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. 2022 Nov 2;105(1):176–185. doi: 10.1007/s10971-022-05964-0

Spinel ZnCr2O4 nanorods synthesized by facile sol-gel auto combustion method with biomedical properties

Suresh Ghotekar 1,2,✉, Shreyas Pansambal 3,✉, Van-Huy Nguyen 4, Sachin Bangale 5, Kun-Yi Andrew Lin 6, H C Ananda Murthy 7, Rajeshwari Oza 1,✉
PMCID: PMC9628564  PMID: 36338829

Abstract

In this study, spinel zinc chromite nanorods (ZnCr2O4 NRs) were successfully manipulated by a simple sol-gel auto combustion process employing urea as fuel. The sample was only required to sinter at 500 °C for 2 h to obtain the single crystalline phase. The phase formation, crystallinity, and surface topography of synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs were explored by X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV-Vis reflectance spectroscopy (UVDRS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, and vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM). XRD analysis confirms the formation of spinel ZnCr2O4 NRs. The FTIR spectrum displays the two vibrational peaks of Cr–O, and Zn–O at 489 and 615 cm–1, correspondingly. These vibrational bonds were correlated with ZnCr2O4 and revealed the production of cubic spinel ZnCr2O4 NRs. FESEM indicates the presence of hexagonal-rod-shaped particles. EDX spectrum demonstrates the elemental composition of the ZnCr2O4 NRs and confirms the primary peak of Zn, Cr, and O. The obtained ZnCr2O4 NRs exhibit an antiferromagnetic behavior. The bandgap energy of ZnCr2O4 NRs was ascertained and was shown to be 3.45 eV. Furthermore, the antifungal and antibacterial effect of ZnCr2O4 NRs was examined against pathogenic strains by disc diffusion technique. Besides these, the antimalarial activity of ZnCr2O4 NRs was studied against Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, the as-synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs showed significant antibacterial, antifungal and antimalarial activity and may be helpful for research opening a novel horizon in nanomedicine.

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Graphical abstract

Keywords: ZnCr2O4 NRs, Structural properties, Antibacterial activity, Antifungal activity, Antimalarial activity

Highlights

  • Spinel ZnCr2O4 nanorods (NRs) successfully synthesized via sol-gel auto combustion approach.

  • UV-Vis-DRS, XRD, FESEM, EDX, HRTEM-SAED, VSM, and FTIR analyses were performed.

  • FESEM and HRTEM analysis revealed the hexagonal-shaped morphology for ZnCr2O4 NRs.

  • The ZnCr2O4 NRs exhibited excellent antibacterial, antifungal, and antimalarial activity.

Introduction

Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most exciting vanguard sectors in recent years, earning much attention from the scientific community [1–3]. Inorganic nanomaterials with superior chemical, mechanical, electrical, and physical properties can be employed in applications such as electronic devices, medicine, agriculture, sunscreens, catalysts, photovoltaic cells, military applications, biological properties, paints, sensing, and the food industry [4–8].

To date, viral infections remain among the most challenging problems facing global healthcare systems. Things can become complicated if we are not ready to promptly deal with a viral outbreak, as was the case with the recent Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This highlights the necessity for quick and inexpensive bio-sensing platforms and in-depth knowledge of potential antiviral effects and drug-delivery opportunities. The same difficulties have been encountered with non-viral immunogenic diseases. Nanomedicine is therefore viewed as a cutting-edge candidate for successfully resolving these global concerns. Due to its unique and inspiring physicochemical properties, such as its large surface area, efficient thermal, magnetic, and electrical properties, ability to detect single molecules, easy functionalization, and anticancer and antibacterial/antiviral properties, it is one of the adaptable nanomaterials frequently used in biomedical applications [9–11].

Among many promising nanomaterials, spinel and spinel-like nanomaterials have been broadly considered in recent years due to their imperative properties in material science [12–15], resulting in versatile applications such as wastewater treatment [16], energy storage [17], photocatalytic [18, 19], organic transformations [20] and nanomedicine [21, 22]. Together with ternary spinel oxide materials, zinc chromite nanoparticles (ZnCr2O4 NPs) have attracted interest owing to their special applications in the fields of photocatalysis [23], sensing [24], organic transformation [25], and superconductors [26]. Till now, ZnCr2O4 NPs have been explored by several notable methods (as shown in Table 1), such as hydrothermal [23], co-precipitation [27], thermal decomposition [28], reflux condensation and calcination [29], sol-gel auto combustion [30], water-in-oil (W/O) microemulsion [26], thermolysis [31], homogeneous precipitation using urea hydrolysis [32], ultrasonic spray pyrolysis [33], solution combustion [34], solution casting [35], microwave [36], solvothermal methods [37]. In typical, the conventional sol-gel auto-combustion derived spinel ZnCr2O4 NPs, which was proposed by Javed et al., have attracted attention [30]. However, this method requires a long time (>36 h) with multi-steps of sintering at high temperatures (350–600–900 °C) to obtain the single crystalline phase of ZnCr2O4 NPs. Therefore, there remains a needing to find a simple, speedy, effective, and energy-saving method to synthesize ZnCr2O4 NPs.

Table 1.

A summary of methods to synthesize zinc chromite nanoparticles (ZnCr2O4 NPs)

No. Synthesis method Preparation process Morphology Physical properties Ref.
1 Hydrothermal NaOH was dropped into the mixture of Zn(NO3)2•6H2O and Cr(NO3)3•9H2O. Then, the obtained suspension was autoclaved at 220 °C for 48 h. Following, it was washed and dried at 60 °C for 4 h. Nanoparticles, irregular in shape Particle size: <5 nm; bandgap (Eg): 3.46 eV. [23]
2 Co-precipitation The alkaline solution was dropped into the mixture of Zn(NO3)2•6H2O, capping agent, and CrCl3•6H2O. Then, the obtained mixture was heated at 60 °C for 30 min, washed, and dried under a vacuum at 70 °C. Following, the powder was calcined in air at 700 °C for 3 h. Nanoparticles coalesce and turn into bulk structures Particle size: 70 nm; Eg: 3.35–3.96 eV. [27]
3 Thermal decomposition Ammonia solution was added to the mixture of (NH4)2CrO4 and ZnCl2. Then, the obtained mixture was studied by heating at 200–1000 °C for 2 h. Nanoparticles Particle size: 3–55 nm; specific surface areas: 5–60 m2/g. [28]
4 Conventional sol-gel auto combustion Ammonia solution was added to the mixture of Zn(CH3COO)2•2H2O, C6H8O7, and Cr(NO3)3•9H2O; then, it was heated at 110 °C for 2.5 h. Following, the resulting aerogel was further heated at about 350 °C. The collected powder was calcined at 600 °C for 8 h. Finally, it was sintered at 900 °C for 24 h. Pebble-like growth of the grains Particle size: 144 ± 4.8 nm; Density: 5.0106–5.3598 g/cm3. [30]
5 Homogeneous precipitation using urea hydrolysis Solid urea (NH2CONH2) was first added to a mixture of Zn(CH3COO)2•2H2O and Cr(NO3)3•9H2O. Then, it was refluxed under magnetic stirring at 90 °C for 8 h. The obtained precipitations were filtered and washed; following, it was dried at 160 °C for 24 h and then calcined at 500 °C for 8 h. Nanoparticles Particle size: 13 nm; Surface areas: 47 m2/g; Eg: 1.8 eV. [32]
6 Sol-gel auto combustion The paste of Zn(NO3)2•6H2O, urea, and Cr(NO3)3•9H2O was heated at 70–80 °C and 170–180 °C for 2 h and 4 h, respectively. Following, it was calcined in air at 500 °C for 2 h. Nanorods Particle size: 45–80 nm; Eg: 3.45 eV. This study
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Herein, we propose a facile and straightforward sol-gel auto combustion method to rapidly fabricated spinel zinc chromite nanorods (ZnCr2O4 NRs) by using urea as a fuel agent. The sample was only required to calcine at 500 °C for 2 h to obtain the single crystalline phase. These synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs were also assessed for antibacterial, antifungal, and antimalarial activities by employing them against chosen pathogenic strains. It was found that efficiently synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs manifested good biomedical application in nanomedicine.

Experimental

Materials

Zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O), chromium nitrate (Cr(NO3)3.9H2O), and urea were used as a precursor for the synthesis of ZnCr2O4 NRs. All the required analytical grade chemicals were procured from SRL Chem, India, and used without additional purification.

Synthesis of ZnCr2O4 NRs

ZnCr2O4 NRs were successfully fabricated by a simple sol-gel auto combustion technique using the precursors as zinc nitrate (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O), chromium nitrate (Cr(NO3)3.9H2O), and urea. Urea is an organic fuel that serves as a good platform for redox reactions to occur during combustion. Firstly, zinc nitrate, chromium nitrate, and urea were added in 1:1:4 stoichiometric ratios to make a homogeneous paste. Subsequently, the resulting paste was placed on a hot plate for 2 h at about 70–80 °C; thick gel was formed after complete evaporation. This gel was heated to 170–180 °C for 4 h on a hot plate for auto combustion. To obtain nanocrystalline ZnCr2O4 powder was calcined for 2 h at 500 °C in a static air box furnace [38, 39]. Finally, the fine pale green-colored shining powder was formed, and this was meticulously collected and stored for further uses.

Antibacterial activity of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Varied concentrations (Table 1) of synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs were evaluated for antimicrobial activity by the disc diffusion method [40, 41]. The bactericidal effect was tested against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhi, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniea, and Streptococcus pyogenes. Ampicillin (25 µg/mL) was employed as a reference drug for the antibacterial screening.

In vitro antifungal efficacy of ZnCr2O4 NRs

The antifungal performance for ZnCr2O4 NRs was determined against fungal strains such as Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Epidermophyton floccosum, and Trichophyton mentographytes. This in vitro antifungal potential was assessed using Pagar et al. and Ghotekar et al. methods [42, 43]. Greseofulvin was applied as a standard drug for in vitro antifungal screening, with the highest dilution indicating at least a 99% growth inhibition zone is considered as MIC.

In vitro antimalarial efficacy of ZnCr2O4 NRs

According to the modified protocol, the antimalarial effect for ZnCr2O4 NRs was carried out in 96 well microtitre plates [43, 44]. The antimalarial effect was studied against the Plasmodium falciparum strain. Quinine and Chloroquine were used as the reference drugs for the study.

Materials characterization

The crystal structures of the ZnCr2O4 NRs were determined by the XRD pattern (Brukar, D8-Advanced Diffractometer). The nature of the chemical bonding was recorded by FTIR spectrum on JASCO 4100. The surface morphology of ZnCr2O4 NRs was investigated by the FESEM technique (JEOL, JSM-6360). EDX technique was used to study the elemental composition of ZnCr2O4 NRs (Bruker, XFlash 6I30). The surface topography and size of the synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs were explored via an HRTEM (PHILIPS, CM200) analysis. The magnetic properties of the ZnCr2O4 NRs were studied at room temperature using a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM; Lakeshore, 7410 series Model). The UVDRS analysis of ZnCr2O4 NRs was recorded using Jasco Spectrophotometer V-770.

Results and discussion

Crystallographic analysis

The XRD data were studied to know the formation and crystalline structure of the as-synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs. Figure 1 revealed characteristic diffraction peaks at 30.34° (2 2 0), 35.74° (3 1 1), 37.4° (2 2 2), 43.44° (4 0 0), 53.92° (4 2 2), 57.46° (5 1 1), 63.08° (4 4 0) and 74.68° (5 3 3). These peaks could be assigned to the spinel ZnCr2O4 with the standard JCPDS Card No. 22-1107. This result is in good agreement with previous studies [45, 46].

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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XRD profile of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Morphological and elemental study

FESEM analysis was used to study the morphological characteristics and sizes of fabricated ZnCr2O4 NRs, as shown in Fig. 2. According to FESEM images, the hexagonal-rod shaped morphology and uniform distribution were obtained for as-prepared NRs. Also, morphological analysis of the as-synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs was performed through the HRTEM studies, and the results are shown in Fig. 3(a, b). The TEM image in Fig. 3(a) showed the hexagonal morphology of spinel ZnCr2O4 NRs with a particle size of about 45–80 nm, consistent with the morphology obtained through FESEM analysis. However, the ZnCr2O4 NRs did not exhibit agglomeration. Figure 3(b) corresponded to the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern of the ZnCr2O4 NRs and showed several bright spots in the SAED pattern through the single-phase, and polycrystalline nature of the spinel ZnCr2O4 NRs was confirmed. SAED patterns were consistent with the results obtained from the XRD study indicating the crystal planes of ZnCr2O4 NRs. Moreover, the elemental composition of the synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs was revealed EDX spectrum, as shown in Fig. 4. This EDX study represents the existence of zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), and oxygen (O) in the sample, indicating the formation of ZnCr2O4 NRs.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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FESEM images of as-prepared ZnCr2O4 NRs

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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HRTEM image (a), and SAED pattern (b) of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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EDX spectrum of synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs

Vibrational properties

The nature of chemical bonding was studied using the FTIR spectrum. The FTIR spectrum of the synthesized spinel ZnCr2O4 NRs is described in Fig. 5. The FTIR spectrum indicates two main strong peaks of bending vibration of Cr–O at 489 cm−1 and Zn–O at around 615 cm−1, suggesting the successful formation of spinel structure of ZnCr2O4 NR in the cubic phase [39, 47]. Furthermore, the internal lattice vibrations frequencies of tetrahedral and octahedral coordination compounds in the spinel structure are compatible with these prominent IR vibration bands of Cr–O and Zn–O [48]. This result is consistent with previous finding [47].

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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FTIR spectrum of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Optical study of ZnCr2O4 NRs

The optical absorbance of the fabricated ZnCr2O4 NRs was studied based on the UV-Vis absorbance data, and the corresponding spectrum is depicted in Fig. 6. Transitions of octahedral Cr3+ (d3) ions can be ascribed to the signals at 410–450 nm and 580–620 nm [49, 50]. Bandgap absorption of ZnCr2O4 NRs is accountable for the major peak in the UV region. The absorption wavelength for ZnCr2O4 NRs is 292 nm, indicating that they absorb UV light. The bandgap energy of ZnCr2O4 NRs is calculated by using Tauc’s plot [51, 52] (Fig. 7) and was estimated to be 3.45 eV.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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UV-DRS spectrum of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Tauc plot for bandgap energy of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Magnetic properties

A VSM was applied to investigate the magnetic behavior of ZnCr2O4 NRs. The hysteresis loop for ZnCr2O4 NRs is depicted in Fig. 8. The applied field ranged from −10 kOe to 10 kOe to study magnetic characteristics. The values of Ms, Hc, and Mr were estimated based on this figure and are shown in Table 2. As a result, synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs shows an antiferromagnetic behavior. Previously, a similar magnetic behavior of ZnCr2O4 NRs has been reported in the literature [53, 54].

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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VSM plot of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Table 2.

Magnetic properties of synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs

Compound name Saturation magnetization (Ms) Coercivity (Hc) Remnant field (Mr)
ZnCr2O4 NRs 0.385 emu/g 303 Oe 0.015 emu/g
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Antibacterial efficacy of ZnCr2O4 NRs

The bactericidal effect of the prepared ZnCr2O4 NRs with diverse concentrations was assessed against ten various bacterial strains, and the zone of inhibition (ZOI) was recorded. As shown in Table 3, the antibacterial efficacy was observed using ZnCr2O4 NRs and ampicillin. The bactericidal performance depended on the concentration of the ZnCr2O4 NRs and bacterial strains. The higher the ZOI obtained with increasing ZnCr2O4 NRs concentrations employed in antibacterial screenings was also observed. As-prepared ZnCr2O4 NRs displayed potent and good antibacterial performance against K. pneumonia, P. vulgaris, S. pyogenus, S. aureus, B. subtilis, S. pneumoniea, and S. epidermidis. However, previously, Taheri et al. [55] revealed the antibacterial performance of zinc chromite-zinc aluminate nanocomposite against P. aeruginosa and E. coli.

Table 3.

ZOI (mm) of as-synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs against selected pathogenic strains

Test pathogens ZOI (mm) of ZnCr2O4 NRs (µg/ ml) Control
(ampicillin)
25 50 100 250 500
E. coli 12 14 17 17 22 23
K. pneumonia 13 15 16 19 23 23
P. aeruginosa 14 15 16 17 20 23
P. vulgaris 12 14 15 17 24 23
S. typhi 15 17 18 20 21 23
S. pyogenus 13 15 17 19 21 19
S. aureus 13 17 19 18 20 19
B. subtilis 14 16 17 18 20 19
S. pneumoniea 12 13 15 18 22 19
S. epidermidis 14 17 18 20 21 19
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Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of NPs is promising in several fields, especially in medical areas. The size of the NPs plays a fundamental role in their functional training, such as chemical and biological activity. Discovering the mechanism of the antibacterial action of NPs is an attractive aspect of nanobiotechnology. The pathways of the mechanism of antibacterial actions include many steps. First, the physical direct interaction of extremely sharp edges of nanomaterials with cell wall membrane [56]. Second, ROS (reactive oxygen species) could be generated, even in the dark [57, 58]. Third, the bacteria is wrapped within the aggregated nanomaterials [59]. Fourth, oxidative stress [60]. Fifth, interruption in the glycolysis process of the bacteria [61]. Sixth, DNA damaging [62]. Following, Zn ion release [63]. Last, contribution in generation/explosion of nanobubbles [64]. These mechanistic pathways play a key role for optimization of the drug-delivery system in the medical field.

Antifungal activity of ZnCr2O4 NRs

The fungi C. albicans, A. niger, A. clavatus, T. mentographyte, and E. floccosum were used as fungal strains for the antifungal screening of ZnCr2O4 NRs. The results of antifungal screening of ZnCr2O4 NRs are summarized in Table 4. The simple sol-gel auto combustion approach mediated ZnCr2O4 NRs exhibited moderate activity against A. clavatus, T. mentographyte, and A. niger while showing excellent activity against C. albicans (250 μg/ml) and T. mentographytes (50 μg/ml). The inhibitory effect of fungus by ZnCr2O4 NRs is caused by a direct interaction between NRs and cell surfaces that also alters the permeability of membranes through which NRs enter and cause cell damage in fungus cells, resulting in cell growth inhibition and ultimately cell death (Fig. 9) [65].

Table 4.

MIC of the as-prepared ZnCr2O4 NRs against fungal pathogens

Fungal test strains MIC (µg/ml) of ZnCr2O4 NRs MIC (µg/ml) of Reference drug
C. albicans 250 500
A. clavatus 100 100
A. niger 100 100
E. floccosum 100 100
T. mentographytes 50 100
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Fig. 9.

Fig. 9

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Plausible mechanism of antifungal activity of ZnCr2O4 NRs

Antimalarial activity of ZnCr2O4 NRs

The synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs were assessed for their antimalarial effect against Plasmodium falciparum by measuring the MIC (μg/mL), as shown in Table 5. Thus, the synthesized ZnCr2O4 NRs showed considerable antimalarial performance and may play a crucial role in the upcoming biomedical field.

Table 5.

MIC of ZnCr2O4 NRs against Plasmodium falciparum

No. Compound name IC50 value (µg/mL)
1 ZnCr2O4 NRs 0.68
2 Quinine (Reference drug) 0.26
3 Chloroquine (Reference drug) 0.02
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Conclusion

In this study, ZnCr2O4 NRs were synthesized using the simple sol-gel auto combustion approach. The sample was only required to sinter at 500 °C for 2 h to obtain the crystalline single phase. XRD, FESEM, and HRTEM studies confirmed the spinel and hexagonal-shaped ZnCr2O4 NRs. Also, the bandgap energy of ZnCr2O4 NRs was estimated by the UVDRS study in the UV-visible region and was determined to be 3.45 eV. Moreover, as-prepared ZnCr2O4 NRs exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against bacterial and fungal strains. We also depicted and discussed the plausible antimicrobial mechanisms for ZnCr2O4 NRs. Also, ZnCr2O4 NRs exhibited considerable antimalarial activity.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to SAIF IIT Powai, CIF SPPU Pune, DST-FIST Analytical Instrumentation Laboratory Jaysingpur College and Microcare Laboratory Gujrat for providing the characterization facilities and biological activities supports.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Suresh Ghotekar, Email: ghotekarsuresh7@gmail.com.

Shreyas Pansambal, Email: shreyas.pansambal@gmail.com.

Rajeshwari Oza, Email: rajeshwariksaraswat@gmail.com.

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