Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2011 Jul 12:411–435. doi: 10.1007/978-3-0346-0136-8_22

C7 Anti-infective activity of immunomodulators

K Noel Masihi 3,✉
Editors: FP Nijkamp1, Michael J Parnham2
PMCID: PMC7178917

Abstract

Infectious diseases continue to impact human morbidity and mortality. Every individual is vulnerable to microbial infections regardless of socioeconomic status, gender, age group or ethnic background. There has been an explosion of international air travel with an estimated 2 billion passengers travelling on commercial airlines every year. The rapid expansion of globalization and mass tourism has facilitated the spread of disease-causing pathogens from one continent to another at unprecedented rates.

Keywords: Bacterial Vaginosis, Chronic Granulomatous Disease, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Synthetic Immunomodulator

Contributor Information

Michael J. Parnham, Email: mike.j.parnham@gmail.com

K. Noel Masihi, Email: masihik@rki.de.

References

  • 1.Taylor PW, Stapleton PD, Paul LJ. New ways to treat bacterial infections. Drug Discov Today. 2002;7:1086–91. doi: 10.1016/S1359-6446(02)02498-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Amyes SGB. The rise in bacterial resistance is partly because there have been no new classes of antibiotics since the 1960s. Br Med J. 2000;320:199–200. doi: 10.1136/bmj.320.7229.199. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Hengel H, Masihi KN. Combinatorial immunotherapies for infectious diseases. Int Immunopharmacol. 2003;3:1–9. doi: 10.1016/S1567-5769(03)00028-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Kayser O, Masihi KN, Kiderlen AF. Natural products and synthetic compounds as immunomodulators. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2003;1:319–35. doi: 10.1586/14787210.1.2.319. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Masihi KN. Immunomodulatory agents for prophylaxis and therapy of infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000;14:181–91. doi: 10.1016/S0924-8579(99)00161-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Masihi KN. Fighting infection using immunomodulatory agents. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2001;1:641–53. doi: 10.1517/14712598.1.4.641. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Luxon BA, Grace M, Brassard D, Bordens R. Pegylated interferons for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection. Clin Ther. 2002;24:1363–83. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2918(02)80042-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Koliouskas D, Sidiropoulos I, Masmanidou M, Dokas S, Ziakas A. Comparative analysis of Peg-interferon alpha-2b and lamivudine in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B patients: preliminary results. J Hepatol. 2002;36:237–38. doi: 10.1016/S0168-8278(02)80852-2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Lau GK, Piratvisuth T, Luo KX, Marcellin P, Thongsawat S, Cooksley G, et al. Peginterferon Alfa-2a, lamivudine, and the combination for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2682–95. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa043470. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Villa E, Lei B, Taliani G, Graziosi A, Critelli R, Luongo M. Pretreatment with pegylated interferon prevents emergence of lamivudine mutants in lamivudine-naive patients: a pilot study. Antivir Ther. 2009;14:1081–7. doi: 10.3851/IMP1465. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Hui CK, Lau GK. Peginterferon-alpha2a (40 kDa) (Pegasys) for hepatitis B. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2005;3:495–504. doi: 10.1586/14787210.3.4.495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Goldstein AL, Goldstein AL. From lab to bedside: emerging clinical applications of thymosin alpha1. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2009;9:593–608. doi: 10.1517/14712590902911412. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Sugahara S, Ichida T, Yamagiwa S, Ishikawa T, Uehara K, Yoshida Y, et al. Thymosin-alpha1 increases intrahepatic NKT cells and CTLs in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Hepatol Res. 2002;24:346–54. doi: 10.1016/S1386-6346(02)00145-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Zhang YY, Chen EQ, Yang J, Duan YR, Tang H. Treatment with lamivudine versus lamivudine and thymosin alpha-1 for e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B patients: a meta-analysis. Virol J. 2009;6:63. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-6-63. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Garaci E, Favalli C, Pica F, Sinibaldi VP, Palamara AT, Matteucci C, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: from bench to bedside. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2007;1112:225–34. doi: 10.1196/annals.1415.044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Pimstone NR, Canio JB, Chiang MH. Ribavirin/interferon -2b therapy is very effective in the treatment of chronic hepatitis C genotype 2 and 3 patients who have failed to respond virologically to IFN monotherapy. Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A-382
  • 17.Rajender R, Modi MW, Pedder S. Use of peginterferon alfa-2a (40 KD) [Pegasys(R)] for the treatment of hepatitis C. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2002;54:571–86. doi: 10.1016/S0169-409X(02)00028-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Welch W, Foote M. The use of Filgrastim in AIDS-related neutropenia. J Hematother Stem Cell Res 1999; Suppl 1: S9–16 [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 19.Kuritzkes DR, Parenti D, Ward DJ, Rachlis A, Wong RJ, Mallon KP, et al. Filgrastim prevents severe neutropenia and reduces infective morbidity in patients with advanced HIV infection: results of a randomized, multicenter, controlled trial. G-CSF 930101 Study Group. AIDS. 1998;12:65–74. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199801000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Dubreuil-Lemaire ML, Gori A, Vittecoq D, Panelatti G, Tharaux F, Palisses R, et al. Lenograstim for the treatment of neutropenia in patients receiving ganciclovir for cytomegalovirus infection: a randomised, placebocontrolled trial in AIDS patients. Eur J Haematol. 2000;65:337–43. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0609.2000.065005337.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Rodriguez-Adrian LJ, Grazziutti ML, Rex JH, Anaissie EJ. The potential role of cytokine therapy for fungal infections in patients with cancer: is recovery from neutropenia all that is needed? Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26:1270–78. doi: 10.1086/516364. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Quinn TC, Overbaugh J. HIV/AIDS in women: an expanding epidemic. Science. 2005;308:1582–83. doi: 10.1126/science.1112489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Heeney JL. The critical role of CD4(+) T-cell help in immunity to HIV. Vaccine. 2002;20:1961–63. doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00078-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Dragic T. An overview of the determinants of CCR5 and CXCR4 co-receptor function. J Gen Virol. 2001;82:1807–14. doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-82-8-1807. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Lehner T. The role of CCR5 chemokine ligands and antibodies to CCR5 coreceptors in preventing HIV infection. Trends Immunol. 2002;23:347–51. doi: 10.1016/S1471-4906(02)02252-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Kazmierski WM, Boone L, Lawrence W, Watson C, Kenakin T. CCR5 chemokine receptors: gatekeepers of HIV-1 infection. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord. 2002;2:265–78. doi: 10.2174/1568005023342489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Wetzel MA, Steele AD, Henderson EE, Rogers TJ. The effect of X4 and R5 HIV-1 on C, C-C, and C-X-C chemokines during the early stages of infection in human PBMCs. Virology. 2002;292:6–15. doi: 10.1006/viro.2001.1249. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Fernandez EJ, Lolis E. Structure, function, and inhibition of chemokines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2002;42:469–99. doi: 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.091901.115838. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Lusso P. HIV and chemokines: implications for therapy and vaccine. Vaccine. 2002;20:1964–67. doi: 10.1016/S0264-410X(02)00079-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Onuffer JJ, Horuk R. Chemokines, chemokine receptors and small-molecule antagonists: recent developments. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2002;23:459–67. doi: 10.1016/S0165-6147(02)02064-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Proudfoot AE, Power CA, Rommel C, Wells TN. Strategies for chemokine antagonists as therapeutics. Semin Immunol. 2003;15:57–65. doi: 10.1016/S1044-5323(02)00128-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Princen K, Hatse S, Vermeire K, Aquaro S, De Clercq E, Gerlach LO, et al. Inhibition of human immuno- deficiency virus replication by a dual CCR5/CXCR4 antagonist. J Virol. 2004;78:12996–13006. doi: 10.1128/JVI.78.23.12996-13006.2004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Hendrix CW, Flexner C, MacFarland RT, Giandomenico C, Fuchs EJ, Redpath E, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of AMD-3100, a novel antagonist of the CXCR-4 chemokine receptor, in human volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:1667–73. doi: 10.1128/AAC.44.6.1667-1673.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.De CE. Potential clinical applications of the CXCR4 antagonist bicyclam AMD3100. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2005;5:805–24. doi: 10.2174/1389557054867075. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Amella CA, Sherry B, Shepp DH, Schmidtmayerova H. Macrophage inflammatory protein 1alpha inhibits [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • 36.postentry steps of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection via suppression of intracellular cyclic [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • 37.AMP. J Virol 2005; 79: 5625–31 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • 38.Biragyn A, Belyakov IM, Chow YH, Dimitrov DS, Berzofsky JA, Kwak LW. DNA vaccines encoding human immunodeficiency virus-1 glycoprotein 120 fusions with proinflammatory chemoattractants induce systemic and mucosal immune responses. Blood. 2002;100:1153–59. doi: 10.1182/blood-2002-01-0086. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Rusconi S, La Seta C, Citterio P, Bulgheroni E, Croce F, Herrmann SH, et al. Combination of CCR5 and CXCR4 inhibitors in therapy of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection: in vitro studies of mixed virus infections. J Virol. 2000;74:9328–32. doi: 10.1128/JVI.74.19.9328-9332.2000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Gaertner H, Cerini F, Escola JM, Kuenzi G, Melotti A, Offord R, et al. Highly potent, fully recombinant anti- HIV chemokines: reengineering a low-cost microbicide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:17706–11. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0805098105. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Ham AS, Cost MR, Sassi AB, Dezzutti CS, Rohan LC. Targeted delivery of PSC-RANTES for HIV-1 prevention using biodegradable nanoparticles. Pharm Res. 2009;26:502–11. doi: 10.1007/s11095-008-9765-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Gaertner H, Offord R, Botti P, Kuenzi G, Hartley O. Semisynthetic analogues of PSC-RANTES, a potent anti-HIV protein. Bioconjug Chem. 2008;19:480–49. doi: 10.1021/bc7003044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Ting PT, Koo JY. Use of etanercept in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:689–92. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02642.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Johnson L, Jarvis JN, Wilkins EG, Hay PE. Thalidomide treatment for refractory HIV-associated colitis: a case series. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:133–6. doi: 10.1086/588793. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Stary G, Kohrgruber N, Herneth AM, Gaiger A, Stingl G, Rieger A. Complete regression of HIV-associated multi centric Castleman disease treated with rituximab and thalidomide. AIDS. 2008;19(22):1232–34. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282fa75ce. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Listing J, Strangfeld A, Kary S, Rau R, von Hinueber U, Stoyanova-Scholz M, et al. Infections in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with biologic agents. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:3403–12. doi: 10.1002/art.21386. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Strangfeld A, Listing J. Infection and musculoskeletal conditions: Bacterial and opportunistic infections during anti-TNF therapy. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2006;20:1181–95. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2006.08.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Tsiodras S, Samonis G, Boumpas DT, Kontoyiannis DP. Fungal infections complicating tumor necrosis factor alpha blockade therapy. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83:181–94. doi: 10.4065/83.2.181. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Gao H, Evans TW, Finney SJ. Bench-to-bedside review: sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock – does the nature of the infecting organism matter? Crit Care. 2008;12:213. doi: 10.1186/cc6862. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Lynn M, Rossignol DP, Wheeler JL, Kao RJ, Perdomo CA, Noveck R, et al. Blocking of responses to endotoxin by E5564 in healthy volunteers with experimental endotoxemia. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:631–39. doi: 10.1086/367990. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Stanley MA. Imiquimod and the imidazoquinolones: mechanism of action and therapeutic potential. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2002;27:571–77. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2230.2002.01151.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.Alignani D, Maletto B, Liscovsky M, Ropolo A, Moron G, Pistoresi-Palencia MC. Orally administered OVA/CpGODN induces specific mucosal and systemic immune response in young and aged mice. J Leukoc Biol. 2005;77:898–05. doi: 10.1189/jlb.0604330. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Weeratna RD, Brazolot Millan CL, McCluskie MJ, Davis HL. CpG ODN can re-direct the Th bias of established Th2 immune responses in adult and young mice. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2001;32:65–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2001.tb00535.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Krieg AM, Davis HL. Enhancing vaccines with immune stimulatory CpG DNA. Curr Opin Mol Ther. 2001;3:15–24. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Cooper CL, Davis HL, Morris ML, Efler SM, Adhami MA, Krieg AM, et al. CPG 7909, an immunostimulatory TLR9 agonist oligodeoxynucleotide, as adjuvant to Engerix- B HBV vaccine in healthy adults: a double-blind phase I/II study. J Clin Immunol. 2004;24:693–701. doi: 10.1007/s10875-004-6244-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Vicari AP, Schmalbach T, Lekstrom-Himes J, Morris ML, Al-Adhami MJ, Laframboise C, et al. Safety, pharmacokinetics and immune effects in normal volunteers of CPG 10101 (ACTILON), an investigational synthetic toll-like receptor 9 agonist. Antivir Ther. 2007;12:741–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Jenssen H, Hamill P, Hancock RE. Peptide antimicrobial agents. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006;19:491–11. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00056-05. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Brown KL, Hancock RE. Cationic host defense (antimicrobial) peptides. Curr Opin Immunol. 2006;18:24–30. doi: 10.1016/j.coi.2005.11.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Kruse T, Kristensen HH. Using antimicrobial host defense peptides as anti-infective and immunomodulatory agents. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:887–95. doi: 10.1586/14787210.6.6.887. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Hancock RE, Sahl HG. Antimicrobial and host-defense peptides as new anti-infective therapeutic strategies. Nat Biotechnol. 2006;24:1551–57. doi: 10.1038/nbt1267. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Holzl MA, Hofer J, Steinberger P, Pfistershammer K, Zlabinger GJ. Host antimicrobial proteins as endogenous immunomodulators. Immunol Lett. 2008;119:4–11. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.05.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Scott MG, Dullaghan E, Mookherjee N, Glavas N, Waldbrook M, Thompson A, et al. An anti-infective peptide that selectively modulates the innate immune response. Nat Biotechnol. 2007;25:465–72. doi: 10.1038/nbt1288. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Bowdish DM, Davidson DJ, Hancock RE. Immunomodulatory properties of defensins and cathelicidins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;306:27–66. doi: 10.1007/3-540-29916-5_2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Lehrer RI, Ganz T. Defensins of vertebrate animals. Curr Opin Immunol. 2002;14:96–102. doi: 10.1016/S0952-7915(01)00303-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.Furci L, Sironi F, Tolazzi M, Vassena L, Lusso P. Alphadefensins block the early steps of HIV-1 infection: interference with the binding of gp120 to CD4. Blood. 2007;109:2928–35. doi: 10.1182/blood-2006-05-024489. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 66.Trabattoni D, Caputo SL, Maffeis G, Vichi F, Biasin M, Pierotti P, et al. Human alpha defensin in HIV-exposed but uninfected individuals. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35:455–63. doi: 10.1097/00126334-200404150-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 67.Kuhn L, Trabattoni D, Kankasa C, Semrau K, Kasonde P, Lissoni F, et al. Alpha-defensins in the prevention of HIV transmission among breastfed infants. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;39:138–42. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68.Zapata W, Rodriguez B, Weber J, Estrada H, Quinones- Mateu ME et al. Increased levels of human betadefensins mRNA in sexually HIV-1 exposed but uninfected individuals. Curr HIV Res 2008; 6: 531–38 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  • 69.Garzino-Demo A. Chemokines and defensins as HIV suppressive factors: an evolving story. Curr Pharm Des. 2007;13:163–72. doi: 10.2174/138161207779313696. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Ricci E, Malacrida S, Zanchetta M, Montagna M, Giaquinto C, De RA. Role of beta-defensin-1 polymorUncorrected [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 71.Proofphisms in mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 51: 13–19 [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 72.Venkataraman N, Cole AL, Ruchala P, Waring AJ, Lehrer RI, Stuchlik O, et al. Reawakening retrocyclins: ancestral human defensins active against HIV-1. PLoS Biol. 2009;7:e95. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000095. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.Doss M, White MR, Tecle T, Gantz D, Crouch EC, Jung G, et al. Interactions of alpha-, beta-, and theta-defensins with influenza A virus and surfactant protein D. J Immunol. 2009;182:7878–87. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0804049. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.Chong KT, Thangavel RR, Tang X. Enhanced expression of murine beta-defensins (MBD-1, -2, -3, and −4) in upper and lower airway mucosa of influenza virus infected mice. Virology. 2008;380:136–43. doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.07.024. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Salvatore M, Garcia-Sastre A, Ruchala P, Lehrer RI, Chang T, Klotman ME. alpha-Defensin inhibits influenza virus replication by cell-mediated mechanism(s) J Infect Dis. 2007;196:835–43. doi: 10.1086/521027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 76.Dugan AS, Maginnis MS, Jordan JA, Gasparovic ML, Manley K, Page R, et al. Human alpha-defensins inhibit BK virus infection by aggregating virions and blocking binding to host cells. J Biol Chem. 2008;283:31125–32. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M805902200. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 77.Smith JG, Nemerow GR. Mechanism of adenovirus neutralization by Human alpha-defensins. Cell Host Microbe. 2008;3:11–19. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2007.12.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 78.Hazrati E, Galen B, Lu W, Wang W, Ouyang Y, Keller MJ, et al. Human alpha- and beta-defensins block multiple steps in herpes simplex virus infection. J Immunol. 2006;177:8658–66. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.12.8658. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 79.Didierlaurent AM, Morel S, Lockman L, Giannini SL, Bisteau M, Carlsen H, et al. AS04, an aluminum saltand TLR4 agonist-based adjuvant system, induces a transient localized innate immune response leading to enhanced adaptive immunity. J Immunol. 2009;183:6186–97. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901474. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 80.Boukhvalova MS, Prince GA, Soroush L, Harrigan DC, Vogel SN, Blanco JC. The TLR4 agonist, monophosphoryl lipid A, attenuates the cytokine storm associated with respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-enhanced disease. Vaccine. 2006;24:5027–35. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 81.Hessle C, Hanson LA, Wold AE. Lactobacilli from human gastrointestinal mucosa are strong stimulators of IL-12 production. Clin Exp Immunol. 1999;116:276–82. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1999.00885.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 82.Yasui H, Shida K, Matsuzaki T, Yokokura T. Immunomodulatory function of lactic acid bacteria. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 1999;76:383–89. doi: 10.1023/A:1002041616085. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 83.Lomax AR, Calder PC. Probiotics, immune function, infection and inflammation: a review of the evidence from studies conducted in humans. Curr Pharm Des. 2009;15:1428–1518. doi: 10.2174/138161209788168155. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 84.Minocha A. Probiotics for preventive health. Nutr Clin Pract. 2009;24:227–41. doi: 10.1177/0884533608331177. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 85.Rohde CL, Bartolini V, Jones N. The use of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea with special interest in Clostridium difficileassociated diarrhea. Nutr Clin Pract. 2009;24:33–40. doi: 10.1177/0884533608329297. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 86.Sanz Y, Nadal I, Sanchez E. Probiotics as drugs against human gastrointestinal infections. Recent Pat Antiinfect Drug Discov. 2007;2:148–56. doi: 10.2174/157489107780832596. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 87.Reid G. Probiotic lactobacilli for urogenital health in women. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2008;42(Suppl 3):S234–36. doi: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e31817f1298. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 88.Cribby S, Taylor M, Reid G. Vaginal microbiota and the use of probiotics. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2008;2008:256490. doi: 10.1155/2008/256490. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 89.Martinez RC, Franceschini SA, Patta MC, Quintana SM, Gomes BC, De Martinis EC, et al. Improved cure of bacterial vaginosis with single dose of tinidazole (2 g), Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1, and Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14: a randomized, double-blind, placebocontrolled trial. Can J Microbiol. 2009;55:133–38. doi: 10.1139/W08-102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 90.Wallace B. Clinical use of probiotics in the pediatric population. Nutr Clin Pract. 2009;24:50–59. doi: 10.1177/0884533608329298. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 91.Williams G, Craig JC. Prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection in children. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2009;22:72–76. doi: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e328320a885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 92.Vouloumanou EK, Makris GC, Karageorgopoulos DE, Falagas ME. Probiotics for the prevention of respiratory tract infections: a systematic review. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;34:197–10. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2008.11.005. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 93.Tiollier E, Chennaoui M, Gomez-Merino D, Drogou C, Filaire E, Guezennec CY. Effect of a probiotics supplementation on respiratory infections and immune and hormonal parameters during intense military training. Mil Med. 2007;172:1006–11. doi: 10.7205/milmed.172.9.1006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 94.Rautava S, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Specific probiotics in reducing the risk of acute infections in infancy – a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Nutr. 2009;101:1722–26. doi: 10.1017/S0007114508116282. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 95.Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Bengmark S, Kanellakopoulou K, Kotzampassi K. Pro- and synbiotics to control inflammation and infection in patients with multiple injuries. J Trauma. 2009;67:815–21. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e31819d979e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 96.Singh M, Ranjan DR. Probiotics for allergic respiratory diseases – Putting it into perspective. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2009; DOI: 10.1111/j.1399–3038.2009.00921.x [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 97.Del-Rio-Navarro BE, Luis Sienra-Monge JJ, Berber A, Torres-Alcantara S, vila-Castanon L, Gomez-Barreto D. Use of OM-85 BV in children suffering from recurrent respiratory tract infections and subnormal IgG subclass levels. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2003;31:7–13. doi: 10.1016/s0301-0546(03)79158-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 98.Collet JP, Shapiro P, Ernst P, Renzi T, Ducruet T, Robinson A. Effects of an immunostimulating agent on acute exacerbations and hospitalizations in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The PARI-IS Study Steering Committee and Research Group. Prevention of acute respiratory infection by an immunostimulant. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: [DOI] [PubMed]
  • 99.1719–24
  • 100.Grevers G, Palacios OA, Rodriguez B, Abel S, van Aubel A. Treatment of recurrent respiratory tract infections with a polyvalent bacterial lysate: results of an open, prospective, multinational study. Adv Ther. 2000;17:103–16. doi: 10.1007/BF02854843. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 101.Tielemans C, Gastaldello K, Husson C, Marchant A, Delville JP, Vanherweghem JL, et al. Efficacy of oral immunotherapy on respiratory infections in hemodialysis patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Clin Nephrol. 1999;51:153–60. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 102.Kang W, Kudsk KA. Is there evidence that the gut contributes to mucosal immunity in humans? J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2007;31:246–58. doi: 10.1177/0148607107031003246. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 103.Huber M, Mossmann H, Bessler WG. Th1–orientated immunological properties of the bacterial extract OM- 85–BV. Eur J Med Res. 2005;10:2309–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 104.Rozy A, Chorostowska-Wynimko J. Bacterial immunostimulants – mechanism of action and clinical application in respiratory diseases. Pneumonol Alergol Pol. 2008;76:353–59. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Principles of Immunopharmacology are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES