Value-based eating habits; exploring religio-cultural nutritional behavior norms

Abstract

Purpose

Defining a standard norm is critical in nutritional cognitive-behavioral interventions. These norms can be derived from a statistical or value-based point of view. Religion and subsequent cultural values can have significant effects on social behaviors, especially on eating habits. In this study, the authors quantify the presence of religio-cultural nutritional behavior norms in Abrahamic scriptures.

Methods

Qualitative content analysis and descriptive analysis were applied to these texts to provide a better understanding of the subject.

Results

The extracted norms were categorized into nine main behavioral domains, and most of the observed value-based norms were in agreement with previous experimental researches.

Conclusion

There is strong emphasis on nutritional habits in value-based religio-cultural sources. The use of these norms in later policies and practices is advised. This approach can lead to healthier nutritional choices and a decrease in non-communicable diseases.

Introduction

Behavioral studies are among the essential methods of obesity and nutritional disorders research. Most of the non-communicable diseases (NDC) are the direct result of the adaptation of high-risk nutritional habits, high-calorie intake, excessive fast food consumption, lack of vegetables and fruits in the daily diet, irregular meal patterns, immoderate use of carbonated beverages, et cetera [1, 2]. Furthermore, as the most critical cognitive outcome in humans, behavior has been subjected to many interventions by cognitive scientists for behavior modification and social norms development [3]. In this sense, normative behavior adaptation can be used as an assessment tool to evaluate cognition functions.

By exploring the previous literature in this regard, it can be understood that before designing a behavioral intervention, there should be a clear understanding of what is considered as a standard behavior in eating patterns and what differences might be presented between observed and normative behaviors. Then and only then, a successful habitual modification can be proposed. Among different definitions for norms, physiologic, social, and statistical, one can consider a place for value-based norms too. In this method, normative behavior is defined based on society’s values and beliefs and not statistics like the most frequent occurrence [4, 5]. In this view, it is possible that a normative behavior is based on a shared social value, mainly cultural and religious values, even if it is not widely adopted in society. The effect of culture and religions on food consumption patterns [6, 7] is well established, so it is not unexpected to see some of the most mentioned value-based norms in scriptures concerns nutritional and eating habits [8]. Many value-based norms are present in scriptures with practical, easy to understand language for the majority of people [9].

In the present article, the authors try to categorize value-based normative nutritional habits found in Abrahamic scriptures: The New and Old Testaments (Bible and Torah), The Quran, and Ḥadīth, to investigate whether they can be used in dietary and nutritional habits research.

Methods

The authors used Mohsenian-Rads book [10] to determine value-based nutritional norms in primary scriptures. He used in-depth qualitative content analysis to remove and then re-establish context, categorized, and finally compilate these texts into eight propositional categories.

Furthermore, the authors applied qualitative content analysis on two well-known encyclopedias of Ḥadīth; the encyclopedia of medical Ḥadīth [11], and Mafatih al-Hayat [12]. The meaning units were labeled based on the open coding process; the texts were then revisited to prevent duplications and to ensure the importance of extracted units; the meaning units condensed afterward; main and sub-themes and categories were identified, and finally, a latent analysis along with a respondent validation was conducted as an attempt to compilate meanings from the text.

Subsequently, the authors organized related propositions into two main groups: eating behavior and food content. The behavioral statements were then divided into nine domains; low-calorie intake, mindful eating, meal adjustment, food/nutrition safety, dining companion, inhibition/abstinence, drinking, Halal/Kosher food, and postprandial behaviors, by an expert panel. Two other expert investigators reviewed this process to ensure the validity of the method, and they achieved the same consensus results. To form a better insight from the data, a descriptive analysis was then applied to the data.

Results

Nutritional propositions, aside from the Eucharist, were accounted for 3% of all propositions in scriptures. Below is a descriptive summary of these terms’ frequency in each one of the studied materials (Table 1).

Table 1.

Nutritional propositions in different scriptures

Book	Number of nutritional propositions	Number of nutritional behavior propositions
Quran	76 (1.7% in total)	31 (14 prescriptional and 12 prohibitional)
New Testament	36 (1.3% in total)	14 (3 prescriptional and 11 prohibitional)
Old Testament	204 (6.5% in total)	2 (0 prescriptional and 2 prohibitional)

There were an additional 43 prescriptional and 37 prohibitional propositions for eating habits found in Ḥadīth resources.

In total, mindful eating terms (20.3%), and postprandial behaviors (5.0%) were the most and least frequent prescriptional statements in scriptures, respectively. Moreover, the highest and lowest frequency of prohibitional terms were for drinking(19.0%) and meal adjustment (0.0%) (Table 2).

Table 2.

behavioral propositions frequency in scriptures and Ḥadīth

Behavioral domains	Prescriptional phrases frequency (%)	Prohibitional phrases frequency(%)
Low-calorie intake	6 (10.1)	10 (15.8)
Mindful eating	12 (20.3)	7 (11.1)
Meal adjustment	5 (8.4)	0 (0)
Food/nutrition safety	8 (13.5)	7 (11.1)
Dining companion	7 (11.8)	8 (12.6)
Inhibition and abstinence	8 (13.5)	9 (14.2)
Drinking	2 (3.3)	12 (19)
Halal and Kosher food	8 (13.5)	9(14.2)
Postprandial behaviors	3 (5)	1 (1.5)
Total	59 (100)	63 (100)

What follows is the accounted prescription concepts extracted from the scriptures and Ḥadīth divided into the nine behavioral categories (Table 3).

Table 3.

behavioral prescriptions in scriptures and Ḥadīth

Domains of behavior	Behavioral prescriptions
Low-calorie intake	Low food intake
	Light food and liquid consumption
	Moderate eating
	Starvation
	Fasting
	Conditional allowance of eating prohibited food
Mindful eating	Performing Wudu before and after meals
	Taking off shoes before eating
	Starting meals with God’s name (Grace)
	God’s name remembrance with each bite of food
	Saying God’s name for all kinds of food
	Eat with the right hand
	Eat what is set before you
	Taking food in smaller portions
	Chewing food properly
	Slow eating
	Eating with hand and fingers
	Eating foods crumbs
Meals adjustment	Eating in the morning and at night and nothing in between
	Eating early meals, breakfast, etc.
	Having dinner
	Having dinner after sunset
	Eating after the morning pray
Food and nutrition safety	Wholesome eating that benefits the body
	Washing hands before and after eating
	Eating before the food gets cold
	Have salt before each meal
	Eating clean/Halal food
	Eating form the clean offerings of God
	Eating from God’s blessed creations
	Eating from what God allows
Eating companion	Eat together
	Accept invitations to drink and eat
	Allowance of eating from the food in houses of close family or siblings
	Allowance of eating from the food in the houses that you have a key to
	Allowance of eating alone or together
	Eating with happiness and devotion
	Allowance of eating with none-believers without considering the Halal/Kosher status.
Inhibition and abstinence	Avoid getting full when eating
	Filling utmost half one’s stomach
	Eat form everything, but avoid overindulging
	Avoid eating harmful foods
	Practicing abstinence is better than treatment
	Leaving the table, when you still have an appetite for the food
	Starting the meal with the lightest food and commensurately
	Eating seasonally
Drinking	Drinking in three sips
	Drinking water while standing up
Clean and Hala food	Eating Halal/Kosher food
	Eating and drinking from what God provided.
	Eating only from clean/Halal food
	Eatinng the food of those who follow an Abarahamic religion
	Eating Dhabihah
	Eating from what God has provided you which is clean
	Eating from God’s gits
	Knowing that your faith will allow you to eat any food you want
Postprandial behaviors	Finishing meal with salt
	Touching face after the meal is finished with cleaned hand
	Lying on the back after eating and placing the right foot to be on the left

Below are the accounted prohibitions concepts extracted from the scriptures and Ḥadīth divided into the nine behavioral categories (Table 4).

Table 4.

behavioral prohibitions in scriptures and Ḥadīth

Domains of behavior	Behavioral prohibitions
Low-calorie intake	Filling the stomach to the fullest
	Overeating
	Eating more than what the body needs
	Eating excessively
	Burping that caused by overeating
	Eating after getting full
	Eating when you are not hungry
	Eating and drinking extravagantly
	Keeping away from overeating
Mindful eating	Eating with the left hand
	Eating while walking
	Eating in bazaar
	Eating while leaning on something
	Eating with doubt about the status of the meal
	Eating while being Jonub
	Eating form what’s not in front of you
Meal adjustment	–
Food and nutrition safety	Prohibiting Hala food from yourself
	Taking clean/Halal food as an unclean one
	Eating from prohibited food
	Blowing on the foods and liquids
	Taking scorching food
	Drinking and eating from gold, silver, and copper tableware
Eating together	Eating alone
	Withdrawing food from others
	Condemning those who will eat any kind of food
	Eating forbidden food that can make others uncomfortable
	Causing others disturbance while eating
	Letting your food cause slander
	Allowing others to complain about your eating
	Allowing others to complain about your drinking
Inhibition and abstinence	Eating different kinds of food in a meal
	Gorging on food
	Eating more than you intended
	Eating without appetite
	Eating all that you like
	Avoid what God made lawful to you to consume
	Overeating on Halal/clean food.
	Overeating that anger’s God
	Forbidding comestibles for other thankful believers
Drinking	Blowing in beverages
	Drinking water with one sip
	Drinking scorching liquids
	Drinking in the middle of the food
	Drinking after eating meat
	Drinking after eating greasy food
	Drinking from the broken edge or the handler side
	Drinking cold water after eating hot food
	Drinking too much water
	Drinking cold water in a shower
	Drinking from plates
	Drinking while standing at night
Halal and clean food	Eating none Dhabihah meat
	Not eating food because God’s name was used in their preparation
	Eating food that God’s name was not used in their preparation
	Forbidding Halal/clean food that God provided
	Eating foods that a name other than God was used while preparing them
	Eating in polytheists’ temple
	Eating any creatures without considering if it is permissible
	Eating unclean (non-halal) animals that spoil the spirit
Postprandial behaviors	Sleeping after Eating

Discussion

This study has shown that there is s strong emphasis on nutritional habits in value-based religio-cultural sources, just like experimental behavioral investigations. As mentioned, dietary behavior propositions build roughly 3% of overall statements in scriptures. In the Old Testament, it goes as high as 6.5% of all propositions. This clearly shows the importance of these behaviors in these religions.

Many of the nine domains in this value-based study fall in line with previous experimental studies; In some of these experiments, limiting calorie intake is an essential step toward a decrease in NCD such as diabetes, cardiovascular, and cancers [13]; e.g., Das and her colleges have identified one of the factors that can decelerate aging process in various tissues as calorie restriction [14]. This a good indication that just how much these relatively small interventions can have meaningful results.

Mindful eating is another vital strategy in behavioral interventions that can affect hormonal inhibition of the hunger pathway [15]. Similarly, we can see that 20.3% of our reported value-based propositions are in the mindful eating domain. While the effect of meal adjustments, e.g., the impact of breakfast in increasing the cognitive functions in different age groups, or the Lopez study in which he demonstrated a connection between late dinner and glucose tolerance, are still ambiguous, these studies are getting more attention in the nutritional investigations [16–19].

Food and nutrition safety is yet another critical topic, especially for policy and public health decision-makers. Howbeit the religio-cultural proposed approach in this domain mostly concerns the individuals; these exceptional values can grantee the public’s food security if they get accepted by society [20–22].

Some studies suggest that food companionship, especially eating with family, can positively affect eating behavior modifications, prevention of gastrointestinal disorders, and obesity [23, 24]. Some even considered this approach to elevate society’s mental health status [25]. These findings agree with our extracted value-based approach that it is better to eat in groups, like with family, than alone.

Inhibitory control education among children can result in a healthier food choice on their part [26]; moreover, there is a relationship between impaired executive function and eating disorders [27]. Combined with the value-based propositions, we can see how an inhibitory attitude can lead to more positive eating behavior [28].

The proposed religio-cultural norms for drinking habits are mainly prohibitory ones. In fact, the most frequent prohibitional phrases about nutrition in scriptures are about drinking (12%). Although some research on body water homeostasis and the effect of low water consumption had been done in the past, the behavioral aspect of drinking, like time and the drink properties, has been neglected [29, 30]. We believe more research in this area can expand our understanding of these less attended domains.

Exhortation to use clean food (Halal/Kosher) while possessing small variation is emphasized in all scriptures. Studies on clean eating, which experienced an acceleration in recent years chiefly because of food industry interest, are inconclusive [31, 32]. So a more throughout research in this area can be beneficial for practitioners and the food industry.

Postprandial behaviors can be another entry point for behavior modification, e.g., postprandial sleep positions have been associated with gastroesophageal reflux [33], but more research on this subject is advisable.

It is important to note that these value-based norms are actionable, easy to understand concepts with simplified language that can be integrated into communities’ lifestyle. Three points should be considered in this study. First, the oversimplification of examples to illustrate an idea, while they can arouse some superficial conflicts with experimental studies, will not change the proposition’s underlying concept. Second, the validity of sources can play huge roles in these researches; if there is no consensus on a source validity, it is best practice to avoid using it. Lastly, an object meaning could have changed dramatically through history; for example, while salt was regarded as a scarce commodity with significant economic burdens in the past [34], the same implications do not hold for the current state of this good. Hence the proposed use of salt before each meal might not be in conflict with scientific experiments.

Conclusion

In this study, we tried to explore religio-cultural values that take nutritional behaviors into account. We reached nine main domains that addressed this subject and investigated their use in recent researches. The results show a meaningful overlap between the religio-cultural norms and other experimental findings. Combined with our previous knowledge about the effect of religion on culture and subsequently on society, we believe utilizing these norms in practice can result in better behavior intervention acceptance, healthier nutritional choices, and a decrease in NCDs. This method seems feasible, especially in countries that tend to be more religious. On another note, we suggest expanding this study by investigating other religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflicts of interest/competing interests

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Code availability

Not applicable.