Abstract
The Zika virus, a flavivirus is related to viruses that cause dengue and yellow fever and is spread by Aedes mosquitoes. The virus was first isolated in 1947, during studies conducted in the Zika Forest of Uganda. During the first 60 years of Zika’s discovery (i.e., until 2007), epidemic infections were unheard of. Less than 20 cases of confirmed human infection were described between 1952 and 2007. This is likely because the presentation is generally mild and nonspecific, so Zika fever was either ignored or misdiagnosed. Since 2007 several devastating epidemics piqued international interest fuelling the research on this hitherto neglected flavivirus. Importantly, as control of viral pandemics requires broadly similar public health measures; the international response to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has been facilitated by observations made during Zika epidemics.
There has been a recent explosion in the knowledge and understanding of the Zika virus. It is now difficult even for experienced scientists to remain up-to-date. To assist colleagues who are interested in understanding more about this field we have therefore produced tables containing up-to-date resources in this chapter.
Keywords: Books, Evidence, Journals, Zika virus, Epidemic, Professional societies, Regulatory bodies, Resources
Introduction
As with many of the greatest scientific advances, the discovery of the Zika virus was at least partly serendipitous. The virus was first isolated from a rhesus macaque monkey, in 1947, during studies conducted in the Zika Forest of Uganda, to identify the vector of yellow fever (Dick, Kitchen, & Haddow, 1952; Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). The “filterable transmissible agent” isolated from its serum was named after the Zika Forest (Dick et al., 1952).
It was first suggested that Zika could infect humans after the results of a serological survey in Uganda were published in 1952 (Dick et al., 1952). Further serendipity in 1962 resulted in the first confirmation of an acute human infection. In 1964, Simpson, reported his observations after accidentally infecting himself with Zika while isolating the virus from mosquitoes (Simpson, 1964).
The Zika virus is a member of the genus Flaviviridae of viruses (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). Related to viruses that cause dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile fever (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016) it is spread by Aedes mosquitoes (e.g., A. aegypti, A. albopictus) (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). The Zika virus replicates in the mosquito’s salivary glands and is present in the mosquito’s saliva. The virus can infect human epidermal keratinocytes, skin fibroblasts, and Langerhans cells if inoculated into human skin by an infected mosquito (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). The virus then spreads to lymph nodes and enters the bloodstream (Chan, Choi, Yip, Cheng, & Yuen, 2016).
Within the first 60 years of Zika’s discovery (i.e., until 2007), epidemic infections were unheard of. Less than 20 cases of confirmed human infection were described between 1952 and 2007 (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). However, in retrospect, because the clinical presentation of Zika is nonspecific (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016), these sporadic cases are likely to have represented only the very tip of the iceberg of this infection. Many cases are likely to have been either managed symptomatically or misdiagnosed as dengue, Japanese encephalitis, or another flaviviral infection endemic to the regions where Zika virus is prevalent.
Since 2007, several large epidemics of Zika virus infection have left their mark around the world. The most recent epidemic began in April 2015 in Brazil, and spread to other several countries in North and South America (Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016).
Infection with Zika usually causes mild if any symptoms. This illness known as Zika fever or Zika virus disease is like a very mild form of dengue fever (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016). At the time of writing this chapter in late 2019, although several specific vaccines and antivirals are under development; the illness cannot be prevented and there is no specific treatment. However, supportive treatment (e.g., paracetamol, fluids, and rest) may relieve the symptoms associated with a mild Zika fever (Chan et al., 2016).
Unfortunately, in some people, infection with Zika virus can have severe consequences. For example, Guillain-Barré syndrome is a rare sequela of Zika infection (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016) and a woman infected while pregnant can pass the infection on to the fetus in utero (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). This may be ruinous because the consequences of in utero infection with Zika include devastating birth defects such as microcephaly and severe malformations of the brain (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016).
During the most recent epidemic, an estimated 1.5 million people were infected by Zika, in North and South America and over 3500 cases of microcephaly were reported (Chan et al., 2016; Musso & Gubler, 2016; Sikka et al., 2016). In February 2016, the WHO declared this situation a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (Sikka et al., 2016). Several countries issued travel warnings with specific guidance aimed at pregnant women (Sikka et al., 2016). In November 2016, the WHO declared that Zika virus was no longer a global emergency (WHO, 2016). However, the WHO still considers the virus to be “a highly significant, long-term problem” (WHO, 2016).
While there are many important differences between Zika virus and Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), the local, regional, national, and international responses to these viral pandemics were broadly similar. Observations on the efficacy of public health initiatives during Zika epidemics greatly facilitated the initiation of these policies (e.g., quarantines, restriction of local and international travel, closure of schools, physical distancing measures, and educational campaigns) during the global COVID-19 pandemic.
There has been an explosion in the knowledge and understanding of the Zika virus since it was first isolated in 1947. The recent epidemics of Zika virus infection have piqued international interest; further fuelling research in this rapidly developing field. It is now difficult even for experienced scientists to remain up-to-date.
Scientists, academics, or scholars are often interested to know which research centers are most active, and what type of material is being published. Other queries related to what resources the experienced scientists would suggest remaining up to date.
To assist colleagues who are interested in the characteristics of research in the area of Zika induced pathology, transmission, and control, we have compiled a section on bibliometric statistics. To assist colleagues who are interested in understanding more about this field, we have produced tables containing up-to-date resources in this chapter. The experts who assisted with the compilation of the data on research and the tables of resources are acknowledged below.
Bibliometric statistics
Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3, Fig. 4 illustrate the most current data on research relevant to the Zika virus. At the time of writing, there were about 10,000 publications listed in Scopus, Elsevier, relevant to Zika virus most of which have been published since 2015. Fig. 1, Fig. 2 illustrate the type (Fig. 1) and specific subject areas (Fig. 2) of these important publications. Fig. 3, Fig. 4 show the countries (Fig. 3) and research centers (Fig. 4) which contributed to this lifesaving work.
Fig. 1.
Types of documents published on Zika virus transmission, effects, and control. This figure represents the analysis of approximately 9961 documents published between 2015 and 2020. Generated from Scopus.
Fig. 2.
Subject areas of documents published on Zika virus transmission, effects, and control. This figure represents the analysis of documents published between 2015 and 2020. Generated from Scopus.
Fig. 3.
Country/Region of publication of articles on Zika virus transmission, effects, and control. This figure represents the country ascribed to the author’s country or region. Generated from Scopus.
Fig. 4.
Documents published on Zika virus by affiliation. Total documents published on Zika virus over the past 5 years (up to 2020). Key: Centers for Disease = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Universidade de Sao = Universidade de Sao Paulo—USP; UT Medical Branch a = University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; Universidade Federal = Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; National Institutes of = National Institutes of Health NIH; National Center for = National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases; Hainan Medical Univ = Hainan Medical University. Generated from Scopus.
Resources
Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6 list the most up-to-date information on the regulatory bodies (Table 1), journals (Table 2), books (Table 3), professional societies (Table 4), online resources and platforms (Table 5), and other resources for health care professionals or patients (Table 6) who are relevant to an evidence-based approach to Zika virus.
Table 1.
Regulatory bodies and relevant organizations.
Table 2.
Journals relevant to Zika virus.
| PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |
| Scientific Reports |
| Viruses |
| Emerging Infectious Diseases |
| PLoS One |
| Lancet Infectious Diseases |
| Lancet |
| Journal of Virology |
| Antiviral Research |
| Frontiers in Microbiology |
| Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |
| American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |
| Journal of Infectious Diseases |
| Nature |
| Nature Communications |
| Science |
| Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease |
| New England Journal of Medicine |
| Parasites and Vectors |
| BMJ Clinical Research Ed |
| PLOS Pathogens |
| Eurosurveillance |
| Annals of Tropical Medicine and Public Health |
| Emerging Microbes and Infections |
| Frontiers in Immunology |
| International Journal of Infectious Diseases |
| Cell Host and Microbe |
| Journal of Medical Entomology |
| Acta Tropica |
| BMC Infectious Diseases |
Journals publishing original research and review articles related to Zika virus. Included in this list are the top 30 journals which have published the most number of articles on Zika virus over the past 5 years. Data derived from Scopus. Some journals and specific articles are also listed in Table 6.
Table 3.
Relevant books and selected articles.
| Books |
| Bradley’s Neurology in Clinical Practice (7th ed.). Neuroimmunology (Chapter 51). Daroff R B, Jankovic J, Mazziotta J C, Pomeroy S L. Elsevier, 2016 |
| Chikungunya and Zika Viruses: Global Emerging Health Threats. Higgs S, Vanlandingham D L, Powers A. Academic Press, 2018 |
| Current Topics in Zika. Rodriguez-Morales A J. IntechOpen, 2018 |
| Dengue, Zika e Chikungunya: Diagnostica, Tratamento e Prevencao. De Souza L J. Rubio, 2016 |
| Ecological Aspects for Application of Genetically Modified Mosquitoes. Takken W, Scott T W. Kluwer Academic, 2003 |
| Epidemics and Society: From the Black Death to the Present. Snowden F M. Yale University Press, 2019 |
| Genetic Control of Malaria and Dengue. Adelman Z N. Academic Press, 2016 |
| Global Virology I—Identifying and Investigating Viral Diseases. Shapshak P, Sinnott J T, Somboonwit C, Kukn J H. Springer, 2015 |
| Health Program Planning: An Educational and Ecological Approach (4th ed.). Green LW, Kreuter M W. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2005 |
| Locating Zika: Social Change and Governance in an Age of Mosquito Pandemics. Bardosh K. Routledge, 2019 |
| Mosquito-Borne Diseases. Implications for Public Health. Benelli G, Mehlhorn H. Springer, 2018 |
| New Advances on Zika Virus Research. Martinez-Sobrido L, Almazan F. MDPI AG, 2019 |
| One Health: People, Animals, and the Environment Atlas R M, Maloy S. ASM Press, 2014 |
| Sinrome Congenita do Vius da Zika, Microcefalia e Outras Alteraçoes do Neurodesenvolvimento: Guia Pratico para Profissionais da Educao. Lyra P V, Almeida E. Appris, 2019 |
| Sindrome De Guillain-Barre Asociado A Infeccion Por Virus Del Zika. Merida A L. EAE, 2018 |
| The Zika Virus Handbook: A Doctor Explains All You Need to Know About the Pandemic. Alton J. Doom and Bloom, 2016 |
| Theoretical Foundation of Health Education and Health Promotion (3rd ed.). Sharma, M. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 2008 |
| Viral Polymerases. Structures, Functions and Roles as Antiviral Drug Targets. Gupta S P. Academic Press, 2018 |
| World Epidemics: A Cultural Chronology of Disease from Prehistory to the Era of Zika. Snodgrass M E. McFarland Publishing, 2017 |
| Zhaika Bingdu Bing Jiqi Fangzhi (Chinese). Zhou Z. Science Press, 2017 |
| Zhaika Bingdu Yu Zhaika Bingdu Bing (in Chinese). Gao G F. People’s Medical Publishing House, 2019 |
| Zika in Focus: Postnatal Clinical, Laboratorial and Radiological Aspects. Aragao F M V V. Springer, 2017 |
| Zika Virus Methods and Protocols. Kobinger G, Racine T. Springer, 2020 |
| Zika Virus and Diseases: From Molecular Biology to Epidemiology. da Silva S R, Cheng F, Gao S-J. Wiley Blackwell, 2018 |
| Zika Virus Disease From Origin to Outbreak. Qureshi A I. Academic Press, 2018 |
| Zika Virus Disease: Prevention and Cure. Sharma S. Virology Research Progress, 2017 |
| Zika Virus Infection: Risk of Spreading in Europe. Marta Diaz-Menendez, Crespillo-Andjar C. Springer, 2017 |
| Zika Virus Surveillance, Vaccinology, and Anti-Zika Drug Discovery: Computer-Assisted Strategies to Combat the Menace. Basak S C, Bhattacharjee A K, Nandy A. Nova Science Publishers, 2019 |
| Zika Virus. An Overview. Petersen LR, Jamieson DJ, Powers AM, Honein MA. Springer, 2016 |
| Zika: From the Brazilian Backlands to Global Threat. Diniz D. Zed Books, 2017 |
| Zika: The Emerging Epidemic. McNeil D G. W. W. Norton & Company, 2016 |
| Articles |
| A Review of the Ongoing Research on Zika Virus Treatment. da Silva S, Martins D O S, Jardim A C. Viruses 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/v10050255 |
| ATR-FTIR spectroscopy with chemometric algorithms of multivariate classification in the discrimination between healthy vs. dengue vs. chikungunya vs. Zika clinical samples. Santos M C D, Nascimento Y M, Monteiro J D, et al. Analytical Methods 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1039/C7AY02784B |
| Discordant Congenital Zika Syndrome Twins Show Differential In Vitro Viral Susceptibility of Neural Progenitor Cells. Caires-Jnior LC, Goulart E, Melo US, et al. Nature Communications 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02790-9 |
| Does Immunity After Zika Virus Infection Cross-Protect Against Dengue? Ribeiro, G S, Kikuti M, Tauro L B, et al. Lancet Global Health 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30496-5 |
| Entomo-Virological Surveillance Strategy for Dengue, Zika and Chikungunya Arboviruses in Field-Caught Aedes Mosquitoes in an Endemic Urban Area of the Northeast of Brazil. Dos Reis IC, Gibson G, Ayllon T, et al. Acta Tropica 2019. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105061 |
| Improved Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction Assay for the Detection of Flaviviruses With Semi-Nested Primers for Discrimination Between Dengue Virus Serotypes and Zika virus. Nunes A R D, Alves B E B, Pereira H W B, et al. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760170393 |
| Innate Immune Response in Patients With Acute Zika Virus Infection. da Silva M H M, Moises R N C, Alves B E B et Med Microbiol Immunol2019. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-019-00588-8 |
| New Advances on Zika Virus Research. Martinez-Sobrido L, Almazan F. Viruses 2019. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/v11030258 |
| New Spectrum of the Neurologic Consequences of Zika. Medina M, Medina-Montoya M. Neurol Sci. 2017. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2017.10.046 |
| Safety, tumor reduction and clinical impact of Zika virus injection in dogs with advanced-stage brain tumors. Kaid C, Madi R, Astray R, et al. Mol Ther 2020. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.03.004 |
| The AZ of Zika Drug Discovery. Mottin M, Borba J V V B, Braga R C, et al. Drug Discov Today 2018. doi: 0.1016/j.drudis.2018.06.014 |
| Zika Virus in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia: Are There Health Risks for Travelers? |
| Dinh TC, Bac ND, Minh LB, et al. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2019. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-019-03563-6 |
| Zika Virus Infection in Vietnam: Current Epidemic, Strain Origin, Spreading Risk, and Perspective. Chu DT, Ngoc VTN, Tao Y. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2017. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-017-3030-8 |
| Zika Virus Pathogenesis and Tissue Tropism. Miner J J, Diamond M S. Cell Host Microbe2017. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2017.01.004 |
| Zika Virus Selectively Kills Aggressive Human Embryonal CNS Tumor Cells In Vitro and In Vivo. Kaid C, Goulart E, Caires-Jnior LC, et al. Cancer Res 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-17-3201 |
| Zika Virus-Induced Microcephaly and Its Possible Molecular Mechanism. Faizan M I, Abdullah M, Ali S et al. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1159/000452950 |
| Zika Virus: Emergence, Phylogenetics, Challenges, and Opportunities. Rajah M M, Pardy R D, Condotta S A, et al. ACS Infect Dis 2016. doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsinfecdis.6b00161 |
This table lists books and papers on Zika virus pathology, transmission and control.
Table 4.
Professional societies and other organizations.
| Agencia Nacional de Saude Suplementar (ANS)—Brazil http://www.ans.gov.br |
| American Society for Microbiology https://jcm.asm.org |
| American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) https://www.asrm.org/ |
| American Society for Virology (ASV) www.asv.org |
| American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene https://www.astmh.org/ |
| Association of Health Care Journalists https://healthjournalism.org/ |
| Brazilian College of Radiology https://cbr.org.br/ |
| Brazilian Society of Immunology https://sbi.org.br/ |
| Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases https://www.infectologia.org.br/ |
| Brazilian Society of Microbiology https://sbmicrobiologia.org.br/ |
| Canadian Society for Virology (CSV) https://www.csv-scv.ca/en/home |
| Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) https://www.idsociety.org |
| Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical https://www.sbmt.org.br/portal/ |
| Society for Maternal and Fetal Medicine https://www.smfm.org |
| The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene https://www.ajtmh.org |
| The Brazilian Society for Virology (BSV) https://sbv.org.br/sbv/ |
This table lists some societies and organizations devoted to understanding Zika virus pathology, transmission and control. See also Table 1, Table 5, Table 6. Please note, occasionally the location of the websites or web address changes. In these cases the use of the “Search” tabs should be explored at the parent address or site.
Table 5.
Resources and emerging technologies relevant to the Zika virus.
This table lists some internet resources and emerging technologies relevant to Zika virus-induced pathology, transmission, and control. See also Table 1, Table 6. Please note, occasionally the location of the websites or web address changes. In these cases the use of the “Search” tabs should be explored at the parent address or site.
Table 6.
Other resources relevant to Zika virus that may be of interest to health care professionals or patients.
Policy and procedure
The recommended resources listed in this chapter will be of great interest to those developing policies and procedures on the research into the prevention and treatment of Zika. Some examples of current policies in this field are listed below.
National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, United States of America. Zika Virus. "https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/zika-virus
World Health Organization. WHO Zika virus research agenda. https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/zika/zika-virus-research-agenda/en/
World Health Organization. International Health Regulation Procedures concerning public health emergencies of international concern (PHEIC). https://www.who.int/ihr/procedures/pheic/en/
Mini-dictionary of terms
Epidemic: A usually sudden increase in the occurrence a disease in excess of the levels expected for that region’s population.
Flaviviridae: This is a family of RNA viruses that contain positive-strand RNA. They are primarily spread to birds and mammals using ticks and mosquitoes as vectors.
Public Health Emergency of International Concern: An unusual but serious event that risks public health risk and may need coordinated international action to prevent to international spread of disease.
Zika virus: A member of the Flaviviridae genus of viruses. It causes the condition known as Zika fever, Zika virus disease or Zika. This is usually a mild self-limiting disease.
Key facts
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•
The Zika virus was first isolated from a rhesus macaque monkey, in 1947.
-
•
The virus was named after the Ziika Forest of Uganda.
-
•
Until 2007, epidemic Zika infections were unheard of. However, as the clinical presentation of Zika is non-specific many cases may have been managed symptomatically or misdiagnosed.
-
•
Since 2007, several large epidemics of Zika virus infection have occurred.
-
•
The WHO considers that the Zika virus is “a highly significant, long-term problem.”
Summary points
-
•
Zika virus is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae.
-
•
Infection with Zika (Zika fever or Zika virus disease) usually causes mild if any symptoms.
-
•
The illness cannot be prevented and there is no specific treatment.
-
•
Guillain-Barré syndrome is a rare consequence of Zika infection.
-
•
A woman infected while pregnant can pass the infection to the fetus in utero. In utero infection can result in devastating birth defects.
-
•
There has been an explosion in the knowledge and understanding of the Zika virus since it was first isolated in 1947.
-
•
It is now difficult even for experienced scientists to remain up-to-date on Zika virus pathology and control.
Acknowledgments
We thank the following authors for contributing to the development of this resource. We apologize if some suggested material was not included in this chapter or has been moved to different sections.
Arajo J, Baraklı S, Benites B, Bernatchez J, Beys-da-Silva W, Blazquez A, Borchardt-Loholter V, Borges A, Cabral Filho P, Caires-Júnior L C, Chu D T, Costa Monteiro L M, Danielli A, de Magalhaes Barbosa M H, Deniz O, Diderichsen F, Fernandes J, Fontes A, Goulart E, Goulart Correa D, Gregorio E, Guedes P, Guerra Gallo L, Gumuşyayla S, Hamel R, Jaaskelainen A, Khazali A S, Kobayashi J, Leyser M, Maia Peixoto H, Mlera L, Nascimento M, Pereira G, Pereira M-I, Pereira-Gomez M, Phumee A, Ribeiro J, Sagan S, Salmeron A, Santi L, Santos W, Silva Alves P, Siriyasatien P, Son N T, Soto-Hernandez J-L, Vural G, Xu D, Xu Z, Yusof R, Zatz M.
Abbreviations
- COVID-19
Coronavirus Disease 2019
- US
United States of America
- WHO
World Health Organization
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