanjian A, Vissandjee B, Manuel D, Payne J A. New approaches to immigrant health assessment. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):122–26. doi: 10.1007/BF03403661. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
3.Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issue. Affecting Immigrants and Refugees. After the Door Has Been Opened: Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees in Canada. ottawa, ON: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada; 1988. [Google Scholar]
4.Citizenship and Immigration Canada [Publications on the Internet]. Statistics/Reference [updated 2004 Oct 18; cited 2004 Oct 20]. Available from: https://doi.org/www.cic.gc.ca/english/pub/index-2.html#irpa.
5.Menzies R. Governing mentalities: The deportation of “insane” and “feebleminded” immigrants out of British Columbia from Confederation to World War II. Can J Law and Society. 1998;13(2):135–73. [Google Scholar]
6.Avery D. “Dangerous Foreigners”: European Immigrant Workers and Labour Radicalism in Canada, 1896–1932. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart; 1979. [Google Scholar]
7.Knowles V. Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–1997. Toronto, ON: Dundurn; 1997. [Google Scholar]
8.Roy SA. Job displacement effects of Canadian immigrants by vountry of origin and occupation. Int Migration Rev. 1997;31(1):150–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
9.Ward WP. White Canada Forever: Popular Attitudes and Public Policy toward Orientals in British Columbia. 2nd ed. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press; 1990. [Google Scholar]
10.Dowbiggin I. The Canadian Historical Review. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1995. “Keeping this young country sane”: C.K. Clarke, immigration restriction and Canadian psychiatry, 1890–1925. [Google Scholar]
11.Salvendy JT. The mental health of immigrants: A reassessment of concepts. Canada’s Mental Health. 1983;31:9–12. [Google Scholar]
12.Goldlust J, Richmond AH. A multivariate model of immigrant adaptation. Int Migration Rev. 1974;8(2):193–225. [Google Scholar]
13.Carpenter L, Brockington IF. A study of mental illness in Asians, West Indians, and Africans living in Manchester. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;137:201–205. doi: 10.1192/bjp.137.3.201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
14.Cheung F, Dobkin de Rios MF. Recent trends in the study of the mental health of Chinese immigrants to the United States. Research in Race and Ethnic Relations. 1982;3:145–63. [Google Scholar]
15.Dean G, Walsh D, Downing H, Shelley E. First admission of native-born and immigrants to psychiatric hospitals in South-East England 1976. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;139:506–12. doi: 10.1192/bjp.139.6.506. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16.Murphy HBM. Migration and the major mental disorders: A reappraisal. In: Zwingmann C, Pfister-Ammende M, editors. Uprooting and After. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1973. pp. 204–20. [Google Scholar]
17.Bland RC, Orn H. Schizophrenia: Sociocultural factors. Can J Psychiatry. 1981;26:186–88. doi: 10.1177/070674378102600310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18.Ali J. Mental health of Canada’s immigrants. Health Rep. 2002;13:101–13. [Google Scholar]
19.Chen J, Ng E, Wilkins R. The health of Canada’s immigrants in 1994–95. Health Rep. 1996;74:33–45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
20.Dunn JR, Dyck I. Social determinants of health in Canada’s immigrant population: Results from the National Population Health Survey. Soc Sci Med. 2000;51:1573–93. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00053-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21.Laroche M. Health status and health services utilization of Canada’s Immigrant and nonimmigrant populations. Canadian Public Policy. 2000;XXVI(1):51–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22.Newbold KB, Danforth J. Health status and Canada’s immigrant population. Soc Sci Med. 2003;57:1981–95. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00064-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23.Ali JS, McDermott S, Gravel RG. Recent research on immigrant health from Statistics Canada’s population surveys. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):19–23. doi: 10.1007/BF03403659. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24.Francis D. The National Post. 1999. These refugees and immigrants can be deadly. [Google Scholar]
25.World Health Organization. Tuberculosis [homepage on the Internet] 2002. [Google Scholar]
26.Health Canada. Tuberculosis in Canada: 1995 Annual Report. Ottawa, ON: Health and Protection Branch, Health Canada; 1995. [Google Scholar]
27.McKenna MT, McCray E, Onorato I. The epidemiology of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States, 1986 to 1995. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1071–76. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199504203321606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28.Binkin NJ, Zuber PLF, Wells CD, Tipple MA, Castro KG. Overseas screening for tuberculosis among immigrants and refugees to the United States: Current status. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:1226–32. doi: 10.1093/clinids/23.6.1226. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29.Powell KE, Brown ED, Farer LS. Tuberculosis among Indochinese refugees in the United States. JAMA. 1983;249:1455–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30.Kerbel D. Epidemiology of tuberculosis in Ontario 1995. PHERO. 1997;8(4):81–93. [Google Scholar]
31.Powell KE, Meador MP, Farer LS. Foreign-born persons with tuberculosis in the United States. Am J Public Health. 1981;71:1223–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.71.11.1223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
32.Hargreaves J. Tuberculosis notifications in Australia. 1993. Commun Dis Intell. 1995;19:334–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33.Orr PH, Manfreda J, Hershfield ES. Tuberculosis surveillance in immigrants to Manitoba. CMAJ. 1990;142(5):453–58. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34.Weis SE, Moonan PK, Pogoda JM, Turk L, King B, Freeman-Thompson S, et al. Tuberculosis in the foreign-born population of Tarrant county, Texas, by immigration status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:953–57. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.6.2102132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35.British Tuberculosis Association. Tuberculosis among immigrants to England and Wales. A national survey in 1965. Tubercle. 1966;47:145–56. doi: 10.1016/s0041-3879(66)80032-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
36.Raviglione MG, Sudre P, Rieder HI, Spinacis S, et al. Secular trends of tuberculosis in western Europe. WHO Bulletin. 1995;71:291–306. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
37.Felton MK, Rath T, Magdorf K, Klett M, Leichsenring M. Childhood tuberculosis in Germany between 1985 and 1994: Comparison of three selected patient groups. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2:797–803. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38.Lambregts-van Weezenbeek CS, Jansen HM, Nagelkerke NJ, van Klingeren B, Veen J. Nationwide surveillance of drug-resistant tuberculosis in The Netherlands: Rates, risk factors and treatment outcome. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2:288–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
39.van Loenhout-Rooyackers JH. Risk of tuberculosis in the inadequate handling of refugees seeking asylum. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1994;138:2496–500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40.Kraut AM. Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the “Immigrant Menace”. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1994. [Google Scholar]
41.Chen J, Ng E, Wilkins R. Health expectancy by immigrant status. Health Rep. 1996;8(3):29–37. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42.Perez CF. Health status and health behaviour among immigrants. Health Rep. 2002;13:89–100. [Google Scholar]
43.Kinnon D. Canadian Research on Immigration and Health — An Overview. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada; 1999. [Google Scholar]
44.Dryburgh HB, Humel J. Immigrants in demand: Staying or leaving. Canadian Social Trends. 2004;74:12. [Google Scholar]
45.Kliewer EV, Jones R. Immigrant Health, and the Use of Medical Services: Results from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia. Canberra, Australia: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; 1997. [Google Scholar]
46.Kliewer EV, Smith KR. Breast cancer mortality among immigrants in Australia and Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87(15):1154–61. doi: 10.1093/jnci/87.15.1154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47.Kliewer EV, Ward D. Convergence of immigrant suicide rates to those in the destination country. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;127(3):640–53. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114839. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48.Nair C, Nargundkar H, Johansen H, Stachan J. Canadian cardiovascular disease mortality: First generation immigrants versus Canadian born. Health Rep. 1990;293:203–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49.Hazuda HP, Haffner SM, Stern MP, Eifler CW. Effects of acculturation and socioeconom-ic status on obesity and diabetes in Mexican Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;128:1289–301. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50.Frisbie WP, Youngtae C, Hummer RA. Immigration and the health of Asian and Pacific Islander adults in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(4):372–80. doi: 10.1093/aje/153.4.372. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51.World Health Organization [homepage on the Internet]. Health topics, Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) 2003. [Google Scholar]
52.Marmot MG, Syme SL. Acculturation and coronary heart disease in Japanese Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 1976;104(3):225–47. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53.World Health Organization [homepage on the Internet]. Health topics, Obesity and Overweight. 2003. [Google Scholar]
54.Katzmarzyk PT. The Canadian obesity epidemic 1985–1998. 2002. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55.Anderson RE. The spread of the childhood obesity epidemic. 2000. [Google Scholar]
56.Beiser M, Devins G, Dion R, Hyman I, Lin E. Immigration, Acculturation and Health. Ottawa, ON: National Health Research and Development Program; 1997. [Google Scholar]
57.Cairney J, Ostbye T. Time since immigration and excess body weight. Can J Public Health. 1999;90(2):120–24. doi: 10.1007/BF03404114. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
58.Weijers RNM, Bekedeam DJ, Oosting H. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus in an inner city multi-ethnic population. Eur J Epidemiol. 1998;14(7):693–99. doi: 10.1023/a:1007597623897. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
59.Karvonen M, Viik-Kajander MV, Moltchanova E, Libman I, LaPorte R, Tuomilehto J. Incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes world wide, 2000. In: Barcelo A, Rajpathak S, editors. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2001. [Google Scholar]
60.Amos AF, McCarty DJ, Zimmet P. The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications. In: Barcelo A, Rajpathak S, editors. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2001. [Google Scholar]
61.Sheth T, Nair C, Nargundkar M, Anand S, Yusuf S. Cardiovascular and cancer mortality among Canadians of European, South Asian and Chinese origin from 1979 to 1993: An analysis of 1.2 million deaths. CMAJ. 1999;161(20):131–38. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62.Greenhalgh PM. Diabetes in British South Asians: Nature, nurture, and culture. Diabetic Medicine. 1997;14:10–18. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199701)14:1<10::AID-DIA282>3.0.CO;2-B. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63.Balzi D, Geddes A, Brancker A, et al. Cancer mortality in Italian immigrants and their offspring in Canada. Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6(1):68–74. doi: 10.1007/BF00051682. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
64.Potter JD, Slattery ML, Bostick RM, Gapstur SM. Colon cancer: A review of the epidemiology. Epidemiol Rev. 1993;15:499–545. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
65.Haenszel W, Berg JW, Segi M, Kurihara M, Locke FB. Large-bowel cancer in Hawaiian Japanese. J Nat Cancer Inst. 1973;51:1765–79. doi: 10.1093/jnci/51.6.1765. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66.Kolonel LN, Hinds MW, Hankin JH, et al. Cancer patterns among migrant and native-born Japanese in Hawaii in relation to smoking, drinking, and dietary habits. In: Gelboin HV, et al., editors. Genetic and Environmental Factors in Experimental and Human Cancer. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Scientific Societies Press; 1980. pp. 327–40. [Google Scholar]
67.Flood DM, Weiss NS, Cook LS, Emerson JC, Schwartz SM, Potter JD. Colorectal cancer incidence in Asian migrants to the United States and their descendants. Cancer Causes Control. 2000;115:403–11. doi: 10.1023/a:1008955722425. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
68.Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, Hildesheim A, Nomura AMY, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85(22):1819–27. doi: 10.1093/jnci/85.22.1819. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
69.Carballo M, Divino JJ, Zeric D. Migration and health in the European Union. Trop Med Int Health. 1998;3(12):936–44. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1998.00337.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
70.Donovan JL. Ethnicity and health: A research review. Soc Sci Med. 1984;19:663–70. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(84)90237-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
71.Huraux-Rendu C, Attali-Marot C, Bourdillon F. La migration familiale: La pathologie de la femme migrant et des nouveau-nés, étude des factors de risque et recherche de measures preventives. Journal de Pathologie des Migrants. 1984;34:3231–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
72.Stengel B, Saurel-Cubizolles M, Kaminski M. Pregnant immigrant women: Occupational activity, antenatal care and outcome. Int J Epidemiol. 1986;15(4):533–39. doi: 10.1093/ije/15.4.533. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
73.Balarajan R, Botting B. Perinatal mortality in England and Wales: Variations by mother’s country of birth. Health Trends. 1989;51:79–84. doi: 10.1136/adc.64.10.1457. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
74.Balarajan R, Harding S. Limiting long-term illness among black Caribbeans, black Africans, Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Chinese born in the U. Ethnic Health. 2000;5(1):41–46. doi: 10.1080/13557850050007338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
75.Chitty LS, Winter RM. Perinatal mortality in different ethnic groups. Arch Dis Child. 1989;64(7):1036–41. doi: 10.1136/adc.64.7.1036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
76.Lai DW. Health status of older Chinese in Canada. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):193–97. doi: 10.1007/BF03403647. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
77.Balarajan R, Bulusu L, Adelstein AM, Shukla V. Patterns of mortality among migrants to England and Wales from the Indian subcontinent. Br Med J. 1984;3(6453):1185–87. doi: 10.1136/bmj.289.6453.1185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
78.Vega WA, Kolody B, Warheit G. Psychoneuroses among Mexican Americans and other whites: Prevalence and caseness. Am J Public Health. 1985;75:523–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.75.5.523. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
79.Kampman E, Slattery M, Bigler J, et al. Meat consumption, genetic susceptibility, and colon cancer risk: A United States multicenter case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:69–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
80.Jolly K, Pais P, Rihal CS. Coronary artery disease among South Asians: Identification of a high risk population. Can J Cardiol. 1996;12(6):569–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
81.DeVoretz D. Diminishing Returns: The Economics of Immigration Policy. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1995. [Google Scholar]
82.Beiser M, Hou F. Poverty and mental health among immigrant and non-immigrant children. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(2):220–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.92.2.220. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
83.CitizenshipImmigration Canada. Facts and Figures 1999, Immigration Overview. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Canada; 2000. [Google Scholar]
84.Beiser M, Johnson PJ, Turner RJ. Unemployment, underemployment and depressive affect among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 1993;23:731–43. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700025502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
85.Kliewer EV, Jones R. Changing Patterns of Immigrant Health and Use of Medical Services. Results from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrant to Australia (LSIA) Australia: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; 1998. [Google Scholar]
86.Saphir A. Asian Americans and cancer: Discarding the myth of the “model minority”. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997;89(310):1572–74. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
87.Brennfleck JS. Ethnic Diseases: Sourcebook. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics; 2001. [Google Scholar]
88.Edwards N, Boulet J. Implementing breast cancer screening guidelines: Results of the Ontario Health Status Survey. Am J Prev Med. 1997;13:143–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
89.Carter JS, Pugh JA, Monterrosa A. Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in minorities in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125(3):221–32. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-125-3-199608010-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
90.Hyman I, Dussault G. The effect of acculturation on low birthweight in immigrant women. Can J Public Health. 1996;87(2):158–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
91.Hyman I. Negative consequences of acculturation: Low birthweight in a population of pregnant immigrant women. Can J Public Health. 2000;91(5):357–61. doi: 10.1007/BF03404807. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
92.Kramer MS. Intrauterine growth and gestation-al determinants. Pediatrics. 1987;80:502–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
93.Reeb KG, Graham AV, Zyzanski SJ, Kitson GC. Predicting low birthweight and complicated labour in urban Black women: A bio-psychosocial perspective. Soc Sci Med. 1987;25:1321–27. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(87)90130-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
94.Chavez L, Cornelius W, Jones O. Mexican immigrants and the utilization of US health services: The case of San Diego. Soc Sci Med. 1985;21(1):93–102. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(85)90291-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
95.Flaskerud JH, Kim S. Health problems of Asian and Latino immigrants. Nurs Clin North Am. 1999;34(20):359–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
96.Essen B, Bodker B, Sjoberg NO, Langhoff-Roos J, Greisen G, Gudmundsson S, et al. Are some perinatal deaths in immigrant groups linked to suboptimal perinatal care services. BJOG. 2002;109(6):677–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
97.Van Roosmalen J, Schuitemaker NW, Brand R, van Dongen PW, Bennebroek Gravenhorst J. Substandard care in immigrant women versus indigenous deaths in The Netherlands. BJOG. 2002;109(2):212–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
98.Bona G, Zaffaroni M, Cataldo F, Sandri F, Salvioli GP. Infants of immigrant parents in Italy. A national multicentre case control study. Panminerva Med. 2001;43(3):155–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
99.Gould JB, Madan A, Qin C, Chavez G. Perinatal outcomes in two dissimilar immigrant populations in the United States: A dual epi-demiologic paradox. Pediatrics. 2003;111(6Pt1):676–82. doi: 10.1542/peds.111.6.e676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
100.Rumbaut GR, Weeks RJ. Unraveling a public health enigma: Why do immigrants experience superior perinatal health outcomes. Research in the Sociology of Health Care. 1996;13:335–88. [Google Scholar]
101.Doucet H, Baumgarten M, Infante-Rivard C. Risk of low birthweight and prematurity among foreign-born mothers. Can J Public Health. 1992;83(3):192–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
102.Maclean H. Breastfeeding in Canada: A demographic and experiential perspective. J Can Diet Assoc. 1998;59(1):15–23. [Google Scholar]
103.Health Canada. Breastfeeding in Canada: A Review and Update. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Health; 1999. [Google Scholar]
104.Green-Finestone L, Feldman W, Heick H, Luke B. Infant feeding practices and sociode-mographic factors in Ottawa-Carleton. Can J Public Health. 1989;80:173–76. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
105.Tyhurst L. Displacement and migration: a study in social psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 1951;107:561–68. doi: 10.1176/ajp.107.8.561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
106.Tyhurst L. Psychological first aid for refugees. Mental Health and Society. 1977;4:319–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
107.Holmes TH, Masuda M. Life change and illness susceptibility. In: Scott JP, Senay EC, editors. Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science; 1973. [Google Scholar]
108.Grinberg L. A psychoanalytic study of migration: Its normal and pathological aspects. J Am Psychoanal Assoc. 1984;32:13–38. doi: 10.1177/000306518403200103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
109.Rumbaut RG, et al. Mental health and the refugee experience: A comparative study of Southeast Asian refugees. In: Owan T, Bliatout B, Lin KM, et al., editors. Southeast Asian Mental Health: Treatment, Prevention, Services, and Research. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health; 1985. [Google Scholar]
110.Bagheri A. Psychiatric problems among Iranian immigrants in Canada. Can J Psychiatry. 1992;37(1):7–11. doi: 10.1177/070674379203700103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
111.Rumbaut RG. Portraits, patterns and predictors of the refugee adaptation process: A comparative study of Southeast Asian refugees. In: Haines DW, editor. Refugees and Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield; 1988. [Google Scholar]
112.Beiser M. Influences of time, ethnicity, and attachment on depression in Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145(1):46–51. doi: 10.1176/ajp.145.1.46. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
113.Beiser M, Turner RJ, Ganesan S. Catastrophic stress and factors affecting its consequences among Southeast Asian refugees. Soc Si Med. 1989;28:183–95. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(89)90261-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
114.Beiser M. Strangers at the Gate: The “Boat People’s” First Ten Years in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1999. [Google Scholar]
115.Noh S, Beiser M, Kaspar V, Hou F, Rummens J. perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. J Health Soc Behav. 1999;40:193–207. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
116.Styblo K. Overview and epidemiologic assessment of the current global tuberculosis situation with an emphasis on control in developing countries. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11(Suppl2):S339–46. doi: 10.1093/clinids/11.supplement_2.s339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
117.Talbot EA, Moore M, McCray E, Binkin NJ. Tuberculosis among foreign-persons in the United States, 1993–1998. JAMA. 2000;284(22):2894–900. doi: 10.1001/jama.284.22.2894. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
118.Zuber PL, McKenna MT, Binkin NJ, Onorato IM, Castro KG. Long-term risk of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States. JAMA. 1997;278:304–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
119.Murray M. Molecular epidemiology and the dynamics of tuberculosis transmission among foreign-born people. CMAJ. 2002;167(4):355–56. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
120.Hopewell PC. Using conventional and molecular epidemiological analyses to target tuberculosis control interventions in a low incidence area. Nova Foundation Symposium. 1998;217:42–54. doi: 10.1002/0470846526.ch4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
121.Borgdorff MW, Behr MA, Nagelkerke NJ, Hopewell PC, Small PM. Transmission of tuberculosis in San Francisco and its association with immigrants and ethnicity. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4:287–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
122.Geng E, Krieswirth B, Driver C, Li J, Burzynaki J, DellaLatta P, et al. Changes in the transmission of tuberculosis in New York City from 1990 to 1999. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(19):453–58. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa012972. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
123.Lillebaek T, Andersen AB, Dirksen A, Smith E, Skovgard LT, Kok-Jer A. Persistent high incidence of tuberculosis in immigrants in a low-incidence country. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:679–84. doi: 10.3201/eid0807.010482. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
124.McKeigue PM, Miller GJ, Marmot MG. Coronary heart disease in South Asian overseas: A review. J Clin Epidemiol. 1989;41(7):597–609. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(89)90002-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
125.McKeigue PM, Ferrie JE, Pierpoint T. Association of early onset coronary heart disease in South Asian men with glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia. Circulation. 1993;87:142–61. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.87.1.152. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
126.Maskarinec G. Breast cancer — interaction between ethnicity and environment. Vivo. 2000;14:115–24. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
127.Whittemore AS. Colorectal cancer incidence among Chinese in North America and the People’s Republic of China: Variation with sex, age and anatomical site. Int J Epidemiol. 1989;18(3):563–68. doi: 10.1093/ije/18.3.563. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
128.Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C. Problems specific to developing countries and the effects of Westernization. In: Hitman GA, editor. Type 2 Diabetes: Prediction and Prevention. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1999. [Google Scholar]
129.Helman C. Culture, Health and Illness. London: Butterworth Heinemann; 1990. [Google Scholar]
130.Cochrane R, Hashmi F, Stopes-Roe M. Measuring psychological disturbance in Asian immigrants to Britain. Soc Sci Med. 1977;11:157–64. doi: 10.1016/0037-7856(77)90088-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
131.Cochrane R, Stopes-Roe M. Psychological symptom levels in Indian immigrants to England: A comparison with native English. Psychol Med. 1981;11:319–27. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700052132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
132.Munroe-Blum H, Boyle MG, Offord DR, Kates N. Immigrant children: Psychiatric disorder, school performance, and service utilization. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1989;59:510–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb02740.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
133.Halldin J. Prevalence of mental disorder in an urban population in central Sweden in relation to social class, marital status and immigration. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1985;71:117–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb01262.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
134.Roskies E. Sex, culture and illness: An overview. Soc Sci Med. 1978;12:139–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
135.Westermeyer J, Vang TF, Neider J. Refugees who do and do not seek psychiatric care: An analysis of premigratory and postmigratory characteristics. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1983;171:86–91. doi: 10.1097/00005053-198302000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
136.Hollifield M, Warner TD, Lian N, Krakow B, Jenkins JH, Kessler J, et al. Measuring trauma and health status in refugees. A critical review. JAMA. 2002;288(5):611–21. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.5.611. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
137.Meerloo JAM. Aftermath of Peace; Psychological Essays. New York, NY: International Universities Press; 1946. [Google Scholar]
138.Pedersen S. Psychopathological reactions to extreme social displacements (refugee neuroses) Psychoanal Rev. 1949;36:344–54. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
139.Goldfield N, Lee W. Caring for Indochinese refugees. Am Fam Physician. 1982;26(3):157–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
140.Baskaukos L. The Lithuanian refugee experience and grief. Int Migration Rev. 1981;15:276–91. [Google Scholar]
141.Hogman P. Role of memories in lives of World War II orphans. J Am Acad Child Psychol. 1985;2:390–96. doi: 10.1016/s0002-7138(09)60555-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
142.Beiser M. Changing time perspective and mental health among Southeast Asian refugee. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1987;11:437–64. doi: 10.1007/BF00048493. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
143.Beiser M, Hyman I. Refugees’ time perspective and mental health. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:996–1002. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.7.996. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
144.Beiser M, Wickrama KAS. Trauma, time and mental health: A study of temporal reintegration and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 2004;34:899–910. doi: 10.1017/s0033291703001703. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
145.Handlin O. The Uprooted. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.; 1951. [Google Scholar]
146.Eisenstadt SN. The Absorption of Immigrants. London, England: Routledge and Kegan; 1954. [Google Scholar]
147.Oberg K. Culture shock: Adjustment to the cultural environments. Practical Anthropology. 1960;7:177–82. [Google Scholar]
148.Kuo W. Theories of migration and mental health. An empirical testing on Chinese-Americans. Soc Sci Med. 1976;10:297–306. doi: 10.1016/0037-7856(76)90074-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
149.Beiser M, Collomb H, Ravel JL. Mastering change: Epidemiological and case studies. Am J Psychiatry. 1981;13(4):455–59. doi: 10.1176/ajp.138.4.455. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
150.Hinton L, Tiet Q, Tran CG, Chesney M. Predictors of depression among refugees from Vietnam: A longitudinal study of new arrivals. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185(1):39–45. doi: 10.1097/00005053-199701000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
151.Levav I. Individuals under conditions of maximum adversity: The holocaust. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]
152.Breslau N. Epidemiologic studies of trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2002;44(10):923–29. doi: 10.1177/070674370204701003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
153.Mollica RF, Poole C, Tor S. Symptoms, functioning and health problems in a massively traumatized population: The legacy of the Cambodian tragedy. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]
154.Boehnein JK, Kinzie JD. Refugee trauma. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review. 1995;32:223–52. [Google Scholar]
155.Sack WH, McSharry S, Clarke GN, Kinney R, Seeley J, Lewinsohn P. The Khmer adolescent project. I. Epidemiologic findings in two generations of Cambodian refugees. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(7):387–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
156.Kinzie JD, Boehnlein JK, Leung PK, Moore PJ, Riley C, Smith D. The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and its clinical significance among Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:913–17. doi: 10.1176/ajp.147.7.913. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
157.Keane TM. Psychological effects of military combat. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]
158.Steel Z, Silove D, Phan T, Bauman A. Long-term effect of psychological trauma on the mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: A population-based study. Lancet. 2002;360:1056–62. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11142-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
159.Goldberg J, True WR, Eisen SA, Henderson WG. A twin study of the effects of the Vietnam war on post-traumatic stress disorder. JAMA. 1990;263:1227–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
160.Turner SW, Grost-Unsworth C. Psychological sequelae of torture. A descriptive model. Br J Psychiatry. 1990;157:475–80. doi: 10.1192/bjp.157.4.475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
161.Berry JW. Psychology of Acculturation. In: Goldberg NR, Veroff JB, editors. The Culture and Psychology Reader. New York, NY: New York University Press; 1995. pp. 457–488. [Google Scholar]
162.Berry JW. Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 1997;4(1):5–34. [Google Scholar]
163.Beiser M, Collomb H, Ravel JL, Nafziger CJ. Systemic blood pressure studies among the Serer of Senegal. J Chron Dis. 1976;29:371–80. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(76)90058-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
164.Berry JW, Blondel T. Psychological adaptation of Vietnamese refugees in Canada. Can J Community Mental Health. 1970;1:81–88. [Google Scholar]
165.Murphy HBM. Flight and Resettlement. Paris: UNESCO; 1955. [Google Scholar]
166.Murphy HBM. Migration, culture and mental health. Psychol Med. 1977;7(4):677–84. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700006334. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
167.Aylesworth LS, Ossorio PG. Refugees: Cultural displacement and its effects. Advances in Descriptive Psychology. 1983;3:45–93. [Google Scholar]
168.Starr PD, Roberts AE. Community structure and Vietnamese refugee adaptation: The significance of context. Int Migration Rev. 1982;16:595–618. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
169.Woon Y. The mode of refugee sponsorship and the socio-economic adaptation of Vietnamese in Victoria: A three-year perspective. In: Chan KB, Indra DM, editors. Uprooting, Loss and Adaptation: The Resettlement of Indochinese in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Public Health Association; 1987. pp. 132–46. [Google Scholar]
170.Beiser M, Simich L, Wickrama KAS. Sponsorship and resettlement success. J Int Migration and Integration. 2003;4(2):203–16. [Google Scholar]
171.Obeyesekere G. Depression, Buddhism, and the work of culture in Sri Lanka. In Kleinman A, Good B (Eds.). Culture and Depression. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985;134-52.
172.Leff JP. Culture and the differentiation of emotional states. Br J Psychiatry. 1973;123:299–306. doi: 10.1192/bjp.123.3.299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
173.Leff JP. Notions of the emotions. Mental Health and Society. 1977;4:308–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
174.Kleinman A. Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1980. [Google Scholar]
175.Kleinman A. Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1982;6:117–90. doi: 10.1007/BF00051427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
176.Tseng WS. The nature of somatic complaints among psychiatric patients: The Chinese case. Comparative Psychiatry. 1975;16:237–45. doi: 10.1016/0010-440x(75)90050-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
177.Yap PM. Phenomenology of affective disorders in Chinese and other cultures. In: deReuck AVS, Porter R, editors. Transcultural Psychiatry. London, England: J. & A. Churchill; 1965. pp. 84–108. [Google Scholar]
178.Cheung FM, Lau BW, Waldmann E. Somatization among Chinese depressives in general practice. Int J Psychiatry Med. 1980;10:361–74. doi: 10.2190/bvy5-yccr-ct1v-20fr. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
179.Kinzie JD, Manson SM. Five years experience with Indochinese refugee psychiatric patients. J Operational Psychiatry. 1983;14:105–11. [Google Scholar]
180.Kinzie JD. Cultural aspects of psychiatric treatment with Indochinese refugees. Am J Social Psychiatry. 1985;5:47–53. [Google Scholar]
181.Murphy JM. Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective. Science. 1976;191:1019–28. doi: 10.1126/science.1251213. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
182.Beiser M, Fleming JA. Measuring psychiatric disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 1986;16:627–39. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700010382. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
183.Beiser M, Woodbury M, Cargo M. A comparison of psychiatric disorder in different cultures: Depression typologies in Southeast Asian refugees and resident Canadians. Int J Methods in Psychiatric Research. 1994;4:157–72. [Google Scholar]
184.Kinzie JD, Manson SM, Vinh DT, Tolan NT, Anh B, Pho TN. Development and validation of a Vietnamese-Language depression rating scale. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:1276–81. doi: 10.1176/ajp.139.10.1276. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
185.Kliewer EV, Smith KR. Breast cancer mortality among immigrants in Australia and Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87(15):1154–61. doi: 10.1093/jnci/87.15.1154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR1] 1.Gushulak BD, Williams LS. National immigration health policy: Existing policy, changing needs, and future directions. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):127–29. doi: 10.1007/BF03403662. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR2] 2.DesMueles M, Gold J, Kazanjian A, Vissandjee B, Manuel D, Payne J A. New approaches to immigrant health assessment. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):122–26. doi: 10.1007/BF03403661. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR3] 3.Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issue. Affecting Immigrants and Refugees. After the Door Has Been Opened: Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees in Canada. ottawa, ON: Ministry of Supply and Services Canada; 1988. [Google Scholar]

[CR4] 4.Citizenship and Immigration Canada [Publications on the Internet]. Statistics/Reference [updated 2004 Oct 18; cited 2004 Oct 20]. Available from: https://doi.org/www.cic.gc.ca/english/pub/index-2.html#irpa.

[CR5] 5.Menzies R. Governing mentalities: The deportation of “insane” and “feebleminded” immigrants out of British Columbia from Confederation to World War II. Can J Law and Society. 1998;13(2):135–73. [Google Scholar]

[CR6] 6.Avery D. “Dangerous Foreigners”: European Immigrant Workers and Labour Radicalism in Canada, 1896–1932. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart; 1979. [Google Scholar]

[CR7] 7.Knowles V. Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–1997. Toronto, ON: Dundurn; 1997. [Google Scholar]

[CR8] 8.Roy SA. Job displacement effects of Canadian immigrants by vountry of origin and occupation. Int Migration Rev. 1997;31(1):150–61. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR9] 9.Ward WP. White Canada Forever: Popular Attitudes and Public Policy toward Orientals in British Columbia. 2nd ed. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press; 1990. [Google Scholar]

[CR10] 10.Dowbiggin I. The Canadian Historical Review. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1995. “Keeping this young country sane”: C.K. Clarke, immigration restriction and Canadian psychiatry, 1890–1925. [Google Scholar]

[CR11] 11.Salvendy JT. The mental health of immigrants: A reassessment of concepts. Canada’s Mental Health. 1983;31:9–12. [Google Scholar]

[CR12] 12.Goldlust J, Richmond AH. A multivariate model of immigrant adaptation. Int Migration Rev. 1974;8(2):193–225. [Google Scholar]

[CR13] 13.Carpenter L, Brockington IF. A study of mental illness in Asians, West Indians, and Africans living in Manchester. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;137:201–205. doi: 10.1192/bjp.137.3.201. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR14] 14.Cheung F, Dobkin de Rios MF. Recent trends in the study of the mental health of Chinese immigrants to the United States. Research in Race and Ethnic Relations. 1982;3:145–63. [Google Scholar]

[CR15] 15.Dean G, Walsh D, Downing H, Shelley E. First admission of native-born and immigrants to psychiatric hospitals in South-East England 1976. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;139:506–12. doi: 10.1192/bjp.139.6.506. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR16] 16.Murphy HBM. Migration and the major mental disorders: A reappraisal. In: Zwingmann C, Pfister-Ammende M, editors. Uprooting and After. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1973. pp. 204–20. [Google Scholar]

[CR17] 17.Bland RC, Orn H. Schizophrenia: Sociocultural factors. Can J Psychiatry. 1981;26:186–88. doi: 10.1177/070674378102600310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR18] 18.Ali J. Mental health of Canada’s immigrants. Health Rep. 2002;13:101–13. [Google Scholar]

[CR19] 19.Chen J, Ng E, Wilkins R. The health of Canada’s immigrants in 1994–95. Health Rep. 1996;74:33–45. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR20] 20.Dunn JR, Dyck I. Social determinants of health in Canada’s immigrant population: Results from the National Population Health Survey. Soc Sci Med. 2000;51:1573–93. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00053-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR21] 21.Laroche M. Health status and health services utilization of Canada’s Immigrant and nonimmigrant populations. Canadian Public Policy. 2000;XXVI(1):51–73. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR22] 22.Newbold KB, Danforth J. Health status and Canada’s immigrant population. Soc Sci Med. 2003;57:1981–95. doi: 10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00064-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR23] 23.Ali JS, McDermott S, Gravel RG. Recent research on immigrant health from Statistics Canada’s population surveys. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):19–23. doi: 10.1007/BF03403659. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR24] 24.Francis D. The National Post. 1999. These refugees and immigrants can be deadly. [Google Scholar]

[CR25] 25.World Health Organization. Tuberculosis [homepage on the Internet] 2002. [Google Scholar]

[CR26] 26.Health Canada. Tuberculosis in Canada: 1995 Annual Report. Ottawa, ON: Health and Protection Branch, Health Canada; 1995. [Google Scholar]

[CR27] 27.McKenna MT, McCray E, Onorato I. The epidemiology of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States, 1986 to 1995. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1071–76. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199504203321606. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR28] 28.Binkin NJ, Zuber PLF, Wells CD, Tipple MA, Castro KG. Overseas screening for tuberculosis among immigrants and refugees to the United States: Current status. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;23:1226–32. doi: 10.1093/clinids/23.6.1226. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR29] 29.Powell KE, Brown ED, Farer LS. Tuberculosis among Indochinese refugees in the United States. JAMA. 1983;249:1455–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR30] 30.Kerbel D. Epidemiology of tuberculosis in Ontario 1995. PHERO. 1997;8(4):81–93. [Google Scholar]

[CR31] 31.Powell KE, Meador MP, Farer LS. Foreign-born persons with tuberculosis in the United States. Am J Public Health. 1981;71:1223–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.71.11.1223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR32] 32.Hargreaves J. Tuberculosis notifications in Australia. 1993. Commun Dis Intell. 1995;19:334–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR33] 33.Orr PH, Manfreda J, Hershfield ES. Tuberculosis surveillance in immigrants to Manitoba. CMAJ. 1990;142(5):453–58. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR34] 34.Weis SE, Moonan PK, Pogoda JM, Turk L, King B, Freeman-Thompson S, et al. Tuberculosis in the foreign-born population of Tarrant county, Texas, by immigration status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:953–57. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.164.6.2102132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR35] 35.British Tuberculosis Association. Tuberculosis among immigrants to England and Wales. A national survey in 1965. Tubercle. 1966;47:145–56. doi: 10.1016/s0041-3879(66)80032-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR36] 36.Raviglione MG, Sudre P, Rieder HI, Spinacis S, et al. Secular trends of tuberculosis in western Europe. WHO Bulletin. 1995;71:291–306. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR37] 37.Felton MK, Rath T, Magdorf K, Klett M, Leichsenring M. Childhood tuberculosis in Germany between 1985 and 1994: Comparison of three selected patient groups. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2:797–803. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR38] 38.Lambregts-van Weezenbeek CS, Jansen HM, Nagelkerke NJ, van Klingeren B, Veen J. Nationwide surveillance of drug-resistant tuberculosis in The Netherlands: Rates, risk factors and treatment outcome. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2:288–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR39] 39.van Loenhout-Rooyackers JH. Risk of tuberculosis in the inadequate handling of refugees seeking asylum. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 1994;138:2496–500. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR40] 40.Kraut AM. Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the “Immigrant Menace”. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1994. [Google Scholar]

[CR41] 41.Chen J, Ng E, Wilkins R. Health expectancy by immigrant status. Health Rep. 1996;8(3):29–37. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR42] 42.Perez CF. Health status and health behaviour among immigrants. Health Rep. 2002;13:89–100. [Google Scholar]

[CR43] 43.Kinnon D. Canadian Research on Immigration and Health — An Overview. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada; 1999. [Google Scholar]

[CR44] 44.Dryburgh HB, Humel J. Immigrants in demand: Staying or leaving. Canadian Social Trends. 2004;74:12. [Google Scholar]

[CR45] 45.Kliewer EV, Jones R. Immigrant Health, and the Use of Medical Services: Results from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia. Canberra, Australia: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; 1997. [Google Scholar]

[CR46] 46.Kliewer EV, Smith KR. Breast cancer mortality among immigrants in Australia and Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87(15):1154–61. doi: 10.1093/jnci/87.15.1154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR47] 47.Kliewer EV, Ward D. Convergence of immigrant suicide rates to those in the destination country. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;127(3):640–53. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114839. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR48] 48.Nair C, Nargundkar H, Johansen H, Stachan J. Canadian cardiovascular disease mortality: First generation immigrants versus Canadian born. Health Rep. 1990;293:203–28. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR49] 49.Hazuda HP, Haffner SM, Stern MP, Eifler CW. Effects of acculturation and socioeconom-ic status on obesity and diabetes in Mexican Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;128:1289–301. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115082. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR50] 50.Frisbie WP, Youngtae C, Hummer RA. Immigration and the health of Asian and Pacific Islander adults in the United States. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(4):372–80. doi: 10.1093/aje/153.4.372. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR51] 51.World Health Organization [homepage on the Internet]. Health topics, Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) 2003. [Google Scholar]

[CR52] 52.Marmot MG, Syme SL. Acculturation and coronary heart disease in Japanese Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 1976;104(3):225–47. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112296. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR53] 53.World Health Organization [homepage on the Internet]. Health topics, Obesity and Overweight. 2003. [Google Scholar]

[CR54] 54.Katzmarzyk PT. The Canadian obesity epidemic 1985–1998. 2002. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR55] 55.Anderson RE. The spread of the childhood obesity epidemic. 2000. [Google Scholar]

[CR56] 56.Beiser M, Devins G, Dion R, Hyman I, Lin E. Immigration, Acculturation and Health. Ottawa, ON: National Health Research and Development Program; 1997. [Google Scholar]

[CR57] 57.Cairney J, Ostbye T. Time since immigration and excess body weight. Can J Public Health. 1999;90(2):120–24. doi: 10.1007/BF03404114. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR58] 58.Weijers RNM, Bekedeam DJ, Oosting H. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus in an inner city multi-ethnic population. Eur J Epidemiol. 1998;14(7):693–99. doi: 10.1023/a:1007597623897. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR59] 59.Karvonen M, Viik-Kajander MV, Moltchanova E, Libman I, LaPorte R, Tuomilehto J. Incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes world wide, 2000. In: Barcelo A, Rajpathak S, editors. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2001. [Google Scholar]

[CR60] 60.Amos AF, McCarty DJ, Zimmet P. The rising global burden of diabetes and its complications. In: Barcelo A, Rajpathak S, editors. Pan American Journal of Public Health. 2001. [Google Scholar]

[CR61] 61.Sheth T, Nair C, Nargundkar M, Anand S, Yusuf S. Cardiovascular and cancer mortality among Canadians of European, South Asian and Chinese origin from 1979 to 1993: An analysis of 1.2 million deaths. CMAJ. 1999;161(20):131–38. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR62] 62.Greenhalgh PM. Diabetes in British South Asians: Nature, nurture, and culture. Diabetic Medicine. 1997;14:10–18. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199701)14:1<10::AID-DIA282>3.0.CO;2-B. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR63] 63.Balzi D, Geddes A, Brancker A, et al. Cancer mortality in Italian immigrants and their offspring in Canada. Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6(1):68–74. doi: 10.1007/BF00051682. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR64] 64.Potter JD, Slattery ML, Bostick RM, Gapstur SM. Colon cancer: A review of the epidemiology. Epidemiol Rev. 1993;15:499–545. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR65] 65.Haenszel W, Berg JW, Segi M, Kurihara M, Locke FB. Large-bowel cancer in Hawaiian Japanese. J Nat Cancer Inst. 1973;51:1765–79. doi: 10.1093/jnci/51.6.1765. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR66] 66.Kolonel LN, Hinds MW, Hankin JH, et al. Cancer patterns among migrant and native-born Japanese in Hawaii in relation to smoking, drinking, and dietary habits. In: Gelboin HV, et al., editors. Genetic and Environmental Factors in Experimental and Human Cancer. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Scientific Societies Press; 1980. pp. 327–40. [Google Scholar]

[CR67] 67.Flood DM, Weiss NS, Cook LS, Emerson JC, Schwartz SM, Potter JD. Colorectal cancer incidence in Asian migrants to the United States and their descendants. Cancer Causes Control. 2000;115:403–11. doi: 10.1023/a:1008955722425. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR68] 68.Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, Hildesheim A, Nomura AMY, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85(22):1819–27. doi: 10.1093/jnci/85.22.1819. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR69] 69.Carballo M, Divino JJ, Zeric D. Migration and health in the European Union. Trop Med Int Health. 1998;3(12):936–44. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1998.00337.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR70] 70.Donovan JL. Ethnicity and health: A research review. Soc Sci Med. 1984;19:663–70. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(84)90237-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR71] 71.Huraux-Rendu C, Attali-Marot C, Bourdillon F. La migration familiale: La pathologie de la femme migrant et des nouveau-nés, étude des factors de risque et recherche de measures preventives. Journal de Pathologie des Migrants. 1984;34:3231–39. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR72] 72.Stengel B, Saurel-Cubizolles M, Kaminski M. Pregnant immigrant women: Occupational activity, antenatal care and outcome. Int J Epidemiol. 1986;15(4):533–39. doi: 10.1093/ije/15.4.533. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR73] 73.Balarajan R, Botting B. Perinatal mortality in England and Wales: Variations by mother’s country of birth. Health Trends. 1989;51:79–84. doi: 10.1136/adc.64.10.1457. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR74] 74.Balarajan R, Harding S. Limiting long-term illness among black Caribbeans, black Africans, Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Chinese born in the U. Ethnic Health. 2000;5(1):41–46. doi: 10.1080/13557850050007338. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR75] 75.Chitty LS, Winter RM. Perinatal mortality in different ethnic groups. Arch Dis Child. 1989;64(7):1036–41. doi: 10.1136/adc.64.7.1036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR76] 76.Lai DW. Health status of older Chinese in Canada. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(3):193–97. doi: 10.1007/BF03403647. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR77] 77.Balarajan R, Bulusu L, Adelstein AM, Shukla V. Patterns of mortality among migrants to England and Wales from the Indian subcontinent. Br Med J. 1984;3(6453):1185–87. doi: 10.1136/bmj.289.6453.1185. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR78] 78.Vega WA, Kolody B, Warheit G. Psychoneuroses among Mexican Americans and other whites: Prevalence and caseness. Am J Public Health. 1985;75:523–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.75.5.523. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR79] 79.Kampman E, Slattery M, Bigler J, et al. Meat consumption, genetic susceptibility, and colon cancer risk: A United States multicenter case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:69–75. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR80] 80.Jolly K, Pais P, Rihal CS. Coronary artery disease among South Asians: Identification of a high risk population. Can J Cardiol. 1996;12(6):569–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR81] 81.DeVoretz D. Diminishing Returns: The Economics of Immigration Policy. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1995. [Google Scholar]

[CR82] 82.Beiser M, Hou F. Poverty and mental health among immigrant and non-immigrant children. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(2):220–27. doi: 10.2105/ajph.92.2.220. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR83] 83.CitizenshipImmigration Canada. Facts and Figures 1999, Immigration Overview. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Canada; 2000. [Google Scholar]

[CR84] 84.Beiser M, Johnson PJ, Turner RJ. Unemployment, underemployment and depressive affect among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 1993;23:731–43. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700025502. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR85] 85.Kliewer EV, Jones R. Changing Patterns of Immigrant Health and Use of Medical Services. Results from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrant to Australia (LSIA) Australia: Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs; 1998. [Google Scholar]

[CR86] 86.Saphir A. Asian Americans and cancer: Discarding the myth of the “model minority”. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997;89(310):1572–74. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR87] 87.Brennfleck JS. Ethnic Diseases: Sourcebook. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics; 2001. [Google Scholar]

[CR88] 88.Edwards N, Boulet J. Implementing breast cancer screening guidelines: Results of the Ontario Health Status Survey. Am J Prev Med. 1997;13:143–49. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR89] 89.Carter JS, Pugh JA, Monterrosa A. Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus in minorities in the United States. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125(3):221–32. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-125-3-199608010-00011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR90] 90.Hyman I, Dussault G. The effect of acculturation on low birthweight in immigrant women. Can J Public Health. 1996;87(2):158–62. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR91] 91.Hyman I. Negative consequences of acculturation: Low birthweight in a population of pregnant immigrant women. Can J Public Health. 2000;91(5):357–61. doi: 10.1007/BF03404807. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR92] 92.Kramer MS. Intrauterine growth and gestation-al determinants. Pediatrics. 1987;80:502–11. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR93] 93.Reeb KG, Graham AV, Zyzanski SJ, Kitson GC. Predicting low birthweight and complicated labour in urban Black women: A bio-psychosocial perspective. Soc Sci Med. 1987;25:1321–27. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(87)90130-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR94] 94.Chavez L, Cornelius W, Jones O. Mexican immigrants and the utilization of US health services: The case of San Diego. Soc Sci Med. 1985;21(1):93–102. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(85)90291-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR95] 95.Flaskerud JH, Kim S. Health problems of Asian and Latino immigrants. Nurs Clin North Am. 1999;34(20):359–80. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR96] 96.Essen B, Bodker B, Sjoberg NO, Langhoff-Roos J, Greisen G, Gudmundsson S, et al. Are some perinatal deaths in immigrant groups linked to suboptimal perinatal care services. BJOG. 2002;109(6):677–82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR97] 97.Van Roosmalen J, Schuitemaker NW, Brand R, van Dongen PW, Bennebroek Gravenhorst J. Substandard care in immigrant women versus indigenous deaths in The Netherlands. BJOG. 2002;109(2):212–13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR98] 98.Bona G, Zaffaroni M, Cataldo F, Sandri F, Salvioli GP. Infants of immigrant parents in Italy. A national multicentre case control study. Panminerva Med. 2001;43(3):155–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR99] 99.Gould JB, Madan A, Qin C, Chavez G. Perinatal outcomes in two dissimilar immigrant populations in the United States: A dual epi-demiologic paradox. Pediatrics. 2003;111(6Pt1):676–82. doi: 10.1542/peds.111.6.e676. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR100] 100.Rumbaut GR, Weeks RJ. Unraveling a public health enigma: Why do immigrants experience superior perinatal health outcomes. Research in the Sociology of Health Care. 1996;13:335–88. [Google Scholar]

[CR101] 101.Doucet H, Baumgarten M, Infante-Rivard C. Risk of low birthweight and prematurity among foreign-born mothers. Can J Public Health. 1992;83(3):192–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR102] 102.Maclean H. Breastfeeding in Canada: A demographic and experiential perspective. J Can Diet Assoc. 1998;59(1):15–23. [Google Scholar]

[CR103] 103.Health Canada. Breastfeeding in Canada: A Review and Update. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Health; 1999. [Google Scholar]

[CR104] 104.Green-Finestone L, Feldman W, Heick H, Luke B. Infant feeding practices and sociode-mographic factors in Ottawa-Carleton. Can J Public Health. 1989;80:173–76. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR105] 105.Tyhurst L. Displacement and migration: a study in social psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 1951;107:561–68. doi: 10.1176/ajp.107.8.561. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR106] 106.Tyhurst L. Psychological first aid for refugees. Mental Health and Society. 1977;4:319–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR107] 107.Holmes TH, Masuda M. Life change and illness susceptibility. In: Scott JP, Senay EC, editors. Separation and Depression: Clinical and Research Aspects. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science; 1973. [Google Scholar]

[CR108] 108.Grinberg L. A psychoanalytic study of migration: Its normal and pathological aspects. J Am Psychoanal Assoc. 1984;32:13–38. doi: 10.1177/000306518403200103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR109] 109.Rumbaut RG, et al. Mental health and the refugee experience: A comparative study of Southeast Asian refugees. In: Owan T, Bliatout B, Lin KM, et al., editors. Southeast Asian Mental Health: Treatment, Prevention, Services, and Research. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health; 1985. [Google Scholar]

[CR110] 110.Bagheri A. Psychiatric problems among Iranian immigrants in Canada. Can J Psychiatry. 1992;37(1):7–11. doi: 10.1177/070674379203700103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR111] 111.Rumbaut RG. Portraits, patterns and predictors of the refugee adaptation process: A comparative study of Southeast Asian refugees. In: Haines DW, editor. Refugees and Immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield; 1988. [Google Scholar]

[CR112] 112.Beiser M. Influences of time, ethnicity, and attachment on depression in Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145(1):46–51. doi: 10.1176/ajp.145.1.46. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR113] 113.Beiser M, Turner RJ, Ganesan S. Catastrophic stress and factors affecting its consequences among Southeast Asian refugees. Soc Si Med. 1989;28:183–95. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(89)90261-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR114] 114.Beiser M. Strangers at the Gate: The “Boat People’s” First Ten Years in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press; 1999. [Google Scholar]

[CR115] 115.Noh S, Beiser M, Kaspar V, Hou F, Rummens J. perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. J Health Soc Behav. 1999;40:193–207. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR116] 116.Styblo K. Overview and epidemiologic assessment of the current global tuberculosis situation with an emphasis on control in developing countries. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11(Suppl2):S339–46. doi: 10.1093/clinids/11.supplement_2.s339. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR117] 117.Talbot EA, Moore M, McCray E, Binkin NJ. Tuberculosis among foreign-persons in the United States, 1993–1998. JAMA. 2000;284(22):2894–900. doi: 10.1001/jama.284.22.2894. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR118] 118.Zuber PL, McKenna MT, Binkin NJ, Onorato IM, Castro KG. Long-term risk of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States. JAMA. 1997;278:304–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR119] 119.Murray M. Molecular epidemiology and the dynamics of tuberculosis transmission among foreign-born people. CMAJ. 2002;167(4):355–56. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR120] 120.Hopewell PC. Using conventional and molecular epidemiological analyses to target tuberculosis control interventions in a low incidence area. Nova Foundation Symposium. 1998;217:42–54. doi: 10.1002/0470846526.ch4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR121] 121.Borgdorff MW, Behr MA, Nagelkerke NJ, Hopewell PC, Small PM. Transmission of tuberculosis in San Francisco and its association with immigrants and ethnicity. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2000;4:287–94. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR122] 122.Geng E, Krieswirth B, Driver C, Li J, Burzynaki J, DellaLatta P, et al. Changes in the transmission of tuberculosis in New York City from 1990 to 1999. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(19):453–58. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa012972. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR123] 123.Lillebaek T, Andersen AB, Dirksen A, Smith E, Skovgard LT, Kok-Jer A. Persistent high incidence of tuberculosis in immigrants in a low-incidence country. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:679–84. doi: 10.3201/eid0807.010482. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR124] 124.McKeigue PM, Miller GJ, Marmot MG. Coronary heart disease in South Asian overseas: A review. J Clin Epidemiol. 1989;41(7):597–609. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(89)90002-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR125] 125.McKeigue PM, Ferrie JE, Pierpoint T. Association of early onset coronary heart disease in South Asian men with glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinemia. Circulation. 1993;87:142–61. doi: 10.1161/01.cir.87.1.152. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR126] 126.Maskarinec G. Breast cancer — interaction between ethnicity and environment. Vivo. 2000;14:115–24. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR127] 127.Whittemore AS. Colorectal cancer incidence among Chinese in North America and the People’s Republic of China: Variation with sex, age and anatomical site. Int J Epidemiol. 1989;18(3):563–68. doi: 10.1093/ije/18.3.563. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR128] 128.Ramachandran A, Snehalatha C. Problems specific to developing countries and the effects of Westernization. In: Hitman GA, editor. Type 2 Diabetes: Prediction and Prevention. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1999. [Google Scholar]

[CR129] 129.Helman C. Culture, Health and Illness. London: Butterworth Heinemann; 1990. [Google Scholar]

[CR130] 130.Cochrane R, Hashmi F, Stopes-Roe M. Measuring psychological disturbance in Asian immigrants to Britain. Soc Sci Med. 1977;11:157–64. doi: 10.1016/0037-7856(77)90088-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR131] 131.Cochrane R, Stopes-Roe M. Psychological symptom levels in Indian immigrants to England: A comparison with native English. Psychol Med. 1981;11:319–27. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700052132. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR132] 132.Munroe-Blum H, Boyle MG, Offord DR, Kates N. Immigrant children: Psychiatric disorder, school performance, and service utilization. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1989;59:510–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1989.tb02740.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR133] 133.Halldin J. Prevalence of mental disorder in an urban population in central Sweden in relation to social class, marital status and immigration. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1985;71:117–27. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1985.tb01262.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR134] 134.Roskies E. Sex, culture and illness: An overview. Soc Sci Med. 1978;12:139–41. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR135] 135.Westermeyer J, Vang TF, Neider J. Refugees who do and do not seek psychiatric care: An analysis of premigratory and postmigratory characteristics. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1983;171:86–91. doi: 10.1097/00005053-198302000-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR136] 136.Hollifield M, Warner TD, Lian N, Krakow B, Jenkins JH, Kessler J, et al. Measuring trauma and health status in refugees. A critical review. JAMA. 2002;288(5):611–21. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.5.611. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR137] 137.Meerloo JAM. Aftermath of Peace; Psychological Essays. New York, NY: International Universities Press; 1946. [Google Scholar]

[CR138] 138.Pedersen S. Psychopathological reactions to extreme social displacements (refugee neuroses) Psychoanal Rev. 1949;36:344–54. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR139] 139.Goldfield N, Lee W. Caring for Indochinese refugees. Am Fam Physician. 1982;26(3):157–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR140] 140.Baskaukos L. The Lithuanian refugee experience and grief. Int Migration Rev. 1981;15:276–91. [Google Scholar]

[CR141] 141.Hogman P. Role of memories in lives of World War II orphans. J Am Acad Child Psychol. 1985;2:390–96. doi: 10.1016/s0002-7138(09)60555-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR142] 142.Beiser M. Changing time perspective and mental health among Southeast Asian refugee. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1987;11:437–64. doi: 10.1007/BF00048493. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR143] 143.Beiser M, Hyman I. Refugees’ time perspective and mental health. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:996–1002. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.7.996. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR144] 144.Beiser M, Wickrama KAS. Trauma, time and mental health: A study of temporal reintegration and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 2004;34:899–910. doi: 10.1017/s0033291703001703. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR145] 145.Handlin O. The Uprooted. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.; 1951. [Google Scholar]

[CR146] 146.Eisenstadt SN. The Absorption of Immigrants. London, England: Routledge and Kegan; 1954. [Google Scholar]

[CR147] 147.Oberg K. Culture shock: Adjustment to the cultural environments. Practical Anthropology. 1960;7:177–82. [Google Scholar]

[CR148] 148.Kuo W. Theories of migration and mental health. An empirical testing on Chinese-Americans. Soc Sci Med. 1976;10:297–306. doi: 10.1016/0037-7856(76)90074-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR149] 149.Beiser M, Collomb H, Ravel JL. Mastering change: Epidemiological and case studies. Am J Psychiatry. 1981;13(4):455–59. doi: 10.1176/ajp.138.4.455. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR150] 150.Hinton L, Tiet Q, Tran CG, Chesney M. Predictors of depression among refugees from Vietnam: A longitudinal study of new arrivals. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185(1):39–45. doi: 10.1097/00005053-199701000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR151] 151.Levav I. Individuals under conditions of maximum adversity: The holocaust. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]

[CR152] 152.Breslau N. Epidemiologic studies of trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2002;44(10):923–29. doi: 10.1177/070674370204701003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR153] 153.Mollica RF, Poole C, Tor S. Symptoms, functioning and health problems in a massively traumatized population: The legacy of the Cambodian tragedy. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]

[CR154] 154.Boehnein JK, Kinzie JD. Refugee trauma. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review. 1995;32:223–52. [Google Scholar]

[CR155] 155.Sack WH, McSharry S, Clarke GN, Kinney R, Seeley J, Lewinsohn P. The Khmer adolescent project. I. Epidemiologic findings in two generations of Cambodian refugees. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1994;182(7):387–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR156] 156.Kinzie JD, Boehnlein JK, Leung PK, Moore PJ, Riley C, Smith D. The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and its clinical significance among Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:913–17. doi: 10.1176/ajp.147.7.913. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR157] 157.Keane TM. Psychological effects of military combat. In: Dohrenwend BP, editor. Adversity, Stress and Psychopathology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1998. [Google Scholar]

[CR158] 158.Steel Z, Silove D, Phan T, Bauman A. Long-term effect of psychological trauma on the mental health of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia: A population-based study. Lancet. 2002;360:1056–62. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11142-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR159] 159.Goldberg J, True WR, Eisen SA, Henderson WG. A twin study of the effects of the Vietnam war on post-traumatic stress disorder. JAMA. 1990;263:1227–32. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR160] 160.Turner SW, Grost-Unsworth C. Psychological sequelae of torture. A descriptive model. Br J Psychiatry. 1990;157:475–80. doi: 10.1192/bjp.157.4.475. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR161] 161.Berry JW. Psychology of Acculturation. In: Goldberg NR, Veroff JB, editors. The Culture and Psychology Reader. New York, NY: New York University Press; 1995. pp. 457–488. [Google Scholar]

[CR162] 162.Berry JW. Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 1997;4(1):5–34. [Google Scholar]

[CR163] 163.Beiser M, Collomb H, Ravel JL, Nafziger CJ. Systemic blood pressure studies among the Serer of Senegal. J Chron Dis. 1976;29:371–80. doi: 10.1016/0021-9681(76)90058-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR164] 164.Berry JW, Blondel T. Psychological adaptation of Vietnamese refugees in Canada. Can J Community Mental Health. 1970;1:81–88. [Google Scholar]

[CR165] 165.Murphy HBM. Flight and Resettlement. Paris: UNESCO; 1955. [Google Scholar]

[CR166] 166.Murphy HBM. Migration, culture and mental health. Psychol Med. 1977;7(4):677–84. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700006334. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR167] 167.Aylesworth LS, Ossorio PG. Refugees: Cultural displacement and its effects. Advances in Descriptive Psychology. 1983;3:45–93. [Google Scholar]

[CR168] 168.Starr PD, Roberts AE. Community structure and Vietnamese refugee adaptation: The significance of context. Int Migration Rev. 1982;16:595–618. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR169] 169.Woon Y. The mode of refugee sponsorship and the socio-economic adaptation of Vietnamese in Victoria: A three-year perspective. In: Chan KB, Indra DM, editors. Uprooting, Loss and Adaptation: The Resettlement of Indochinese in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Public Health Association; 1987. pp. 132–46. [Google Scholar]

[CR170] 170.Beiser M, Simich L, Wickrama KAS. Sponsorship and resettlement success. J Int Migration and Integration. 2003;4(2):203–16. [Google Scholar]

[CR171] 171.Obeyesekere G. Depression, Buddhism, and the work of culture in Sri Lanka. In Kleinman A, Good B (Eds.). Culture and Depression. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985;134-52.

[CR172] 172.Leff JP. Culture and the differentiation of emotional states. Br J Psychiatry. 1973;123:299–306. doi: 10.1192/bjp.123.3.299. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR173] 173.Leff JP. Notions of the emotions. Mental Health and Society. 1977;4:308–18. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR174] 174.Kleinman A. Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1980. [Google Scholar]

[CR175] 175.Kleinman A. Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1982;6:117–90. doi: 10.1007/BF00051427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR176] 176.Tseng WS. The nature of somatic complaints among psychiatric patients: The Chinese case. Comparative Psychiatry. 1975;16:237–45. doi: 10.1016/0010-440x(75)90050-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR177] 177.Yap PM. Phenomenology of affective disorders in Chinese and other cultures. In: deReuck AVS, Porter R, editors. Transcultural Psychiatry. London, England: J. & A. Churchill; 1965. pp. 84–108. [Google Scholar]

[CR178] 178.Cheung FM, Lau BW, Waldmann E. Somatization among Chinese depressives in general practice. Int J Psychiatry Med. 1980;10:361–74. doi: 10.2190/bvy5-yccr-ct1v-20fr. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR179] 179.Kinzie JD, Manson SM. Five years experience with Indochinese refugee psychiatric patients. J Operational Psychiatry. 1983;14:105–11. [Google Scholar]

[CR180] 180.Kinzie JD. Cultural aspects of psychiatric treatment with Indochinese refugees. Am J Social Psychiatry. 1985;5:47–53. [Google Scholar]

[CR181] 181.Murphy JM. Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective. Science. 1976;191:1019–28. doi: 10.1126/science.1251213. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR182] 182.Beiser M, Fleming JA. Measuring psychiatric disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med. 1986;16:627–39. doi: 10.1017/s0033291700010382. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR183] 183.Beiser M, Woodbury M, Cargo M. A comparison of psychiatric disorder in different cultures: Depression typologies in Southeast Asian refugees and resident Canadians. Int J Methods in Psychiatric Research. 1994;4:157–72. [Google Scholar]

[CR184] 184.Kinzie JD, Manson SM, Vinh DT, Tolan NT, Anh B, Pho TN. Development and validation of a Vietnamese-Language depression rating scale. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:1276–81. doi: 10.1176/ajp.139.10.1276. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

[CR185] 185.Kliewer EV, Smith KR. Breast cancer mortality among immigrants in Australia and Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87(15):1154–61. doi: 10.1093/jnci/87.15.1154. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

PERMALINK

The Health of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada

Morton Beiser, MD, FRCP, CM

Abstract

Résumé

Footnotes

References

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

Cite

Add to Collections

PERMALINK

The Health of Immigrants and Refugees in Canada

Morton Beiser, MD, FRCP, CM

Abstract

Résumé

Footnotes

References

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

Similar articles

Cited by other articles

Links to NCBI Databases